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Cross-border itinerant poaching of agarwood in Hong Kong’s peri-urban forests
... Agarwood-producing species, specifically the Aquilaria species in the Thymelaeaceae family, are primarily distributed in the Indomalesia region (Jim, 2015;Lee and Mohamed, 2016). Among the 21 Aquilaria species, 13 are reported to be known agarwood producers . ...
... Among the 21 Aquilaria species, 13 are reported to be known agarwood producers . They produce agarwood in their trunks and primary branches due to wounding by worms, lightning-or wind-broken branches, natural microbial or fungal infections or infections that are artificially induced by drilling holes, cutting the bark, and injecting chemicals (Jim, 2015;Azren et al., 2019). To harvest agarwood, people fell trees or cut their branches, which results in the slow growth or death of the trees. ...
... Furthermore, there are challenges involved in producing agarwood. First, in nature, not all agarwood-producing Aquilaria trees or all their trunks or branches produce agarwood (Jim, 2015;Liu et al., 2018;Azren et al., 2019). Second, it may take up to hundred years for an Aquilaria tree to produce agarwood naturally (Xu et al., 2013;Turjaman et al., 2016;Liu et al., 2018;Ye et al., 2018). ...
Because of high market demand, agarwood-producing trees are frequently illegally traded in Asia and are usually priced high if they are cut from natural forests. In China, some of these traded Aquilaria sinensis trees are declared to be from natural population(s) and are said to produce agarwood “easily and fast”. To distinguish the origins and genetic differences of natural populations from cultivated ones, we used genetic markers, microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) to compare them to trees from both cultivated and known natural origin trees. Our microsatellite results revealed that the illegally traded trees were genetically close to cultivated trees, indicating that they were of cultivated origin. By separating SNPs into genic (in genic regions) and nongenic categories representing functional and non-functional SