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What Role Does Ecological Research Play in Managing Biodiversity in Protected Areas? Australia’s Oldest National Park as a Case Study
Abstract
How we manage National Parks (protected areas or reserves) for their biodiversity is an issue of current debate. At the centre of this issue is the role of ecological research and its ability to guide reserve management. One may assume that ecological science has sufficient theory and empirical evidence to offer a prescription of how reserves should be managed. I use Royal National Park (Royal NP) as a case study to examine how ecological science should be used to inform biodiversity conservation. Ecological research relating to reserve management can be: i) of generic application to reserve management, ii) specific to the reserve in which it is conducted, and iii) conducted elsewhere but be of relevance due to the circumstances (e. g. species) of another reserve. I outline how such research can be used to inform management actions within Royal NP. I also highlight three big challenges for biodiversity management in Royal NP: i) habitat connectivity, ii) habitat degradation and iii) fire management. A key issue for local managers is finding a mechanism to enable their management to be informed by ecological research in their Park in an ongoing way and to be able to encourage further research. If resolved, Royal NP could provide a model to be used by other protected areas.
... In 1916, the US National Park Service Organic Act was created, which defined the functions of national parks [13] and stated in its definition that the purpose of national parks is to preserve natural resources and culture and provide areas for recreation for the population, while emphasising that national parks are the public property of the state. Australia was the second country in the world to establish a national park, and its concept of a national park focuses on large terrestrial areas that are protected, have unspoiled landscapes and are home to a large diversity of native species [14]. Japan, the first Asian country to establish a national park, defines the national park in its natural park law with a focus on beautiful landscapes and their outstanding ecosystems [12]. ...
... The evaluation research of national parks in foreign countries is mostly focused on their ecosystems, flora and fauna resources, landscape quality and the degree of human intervention. The emphasis on the evaluation criteria of national parks varies from country to country based on their different areas, populations and environmental conditions [2,7,[10][11][12][13][14][15]17,[19][20][21][22]. As the national park system in China has just been established in October,2021, many scholars focus on the entry criteria of national parks in China [10,23,24]. ...
With the national park as an important measure of ecological protection, China has started 10 national park system pilot areas. However, the research on the comprehensive evaluation of national park construction and development is insufficient. The main purpose of this study was to establish a comprehensive evaluation index system for the pilot area of the national park system. The method of the Analytic Hierarchy Process combined with the Delphi method by ten relevant experts was used. The comprehensive evaluation index system for the national park system pilot areas was composed of the objective level and the criteria level which includes three items: natural resource conditions; research, education and recreation functions; and protection and management conditions. The indicator level involved seven items and the factor level included 31 items. Furthermore, the weight of each item in these levels was obtained through the Delphi method by the judgement of selected experts. The Qianjiangyuan National Park System Pilot Area (QNPSPA) was selected as the study case for empirical research. The score of the comprehensive evaluation of the QNPSPA was 90.801, which belongs to Grade I in the five catalogues, indicating its comprehensive construction level was very high and its protection and management measures were efficient. However, significant deficiencies also existed in the area suitability, recreation facilities and production, natural resource property rights, human landscape value and ecosystem integrity. To address these problems, five suggestions were proposed. For example, strengthening cross-administrative cooperation and communication, improving the construction of recreational facilities, etc. The evaluation framework proposed in this study could play a positive role in the construction evaluation of the pilot areas of national parks in China and is conducive to promoting the evaluation research of national parks in China and promoting the development of conservation and construction.
Tree-dwelling mammals are potentially highly vulnerable to discontinuities in habitat created by roads. We used population modeling to assess the viability of a metapopulation of Australia's largest gliding marsupial, the greater glider (Petauroides volans), occurring in forest remnants in the fastesturbanizing region of Australia, where habitat is dissected by major roads. Crossing structures for arboreal mammals (consisting of a land bridge with wooden poles for gliding and adjacent rope canopy bridges) have been installed over an arterial road that separates two of these remnants (one large, one small). It is currently unknown whether this species will use the crossing structures, but available tree height and spacing do not allow a glide crossing, and fences with metal flashing prevent access to the road by terrestrial and arboreal mammals. Our modeling reveals that even a relatively low rate of dispersal facilitated by these structures would substantially reduce the probability of extinction of the smaller subpopulation. This rate of dispersal is plausible given the small distance involved (about 55 m). The inclusion of wildfire as a catastrophe in our model suggests that these two remnants may encounter an undesirable level of extinction risk. This can be reduced to an acceptable level by including inter-patch movement via dispersal among other forest remnants. However, this requires connection to a very large remnant 8 km away, through a set of remnants that straddle two motorways. These motorways create discontinuities in forest cover that are beyond the gliding ability of this species. Crossing structures will be required to enable inter-patch movement. A priority for future research should be whether the greater glider will use road-crossing structures. Loss of habitat and habitat connections is continuing in this landscape and is likely to have dire consequences for wildlife if land managers are unable to retain appropriate habitat cover with corridors and install effective wildlife road-crossing structures where large roads intersect wildlife habitat.
Translocations involving the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea have been under way in the Greater Sydney area since 1993. Case studies for four of these translocations are presented; the translocation sites being at Botany, Marrickville, Long Reef and Arncliffe. Bell frogs have persisted at only one of these sites since their introduction (Arncliffe). The success or failure of each translocation has provided insights into the habitat requirements and management of bell frogs. In unsuccessful translocations, the reasons for the inability to establish a permanent population became more apparent with monitoring; at Botany, young bell frogs failed to survive the winter because of inadequate or inappropriate over-winter habitat being available; at Long Reef, foraging and breeding habitat were inadequate; at Marrickville, urban predators and disease eliminated frogs. Other factors also appear to have a significant effect on the likely outcome of the translocation. These include: the proximity of a source population, the presence or absence of predatory fish, pond water temperature and the timing of the release of tadpoles at translocation sites. Despite the difficulties and uncertainties associated with habitat creation and the establishment of translocated frogs, translocations remain as a last resort strategy for the conservation of frog populations that may otherwise be lost.
The Ground Parrot (Pezoporus wallicus) is a rare and iconic endemic of heathlands in southern Australia. It is threatened by frequent and widespread fire. The species has been an integral element in the development of our understanding of the impacts of fire regimes in heathlands and is an integral part of conservation management of these fire-prone ecosystems. This long-term study documents the densities of Ground Parrots in three areas of long-unburnt habitat in southern New South Wales. Using area searches and aural surveys, we estimated densities of Ground Parrots at Barren. At each location, the species occurred in long-unburnt habitat (20 years post-fire), sometimes at high densities (2 birds per 10 ha). We recommend that, in south-eastern Australia, fire should not be used to manipulate the ecological functioning of habitat for the persistence of Ground Parrot populations and conclude that there should be area-specific adaptive management plans that specify how the important elements of the biodiversity will be conserved and how this will be measured.
Patterns of local extinction of mammal populations in western North American parks were examined in relation to current biogeographic and population lifetime models. The analysis was based on species sighting records as of 1989. While western North American pants are obviously not true Isolates, patterns of mammal extinction in them are nonetheless consistent with two predictions of the land-bridge island hypothesis. First, the number of extinctions hers exceeded the number of colonizations since park establishment, and, second the rate of extinction is inversely related to park area. Factors influencing the lifetime of mammal populations were evaluated using a stepwise multivariate survival analysis procedure for censored data Survival time for mammal populations was positively related to estimated initial population size. After accounting for population size, species within the order Lagomorpha were particularly prone to extinction. Finally, after controlling for population size and taxon variation survival time was positively related to age of maturity, indicating that species with longer generation times-age of maturity and generation time are highly correlated in mammals-persist longer in absolute time.
To maximise the potential of protected areas, we need to understand the strengths and weaknesses in their management and the threats and stresses that they face. There is increasing pressure on governments and other bodies responsible for protected areas to monitor their effectiveness. The reasons for assessing management effectiveness include the desire by managers to adapt and improve their management strategies, improve planning and priority setting and the increasing demands for reporting and accountability being placed on managers, both nationally and internationally. Despite these differing purposes for assessment, some common themes and information needs can be identified, allowing assessment systems to meet multiple uses. Protected-area management evaluation has a relatively short history. Over the past 20 years a number of systems have been proposed but few have been adopted by management agencies. In response to a recognition of the need for a globally applicable approach to this issue, the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas developed a framework for assessing management effectiveness of both protected areas and protected area systems. This framework was launched at the World Conservation Congress in Jordan in 2000. The framework provides guidance to managers to develop locally relevant assessment systems while helping to harmonise assessment approaches around the world. The framework is strongly linked to the protected area management process and is adaptable to different types and circumstances of protected areas around the world. Examples from Fraser Island in Australia and the Congo Basin illustrate the use of the framework.
The population biology of the long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) was investigated at Barren Grounds Nature Reserve and Budderoo National Park in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales (NSW). Both study areas are important conservation reserves for this threatened species, with a large gap north (~300 km) to the next known viable population on the mid-north coast of NSW at Mount Royal. Potoroos were live-trapped using bandicoot-sized cage traps, each set ~100 m apart along walking tracks and fire trails. Trapping was conducted each autumn and spring over five years to enumerate the local population of potoroos and to describe their morphometrics. The local long-nosed potoroos were larger in size than those recorded to the south on mainland Australia, but smaller than those in north-eastern NSW, supporting the concept of a latitudinal cline in body size. Sexual dimorphism was observed, with adult males having larger body weights, head lengths and pes lengths. Between one-third and two-thirds of all males and females were captured in only a single trapping session, indicative of low levels of survivorship and/or high levels of dispersal or transience. Males regularly overlapped at trap sites with females, more so than with other males, while females rarely overlapped at trap sites. Barren Grounds Nature Reserve supported a larger number of potoroos and a greater degree of home range overlap between individuals.
THE eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus) has
an extensive distribution, from south-eastern
Queensland to south-eastern South Australia, and
also into Tasmania (Strahan 1995). Despite this it is
rarely detected in fauna surveys (Bowen and
Goldingay 2000). This rarity in detection suggested
that the species may be characterised by small and
isolated populations, and therefore vulnerable to
extinction. Consequently, it became listed as a
'Vulnerable' species in New South Wales (NSW) in
2001. Unless resolved, the low rate of detection of C.
nanus will continue to hinder the acquisition of basic
ecological information that is needed to more clearly
define its conservation status and that is fundamental
to the development of a recovery plan.
An extensive body of survey data for NSW
involving C. nanus has been reviewed by Bowen and
Goldingay (2000). Among a range of survey methods
aimed at detecting this species, trapping within
flowering banksias and checking installed nest-boxes
had the highest rates of detection. Indeed, one study
in northern NSW captured 98 individuals over a 3-
year period from within nest-boxes (Bladon et al.
2002). All other studies detected fewer than 15 C.
nanus. It is clear that further research is required to
investigate the effectiveness of a range of detection
methods.
The removal of individuals from a population may occur for several reasons and responses of populations will vary depending on the magnitude and nature of the removal and the life history of the species. An understanding of the effects of loss of individuals on these populations, and the mechanism of replacement, will be important to conservation. This maybe particularly important where wild individuals are used for the increasingly popular conservation strategy of translocation. During the recent translocation of the endangered eastern bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus), two monitoring sites were established in the wild source population, one where removals were to take place and another as a control to assess the impact of the removals on the population. The removal of 44 eastern bristlebirds across 3 years from a single area in the source population had no significant detectable impact in the numbers of individuals surveyed. Individuals that were removed appeared to have been replaced within 6 months of their removal, although to a lesser extent in the later part of the study. The origin of the replacement eastern bristlebirds was unknown and the quick recovery was suggested to be a result of juvenile dispersal, perhaps combined with territory uptake by previously non-territorial and non-calling (thus undetectable) individuals within the population. Such a surplus may be a result of insufficient suitable habitat for population expansion, and will also have implications for monitoring populations of rare and cryptic species. It is also suggested that some territorial species may have several mechanisms that can replace losses of individuals from a population.
Surveys carried out between 1990 and 1995 of almost all known historic locations within New South Wales (including the ACT) for the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea revealed that the species had suffered a dramatic decline in distribution and abundance in this region, with over 80% of all historic populations having gone extinct, and many of the extant populations being reduced to low numbers. The present study involved surveys of the Green and Golden Bell Frog locations that were known in 1995, surveys of new locations or potential areas for new locations of this species, and review of management plans and other documented information concerning particular populations. Over the last 12 years extinctions have continued with the loss of almost 50% of those sub-populations and 23% of populations known in 1995. Obviously the species cannot sustain this rate of loss for much longer and continue to exist within New South Wales. Protection for remaining extant populations is very limited and most are under continuing threat. Management plans have been prepared in relation to a number of sub-populations/populations, but these plans have not focused on populations under current threat, and associated management actions designed to benefit this frog have occurred in only a few cases. Hence, decline of this species within NSW is likely to continue. Habitat change, mostly through destruction and disturbance, has been the major factor in population loss with the likelihood of extinction increasing with increases in the extent of habitat loss as measured by the number of habitat variables that have declined. Invasion by exotic predatory fish Gambusia holbrooki, previously linked with declines in this frog species, shows no apparent association with extinction of populations over the last 12 years and poses no apparent current threat to any population, apparently because any impact of this species has been ameliorated through the presence of submerged/floating aquatic vegetation which may provide some protection against predation for eggs and tadpoles. The steps most likely to improve the conservation status of the Green and Golden Bell Frog within the state are habitat enhancement/development and restoration of movement links between nearby populations.
The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea is threatened with extinction, but generally occurs in disturbed sites and has successfully colonized some sites that are essentially artificial. It should therefore be possible to promote recovery of the species by increasing the availability of suitable habitat through habitat modification or creation and, where necessary, translocating individuals into these habitat areas. Apparently suitable habitat for this species had been created at Long Reef Golf Course in the northern Sydney suburb of Collaroy. We translocated approximately 9,000 captive-bred tadpoles from Taronga Zoo into these habitat areas over 7 years. This program has not led to the establishment of a self-sustaining population of the Green and Golden Bell Frog at Long Reef Golf Course and must therefore be considered unsuccessful. It has had partial success as some released tadpoles metamorphosed into frogs, some of these developed into adults, and a few males were recorded calling. However, breeding by these introduced animals has not been recorded, and, in the absence of continuing tadpole releases, the number of bell frogs has declined to zero. It has, however, provided a number of guidelines for future similar programs. Success with this program has been limited by fish, time of tadpole release and water temperature, and hence we recommend that future translocations of Green and Golden Bell Frog tadpoles should be carried out during spring or summer and should target ponds that are warm and fish-free. Program success was also limited by the numbers of tadpoles available for release. The lack of tadpoles for spring/summer release since the 2003/2004 breeding season has prevented evaluation of new, relatively warm ponds. Any captive-breeding program for this frog species must therefore be successful, in its own right, if it is to provide tadpoles for release. Disease is unlikely to have influenced the outcomes of this program, but should always be considered a potentially-important factor.
We investigated the use of inexpensive aerial bridges (rope canopy bridges) above roads and a highway by arboreal mammals in the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia. Three rope bridge designs were trialed, including a single rope, ladder-like bridges and tunnel-shaped bridges. Nine mammal species were recorded using canopy bridges, including five species or subspecies endemic to the Wet Tropics and three species listed as rare under State nature conservation legislation. Most of these species suffer severely from either the fragmentation or mortality impacts caused by roads. Over 50 crossings above a 15-m-wide tourist road were observed on an elevated ladder-like bridge. Longer (∼40m) rope bridges were used on several occasions by four species. Our observations suggest that canopy bridges can assist rare arboreal mammals to cross roads in the Wet Tropics, thereby reducing both the risk of road-kill and the potential for subpopulation isolation. Further research is required to ascertain the level of benefit afforded by canopy bridges for arboreal mammal populations. It is likely that rope canopy bridges will have broad application for a range of arboreal mammal species.
In late December 2003, a wildfire in the Jervis Bay region of New South Wales burned through an area that previously supported a large population of the endangered eastern bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus). The eastern bristlebird has been described as fire-sensitive, and fire is implicated in the decline of the species. The frequency of occur- rence of bristlebirds was investigated in the second week after the fire in a range of sites varying in fire intensity. Bristlebirds w ere found in burned habitats but were less common in the sites that were more intensely burnt. Bristlebirds had been surveyed along transects in this area two months before this fire and were surveyed again 1, 9 and 13 months after the fire. Compared with prefire numbers, bristlebird numbers decreased in burnt areas after the fire and increased in unburnt areas. This pattern was evident for up to nine months after the fire, after which bristlebird numbers returned towards prefire levels in both burnt and unburnt vegetation. This is in contrast to some previous research on bristlebirds and fire. We suggest that bristlebirds avoided the fire by moving to unburnt areas and returned later when conditions were more suitable. We consider that the apparently slight impact of this fire on bristlebirds was due to the close proximity of unburnt habitat and other refuges. The response of bristlebirds and presumably other birds to fire is likely to be strongly context-dependent, so fire management may be able to be designed so as to be compatible with the conservation of local bristlebird populations.
The eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus) occurs broadly but patchily in south-eastern Australia. It is a small, difficult-to-trap marsupial with poorly known resource and habitat preferences. This study investigated the structural and floristic habitat resources used and selected by C. nanus in Royal National Park (which was heavily burnt by bushfire in 1994) and Heathcote National Park (most of which had remained unburnt for over two
decades at the time of study), in central-coastal New South Wales. Three different sampling methods were used – pitfall traps, Elliott traps and hair tubes – with pitfall trapping being by far the most effective method for detecting C. nanus. Live-trapping in different habitats revealed higher numbers of C. nanus in unburnt and burnt woodland,
burnt heathland and burnt coastal complex than in unburnt coastal complex and burnt and unburnt rainforest. To identify the components of habitat contributing to this pattern, we first scored floristic and structural features of vegetation around trap stations and then quantified habitat components further by using spool- and radio-tracking. We found little evidence that C. nanus responded to any structural components of habitat, although arboreal activity was greater, not surprisingly, in wooded than in burnt heathland habitats. C. nanus was associated most strongly with the abundance of certain plants in the Proteaceae and Myrtaceae. In particular, the species prefers Banksia spp. (probably for food) and Eucalyptus and Xanthorrhoea spp. (probably for shelter).
We examined the impact of habitat degradation (removal of surface rocks) on an
endangered snake species (Hoplocephalus bungaroides,
Elapidae) at 23 sites in south-eastern Australia, by quantifying the impact of
rock removal on (i) the availability of suitable shelter-sites for the snakes
and their major prey species (the velvet gecko,
Oedura lesueurii), and (ii) the numbers of snakes and
geckos. Our survey showed that both the snakes and the geckos prefer rocks
lying on other rocks, rather than on soil, and select rocks of particular
sizes. The rocks removed by bush-rock collectors overlap considerably in size
(diameter and thickness) and substrate (rock on rock) with those used by
broad-headed snakes and velvet geckos. Multivariate path analysis suggests
that population densities of broad-headed snakes (as measured by capture
rates) may be determined primarily by gecko numbers, which in turn depend upon
availability of suitable rocks. In some sites, rock numbers were substantially
reduced by anthropogenic disturbance. Thus, our survey data suggest that
bush-rock removal has contributed to the endangerment of
H. bungaroides.
The collection of reptiles for the pet trade is often cited as a potential problem for threatened species, but quantitative data on the effects of this trade on wild populations are lacking. In south-eastern Australia the decline of the threatened broad-headed snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides has been blamed on habitat destruction and the collection of snakes for pets, but there was little evidence to support the latter hypothesis. During 1992-2000 we studied one of the last extant southern populations of broad-headed snakes in Morton National Park, New South Wales, where <600 individuals remain on an isolated plateau. Analysis of 9 years of mark-recapture data reveal that the activities of snake collectors seriously endanger the viability of this species. The study population of H. bungaroides was stable over 1992-1996, but declined dramatically in 1997, coincident with evidence of illegal collecting, possibly stimulated by a government amnesty that allowed pet owners to obtain permit,, for illegally held reptiles. Survivorship analyses revealed that 85% of adult females disappeared from the population in 1997. There was no such effect on male survivorship, suggesting that snake collectors, selectively removed adult females, which are the largest snakes in the population. Humans caused significant damage to fragile rock outcrops in three of the 9 years of the study, and a second bout of habitat disturbance in 1999 coincided with a second decline in the H. bungaroides, population, We recommend that locked gates be placed on fire trails to protect existing populations of broad-headed snakes.
Protected areas are a cornerstone of local, regional, and global strategies for the conservation of biodiversity. However, the ecological performance of these areas, both in terms of the representation and the maintenance of key biodiversity features, remains poorly understood. A large and rapidly expanding literature bears on these issues, but it is highly fragmented, principally comprises particular case studies, and employs a diverse array of approaches. Here we provide a synthetic review of this work, discriminating between issues of performance of inventory and condition at the scale of individual protected areas, portfolios, and networks of protected areas. We emphasize the insights that follow and the links between the different issues, as well as highlight the major problems that remain unresolved.
Roads and traffic have a multitude of impacts on wildlife populations. Wildlife existing within the confines of fragmented reserves are particularly susceptible to fatalities on roads, especially those situated within urban and semirural matrices. The sustainability of many wildlife populations within reserve fragments are tenuous as roads further subdivide reserved areas and increase the frequency of animal–vehicle contact. Although many studies have assessed the quantity and diversity of fatalities from collisions, few studies have examined the long-term viability of wildlife populations living adjacent to roads. We chose to examine the effects of disturbances, including fatalities on roads, on a population of swamp wallabies (Wallabia bicolor) within the Royal National Park on the urban fringe of Sydney, Australia. Despite having an extensive range, researchers suspect that many local populations of this sole member of Wallabia are in decline. We used a combination of population modeling and sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of disturbances on the population. Under current conditions, the forecast of the population was to decline over the next 100 years with the possibility of becoming extinct. We found that female reproduction and breeding were most influential on the population model. Of the range of management options investigated, by far the most rewarding was the reduction of fatalities on roads, as only a 20% decrease in female fatalities on roads has the potential to reverse the current decline and represents the best option for maintaining long-term viability. We suggest that documentation and subsequent management of road impacts, within the context of other threats, is essential to the conservation of similar species in road-affected environments.
For protected reserves set aside for conservation, the impact of roads and traffic on wildlife can be severe, particularly for those in the peri-urban environment. Often reserves possess many sealed roads that have regular traffic from tourists and local residents. As managerial bodies struggle to control the wide variety of threats to the fauna within these reserves, the loss of life on roads only compounds the precarious nature of wildlife survival in these dis-turbed environments. As a first step to addressing this concern in Australia, this study quantifies the fatalities of wildlife killed on roads within the Royal National Park in New South Wales, and estimates those wildlife species using roadside habitat in order to iden-tify species susceptible to collisions. Modelling of fatality data indicated that mammals were most likely to be killed where forage was abundant on the roadside verge and where there was plenty of protective cover, while birds were most likely to be killed when the height of roadside vegetation was low. A number of collision hotspots were identified along the surveyed road that should be the target of mitigation efforts. The average speed of vehi-cles travelling within the park peaked at night. This is of particular concern as activity by Australian mammals tends to be greatest at night. The findings indicate that roads in peri-urban reserves have the potential to alter the movement of animals and impact on their populations through loss of life.
Since the mid-1990s, numerous methodologies have been developed to assess the management effectiveness of protected areas,
many tailored to particular regions or habitats. Recognizing the need for a generic approach, the World Commission on Protected
Areas (WCPA) developed an evaluation framework allowing specific evaluation methodologies to be designed within a consistent
overall approach. Twenty-seven assessment methodologies were analyzed in relation to this framework. Two types of data were
identified: quantitative data derived from monitoring and qualitative data derived from scoring by managers and stakeholders.
The distinction between methodologies based on data types reflects different approaches to assessing management. Few methodologies
assess all the WCPA framework elements. More useful information for adaptive management will come from addressing all six
elements. The framework can be used to adapt existing methodologies or to design new, more comprehensive methodologies for
evaluation, using quantitative monitoring data, qualitative scoring data, or a combination of both.
Powerful owls were frequently observed during a study of the ecology of a community of arboreal marsupials in south-eastern New South Wales. For about 17 months the population of greater gliders in the 100 ha study area appeared to remain ‘stable’ at more than 80 individuals. In the following 46 months, the population declined to about one-tenth of its previous level. The forest in the study area was unlogged and remained undisturbed during this period. The frequency of sightings of powerful owls holding captured greater gliders, and of observations on the ground of tails and bodies belonging to greater gliders, and the unaccountable disappearance of 9 out of 11 individually marked greater gliders in the study area, suggest that the observed decline in the population of greater gliders was due to predation by the powerful owl. Powerful owls were not detected in the study area during the first 12 months or the last 21 months of the study. It is suggested that powerful owls forage by concentrating their activities in pockets of their large home range until they reduce the populations of their preferred prey below limits where it becomes difficult to catch the remaining animals. If preferred prey are available elsewhere, powerful owls probably move their centres of foraging activity to these pockets and harvest them before moving on to the next pocket of their range.
Animals that specialize on nectar can be expected to face shortages of energy at times or in places where floral resources fade. Using a nectar-feeding marsupial, the eastern pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus as a model, we predicted that animals would respond rapidly to an artificial energy supplement by showing improved body condition and increased local abundance. We also tested the hypothesis that responses would be more pronounced in burnt than in unburnt habitats due to the expectation that food would be limiting after fire. Energy was added in the form of sugar solution to two burnt and two unburnt woodland sites on the New South Wales coast, but not to two sets of equivalent control sites. The responses of pygmy-possums were compared between sites a month before and a month after supplementation during early autumn when flowers were diminishing. The energy supplement increased on-site immigration and a tail-fat index of body condition, but had no overall effect on the abundance or mean body mass of pygmy-possums. There was no effect of habitat; floral abundance was equal across sites. The results show that C. nanus responded rapidly to the energy supplement, and indicate that animals monitor shifts in the resource base continuously. Similar resource tracking abilities have been demonstrated previously in more mobile nectar-feeders, such as honeyeaters and bats. We suggest that such abilities should be generally advantageous in any species that depend on ephemeral resources.
The broad-headed snake (Hoplocephalus bungaroides) is recognised as one of the most endangered reptiles in Australia. This study examined the distribution of the broad-headed snake in Royal National Park in order to devise measures to conserve the species in this Park. Loose rock on rock outcrops provides vital shelter sites for the broad-headed snake. Surveys were conducted by searching under loose rock at 26 rock outcrop sites distributed throughout the Park. Sites were categorised as disturbed or undisturbed based on proximity to roads and walking trails which are extensive in the Park. Broad-headed snakes were found at nine sites, representing a significantly greater proportion of undisturbed sites. This suggests that the distribution of the snake was influenced by disturbance. Quantification of the loose rock habitat revealed little difference between disturbed and undisturbed sites. Thus, either the methods of quantification were inadequate or broad-headed snakes simply avoid sites classed as disturbed. Further studies are needed to assess ongoing habitat disturbance in this Park, to review all walking tracks that are located close to suitable snake habitat and to assess the feasibility of recovering sites that are presently disturbed.
The broad-headed snake Hoplocephalus bungaroides (Schlegel, 1837) is a highly endangered species endemic to the Sydney basin. We attempted to track down the whereabouts of museum specimens of this snake by contacting mainly Australian, European and North American curators of natural history museums and university herpetological collections. We received replies from 200 institutions, and from these we present details of 159 specimens from 27 museums in 11 countries reported to us as H. bungaroides. Countries include Australia (108 specimens), Germany (13), the United States (9), United Kingdom (7), France (4), Belgium (5), the Netherlands (5), Austria (3), Denmark (3), Italy (1), and Switzerland (1). At least 47 specimens are from the 19a1 Century, and accurate locality records were available for 98 specimens. Obviously, all of the specimens have value insofar as they may provide important biological data that will be useful to researchers working on the future conservation of this snake. Many of these specimens also provide important historical evidence of the species' past distribution.
The Eastern Bristlebird Dasyornis brachypterus is a threatened passerine, endemic to southeastern Australia. It is a cryptic ground dwelling, semi-flightless inhabitant of dense, fire-prone vegetation and is usually only detected by its calls. The disjunct distribution suggests that they were once more numerous and their population continuous from southern Queensland to western Victoria. Their decline has been documented in historic and recent times. Habitat loss, nest desertion and fire have been implicated in the decline and extinction of local populations. Strongholds for the species are Barren Grounds Nature Reserve and Bherwerre Peninsula, 100 and 150 km south of Sydney respectively. At Barren Grounds in the absence of recent fire, there were significant increases in the population between 1992 and 1996. There was a trend of increasing Eastern Bristlebird density with increasing fire-age of habitat and average density plateauing at two birds per 5 ha, 10 years after fire. At Nadgee, a coastal Nature Reserve on the New South Wales/Victorian border, the population appears to be recovering very slowly from severe wildfires in 1972 and 1980. At the beginning of 1996 there were less than 2 000 individual Eastern Bristlebirds occupying an area of approximately 100 km2. For the management of Eastern Bristlebirds, habitat manipulation using prescribed fire should not be undertaken unless site-specific population monitoring data demonstrate that it would be beneficial. Concentrations of Eastern Bristlebirds and potential fire refuges should be protected from unplanned fire. For prescription burns, potential escape routes need to be planned for Eastern Bristlebirds. The threatened status should be changed from Vulnerable to Endangered.
Gliding mammals may be susceptible to habitat fragmentation due to increased vulnerability to predators and road mortality if forced to cross roads and other canopy gaps on the ground. We document three trials where 6-12-m-high wooden poles, also known as glide poles, were installed to provide a link for gliding mammals across 50-75-m-wide canopy gaps, over open pasture or over roads. We used hair-traps over periods of 10-42 months to determine whether squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) used the poles. Squirrel glider hair was detected on at least one pole during 69-100% of sampling sessions. At two road locations where poles were installed on wildlife land-bridges, hair was detected on poles in the middle of the bridge in 7-18 sessions, suggesting that complete crossings may have occurred. At one road location a camera-trap recorded a squirrel glider ascending a middle pole on five of 20 nights. Repeated use of the wooden poles by squirrel gliders at three locations suggests that tall wooden poles can restore habitat connectivity for a gliding mammal. We recommend further trials to extend our knowledge of the usefulness of this management tool for a range of gliding mammal species.
Captive bred Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea tadpoles were introduced to a coastal wetland near Pambula on the far south coast of New South Wales. The reintroduction involved the release of approximately 5000 captive-bred tadpoles and subsequent monitoring. Before the reintroduction could take place several requirements had to be satisfied. A re-introduction proposal was prepared for the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) and independently reviewed by two referees, pre-release surveys of frogs were undertaken to determine if L aurea existed on the site and to ascertain if the pathogen Bactrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid) was present within the endemic frog population.The captive bred tadpoles were tested for the presence of chytrid prior to release. The water quality was tested at the proposed release site and potential predators were removed.The project required maintenance and breeding of the captive population, and post release surveys.The project took 4.5 years from submission of the proposal to the first release of tadpoles and to date has cost approximately $190K, of which only $37K was funded. It is anticipated that ongoing costs will be in the order of $25K per year for the next four years (2008-12). Details of the project costs and chronology of actions are given in order to assist others who wish to undertake similar projects. So far two adults have been detected 13 months post-release.
At dusk on the 20 March 2012 bird watcher David Koffel observed a large gliding possum glide between trees at the southern end of Lady Carrington Drive in Royal National Park. David reported his observation to the Royal National Park Visitors Centre and a spotlighting excursion was organised to investigate the sighting. On the 30 March 2012 David Koffel, Debbie Andrew and Glen Harvey located the glider and confirmed its identity as a greater glider Petauroides volans. This was the first confirmed observation of a greater glider in Royal National Park since the wildfire of 1994, 18 years prior, which burnt more than 90% of Royal National Park and 50% of neighbouring Garawarra State Conservation Area. An account of the sightings and background to the observations are provided.
The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea is recognized in New South Wales and nationally as a species in a serious decline. We surveyed its current distribution and abundance in the Illawarra region on New South Wales in order to devise a regional conservation plan for this species, based on the objective of establishing at least three isolated, viable populations. The survey was conducted during 1997-1999 across 18 sites based on historic and current records of the species, and habitat suitability. Bell frogs were detected at eight sites, four of which were on public land. The maximum number of adult frogs varied from 11 to 78 across seven sites in Port Kembla, suggesting a population of >100 adult frogs. Breeding was poor at most sites during this study but a moderate number (ca 50) of juvenile frogs was observed at the BHP Steelworks site in January 1998 and at Coomaditchy Lagoon in February 1999. Bell frogs were recorded previously at Shellharbour, where a large population occurred, and at Bulli. These areas are proposed as the other regional sites for bell frog conservation because they are well isolated (>10 km away) from Port Kembla. A small number of bell frogs was present at Bulli, while none was found at Shellharbour. The apparent stability of bell frogs in the Port Kembla area suggests that the presence of multiple breeding sites within a relatively small area (2.5 km radius) is very important and the establishment of viable populations in other areas should consider this situation as a model. This will require the creation of additional breeding sites at Bulli and Shellharbour, and may require translocation to Shellharbour if no occupied sites are found in the next few years. The presence of predatory fish at nine sites demonstrates the need for the conservation strategy to include activities that improve the quality of the habitat currently available to bell frogs.
Humans continue to have a negative impact on wildlife and habitat within protected areas. Anthropogenic disturbance to rock habitat within Royal National Park in southern Sydney is reducing the availability of vital retreat sites used by the endangered broad-headed snake (Hoplocephalus bungaroides). One approach that may reduce this disturbance is to educate Park users about the broad-headed snake and the threats to its habitat. We conducted questionnaire surveys of Park users during 2010 to determine their level of awareness of this snake, and to assess whether educating Park users about the snake may assist in its conservation. Only 14% of 181 respondents knew this snake occurred within Royal National Park. Some respondents (6%) had observed people tampering with rock habitats, while 85% of respondents believed that people would be more likely to report such activities if aware of its impact on the broad-headed snake. A majority (53%) of respondents believed rock disturbance would not continue if people were informed of its impact. These results suggest that conservation of the broad-headed snake in Royal National Park would benefi t if Park users were better informed.
The centre of Sydney ornithology 50 years ago was the Ornithological section of the Royal Zoological Society that met monthly (originally on Friday, then Thursday, nights) jointly with the New South Wales Section of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union. The meeting place was the 6th floor of Bull's Chambers, 28 Martin Place. We were the most active of the half a dozen Sections, that included Aviculture, Conchology, Entomology, etc.
This study examined the coarse- and fine-scale habitat preferences of the long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales, in order to inform the management of this threatened species. Live-trapping was conducted in autumn and spring, from 2005 to 2008, at two sites. Macrohabitat preferences were examined by comparing trap success with numerous habitat attributes at each trap site. In spring 2007 and autumn 2008, microhabitat use was also examined, using the spool-and-line technique and forage digging assessments. While potoroos were trapped in a wide range of macrohabitats, they displayed some preference for greater canopy and shrub cover, and ground cover with lower floristic diversity. While most individuals also displayed preferences for various microhabitat attributes, no clear trends were evident across all individuals. Potoroos displayed some foraging preference for microhabitats with higher shrub cover densities and more open ground cover. Despite extensive fox predation risks, individual potoroos did not all preferentially utilise dense ground cover. Future management of known and potential potoroo habitat should aim to provide effective introduced predator control and enhance the diversity of vegetation attributes while avoiding practices that simplify the habitat.
Dietary samples from four Sooty Owl Tyto tenebricosa roost-sites within one territory in the Royal National Park, Sydney, New South Wales, were collected in December 2005. A total of 144 dietary items was identified, representing eight mammal species and at least one bird species. The samples were compared with those collected during a study 10 years earlier (in 1994-96) that included samples from the same roost-sites. Ten years later, the diet of the Sooty Owl in this territory appears little changed, except that the Sugar Glider Petaurus breviceps is now taken more frequently. The Common Ringtail Possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus continued to be the principal prey species taken by the Owls at this location. The Long-nosed Bandicoot Perameles nasuta may have declined in the Sooty Owl's diet during this period, but this trend was not significant statistically. This study showed that Sooty Owl diet at a single location is relatively stable, despite the occurrence of a major disturbance to habitat caused by a severe wildfire 12 years previously.
The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea has undergone a dramatic population decline in New South Wales. During this time the species' status in this state has changed from being common in the 1960s to endangered in 1992. To assess the present population numbers and environmental pressures, 31 sites within the Greater Sydney region and 61 sites from regional areas of New South Wales were surveyed. The sites consisted of previously known but no longer used localities prior to 1990, as well as more recently discovered localities. Since 1990, only 38 localities have been recorded for Green and Golden Bell Frogs, 19 of these are in the Greater Sydney region. Since the 1960s Green and Golden Bell Frogs have disappeared completely from all highland areas above 250 m a.s.l. Coastal populations have been reduced in number and are more isolated from other extant populations. Many of the extant sites are new sites (post 1990) for this species and occur in highly disturbed environments. The ecological niche of this species is discussed in the light of new observations on these frogs. The introduction of Mosquito Fish Gambusia holbrooki may be one of the factors limiting the recovery of Green and Golden Bell Frog populations in New South Wales.
This paper employs a branch of island biogeography theory to analyse and predict the extinction of species of large mammals in 19 nature reserves in East Africa. The assumptions of the analysis include (1) the dynamics of faunal collapse in East Africa will not be significantly different from the dynamics of extinction of large mammals on the islands of the Sunda Shelf, and (2) the absence of either destructive or supportive human intervention (benign neglect). The results may serve as a baseline against which conservationists can discuss various management approaches. We conclude that the pace of extinctions is inversely related to the size of the reserve, but that even the largest reserves would lose most of their large species in a few centuries.
Large fires coincident with drought occurred in south-eastern Australia during 2001-2007. Perceptions of large, intense fires as being ecologically 'disastrous' are common. These are summarised by four hypotheses characterising large fires as: (i) homogenous in extent and intensity; (ii) causing large-scale extinction due to perceived lack of survival and regeneration capacity among biota; (iii) degrading due to erosion and related edaphic effects; (iv) unnatural, as a consequence of contemporary land management. These hypotheses are examined using available evidence and shown to inadequately account for effects of large fires on biodiversity. Large fires do not burn homogeneously, though they may produce intensely burnt patches and areas. The bulk of biota are resilient through a variety of in situ persistence mechanisms that are reinforced by landscape factors. Severe erosive episodes following fire tend to be local and uncertain rather than global and inevitable. Redistribution of soil and nutrients may reinforce habitat variation in some cases. Signals of fire are highly variable over prehistoric and historic eras, and, in some cases, contemporary and pre-European signal levels are equivalent. The most important effects of large fires in these diverse ecological communities and landscapes stem from their recurrence rate. Adaptive management of fire regimes rather than fire events is required, based on an understanding of risks posed by particular regimes to biota.
The link between 'fire mosaics' and persistence of animal species is part of a prominent ecological/land management paradigm. This paradigm deals largely with the effects of fire on animals on the basis of individual events. The universality of the paradigm can be questioned on a variety of grounds, a major deficiency being the inability to deal with quantitative effects of recurrent fire (the fire regime). A conceptual model of fire-related habitat elements is proposed for exploration of a continuum of species/habitat/landscape/fire regime combinations. This approach predicts that the dependence of species on fire-mediated habitat heterogeneity will be highly variable and strongly context-dependent. A spatially explicit simulation model was used to examine the persistence of malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata) in a specific landscape/habitat context where dependence on fire-mosaics should be high. Results suggest that persistence of L. ocellata populations will be dependent on intervention using small patchy fires but that there is an optimum rate of intervention. Results were sensitive to spatial pattern of prescribed fire, landscape type (topography) and probability of wildfire. Underlying effects of the fire-interval distribution (the 'invisible' mosaic) on plant species and habitat account for these results. A management emphasis on species/landscape context and awareness of the 'invisible' mosaic is advocated.
A system of natural reserves, each surrounded by altered habitat, resembles a system of islands from the point of view of species restricted to natural habitats. Recent advances in island biogeography may provide a detailed basis for understanding what to expect of such a system of reserves. The main conclusions are as follows:The number of species that a reserve can hold at equilibrium is a function of its area and its isolation. Larger reserves, and reserves located close to other reserves, can hold more species.If most of the area of a habitat is destroyed, and a fraction of the area is saved as a reserve, the reserve will initially contain more species than it can hold at equilibrium. The excess will gradually go extinct. The smaller the reserve, the higher will be the extinction rates. Estimates of these extinction rates for bird and mammal species have recently become available in a few cases.Different species require different minimum areas to have a reasonable chance of survival.Some geometric design principles are suggested in order to optimise the function of reserves in saving species.
The distribution of native, chaparral-requiring bird species was determined for 37 isolated fragments of canyon habitat ranging in size from 0.4 to 104 hectares in coastal, urban San Diego County, California The area of chaparral habitat and canyon age (time since isolation of the habitat fragment) explains most of the variation in the number of chaparral-requiring bird species. In addition, the distribution of native predators may influence species number. There is statistical evidence that coyotes control the populations of smaller predators such as foxes and domestic cats. The absence of coyotes may lead to higher levels of predation by a process of mesopredator release. The distance of canyons from other patches of chaparral habitat does not add significantly to the explained variance in chaparral-requiring species number–probably because of the virtual inability of most chaparral-requiring species to disperse through developed areas and nonscrub habitats. These results and other lines of evidence suggest that chaparral-requiring birds in isolated canyons have very high rates of extinction, in part because of their low vagility. The best predictors of vulnerability of the individual species are their abundances (densities) in undisturbed habitat and their body sizes; together these two variables account for 95 percent of the variation in canyon occupancy. A hypothesis is proposed to account for the similarity between the steep slopes of species-area curves for chaparral-requiring birds and the slopes for some forest birds on small islands or in habitat fragments. The provision of corridors appears to be the most effective design and planning feature for preventing the elimination of chaparral-requiring species in a fragmented landscape.
The Eastern Bristlebird Dasyornis brachypterus inhabits a wide range of vegetation communities including rainforest, eucalypt forest, woodland, mallee, shrubland, swamp, heathland and sedgeland. At Barren Grounds, East ern Bristlebirds mostly occurred in habitat with the characteristic layers of ground cover (less than or equal to 0.25 m), low cover (0.25-1.0 m) and tall shrub cover (greater than or equal to 1 m). Using the point-frequency method, the ground cover measure averaged 91% and consisted of herbs, coral ferns and litter; the low cover averaged 92% and consisted of a tangle of herbs, coral ferns, litter and/or small shrubs; and the: tall shrub cover averaged 74% and consisted of larger shrubs but also included mallee and tree cover. At Barren Grounds, in 1992 and 1995, respectively, the density of Eastern Bristlebirds in old fire-age habitat (9-15 years) was 2.5-times and 5-times the density in young fire-age habitat (three years). In the recently burnt areas, Eastern Bristlebirds generally avoided regenerating low vegetation in favour of unburnt clumps, rapidly regenerating malice or shrubs, particularly Mclaleuca squarrosa in wet areas, and patchily burnt areas some of which were associated with escarpment edges. In old fire-age habitat at Barren Grounds-Budderoo. Jervis Bay and Nadgee, Eastern Bristlebirds breed and occur at relatively high densities. Fire has been implicated in the local extinction of numerous Eastern Bristlebird populations. However, the two populations which are currently the largest, Barren Grounds-Budderoo and Jervis Bay, are characterised by a three decade recent history of relatively small-area burns and long periods between fires ol er much of the available habitat. The Eastern Bristlebird is a cover-dependent and fire-sensitive species. Areas of known Eastern Bristlebird habitat and adjacent potential habitat should be managed to enhance the growth of dense low vegetation and to exclude fire.
The response of terrestrial mammals and arboreal marsupials to past burning history as well as a year prior to, and then for 4 years after, a major wildfire in 2003 at Booderee National Park, Jervis Bay Territory was quantified. The present study encompassed extensive repeated surveys at a set of 109 replicated sites stratified by vegetation type and fire history. It was found that most species exhibited significant differences in presence and abundance between major vegetation types. Detections of long-nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta) increased significantly in all vegetation types surveyed, in both burnt and unburnt areas. Temporal patterns in captures of three species of small mammals (bush rat (Rattus fuscipes), swamp rat (Rattus lutreolus) and brown antechinus (Antechinus stuartii)) showed a trend for lower numbers of captures on burnt sites compared with unburnt sites. Three species of arboreal marsupials, common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), greater glider (Petauroides volans) and common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), were moderately common and all showed marked differences in abundance between vegetation types. Whereas P. peregrinus and P. volans exhibited a temporal decline between 2003 and 2006, T. vulpecula exhibited a general increase from 2003 levels. However, arboreal marsupial responses did not appear to be directly fire related.
Reintroduction programs are used widely in conservation to reduce a species' risk of extinction
and amphibians are considered suitable candidates for such programs because of their behavioural
simplicity and high reproductive output.The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea is an endangered
species that has been reintroduced into several areas within its natural range, but the outcome of
these programs remain unknown.This paper presents the results from the first release of the bell frog
in the Hunter Region of New South Wales.This reintroduction released 850 tadpoles into a closed
system of three ponds and rehabilitated habitat.Tadpole survival was high but following metamorphosis
a decline in numbers began that continued for 13 months and resulted in the disappearance of all
released bell frogs.The cause of this decline was investigated and eventually attributed to infection by
the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus &rtrachochyh-iurn dendrobatidis.These results emphasize the importance
of including regular chytrid testing in the monitoring of both natural populations and reintroduction
programs, particularly as few sick and dead animals were found to indicate its presence.
Summary In conservation management, ensuring that the most appropriate research is conducted and results are actually put into practice is a complex and challenging process. While there are success stories, many hurdles can reduce the likelihood of appropriate research being initiated and its findings communicated and implemented. This article describes the ideal research–management cycle, summarizes the major factors that impede it and draws on the experiences of the authors to provide a series of examples of successful approaches to help keep the cycle going. We consider that the major impediments to a functioning research–management cycle relate to a lack of collaboration, poor communication, inappropriate funding and political timelines, change inertia and a lack of capacity. Although addressing structural difficulties such as matching funding timelines to those required for ecological research is a fundamental challenge, we can make incremental improvements to the way in which we operate that will improve the chances that research is both useful and used. The principles underpinning our success stories are (i) strategic development of capacity, (ii) increased breadth and depth of collaborations between researchers and managers and (iii) improved communications. Participants in the research–management cycle must seek to involve stakeholders through all project stages from project conception, to implementation, evaluation and knowledge updating. Finally, we should only see the first iteration of the research process as complete when new knowledge is applied operationally with monitoring and ongoing evaluation in place.
A common objective of methods of systematic reserve selection has been to maximize conservation benefits—frequently current species richness—while reducing the costs of acquiring and maintaining reserves. But the probability that a reserve will lose species in the future is frequently not known because the minimum area requirements for most species have not been estimated empirically. For reserves within the Alleghenian-Illinoian mammal province of eastern North America, we empirically estimated the minimum area requirement of terrestrial mammals such that reserves should not lose species because of insularization. We compared this estimate to the actual size of 2355 reserves and reserve assemblages within the mammal province. The estimated minimum area requirement was 5037 km2 (95% CI: 2700–13,296 km2). Fourteen reserves and reserve assemblages were> 2700 km2, 9 were> 5037 km2, and 3 were> 13,296 km2. These 14 reserves accounted for 73% of the total area of reserves and 10% of the total area of the mammal province. Few reserves appear large enough to avoid loss of some mammal species without the additional cost of active management of habitat or populations. Immigration corridors and buffer zones that combine small reserves into assemblages totaling at least 2700 km2 may be the most efficient means of conserving mammals in these reserves.
Powerful owls were frequently observed during a study of the ecology of a community of arboreal marsupials in south-eastern New South Wales. For about 17 months the population of greater gliders in the 100 ha study area appeared to remain ‘stable’ at more than 80 individuals. In the following 46 months, the population declined to about one-tenth of its previous level. The forest in the study area was unlogged and remained undisturbed during this period. The frequency of sightings of powerful owls holding captured greater gliders, and of observations on the ground of tails and bodies belonging to greater gliders, and the unaccountable disappearance of 9 out of 11 individually marked greater gliders in the study area, suggest that the observed decline in the population of greater gliders was due to predation by the powerful owl. Powerful owls were not detected in the study area during the first 12 months or the last 21 months of the study. It is suggested that powerful owls forage by concentrating their activities in pockets of their large home range until they reduce the populations of their preferred prey below limits where it becomes difficult to catch the remaining animals. If preferred prey are available elsewhere, powerful owls probably move their centres of foraging activity to these pockets and harvest them before moving on to the next pocket of their range.
Knowing how species respond to fire regimes is essential for ecologically sustainable management. This axiom raises two important questions: (1) what knowledge is the most important to develop and (2) to what extent can current research methods deliver that knowledge? We identify three areas of required knowledge: (i) a mechanistic understanding of species’ responses to fire regimes; (ii) knowledge of how the spatial and temporal arrangement of fires influences the biota; and (iii) an understanding of interactions of fire regimes with other processes. We review the capacity of empirical research to address these knowledge gaps, and reveal many limitations. Manipulative experiments are limited by the number and scope of treatments that can be applied, natural experiments are limited by treatment availability and confounding factors, and longitudinal studies are difficult to maintain, particularly due to unplanned disturbance events. Simulation modelling is limited by the quality of the underlying empirical data and by uncertainty in how well model structure represents reality. Due to the constraints on large-scale, long-term research, the potential for management experiments to inform adaptive management is limited. Rather than simply recommending adaptive management, we define a research agenda to maximise the rate of learning in this difficult field. This includes measuring responses at a species level, building capacity to implement natural experiments, undertaking simulation modelling, and judicious application of experimental approaches. Developing ecologically sustainable fire management practices will require sustained research effort and a sophisticated research agenda based on carefully targeting appropriate methods to address critical management questions.
Aim To predict how the bioclimatic envelope of the broad‐headed snake (BHS) ( Hoplocephalus bungaroides ) may be redistributed under future climate warming scenarios.
Location South‐eastern New South Wales, Australia.
Methods We used 159 independent locations for the species and 35 climatic variables to model the bioclimatic envelope for the BHS using two modelling approaches – B ioclim and M axent . Predictions were made under current climatic conditions and we also predicted the species distribution under low and high climate change scenarios for 2030 and 2070.
Results Broad‐headed snakes currently encompass their entire bioclimatic envelope. Both modelling approaches predict that suitable climate space for BHS will be lost to varying degrees under both climate warming scenarios, and under the worst case, only 14% of known snake populations may persist.
Main conclusions Areas of higher elevation within the current range will be most important for persistence of this species because they will remain relatively moist and cool even under climate change and will match the current climate envelope. Conservation efforts should focus on areas where suitable climate space may persist under climate warming scenarios. Long‐term monitoring programs should be established both in these areas and where populations are predicted to become extirpated, so that we can accurately determine changes in the distribution of this species throughout its range.
A major reason for land reservation has been the relative lack of value of selected sites for major commercial land uses or for human habitation. Other important reasons include scenery, recreation, tourist potential, the influence of lobby groups, and historical protection for uses such as hunting or water supply. There are two main disadvantages of such ad hoc approaches to reserve planning. One is the bias in the content of regional reserve systems, leaving some species, communities, or ecosystems without protection, often the ones most in need of strict reservation. The second is that ad hoc reservations can make the goal of representing regional biodiversity more expensive, reducing the likelihood of protecting many elements of biodiversity. Ad hoc approaches to reservation persist despite clearly stated representation goals, improving data bases, and systematic techniques for reserve selection. The main causes need to be understood and addressed if the potential value of reservation for protecting biodiversity is to be realized.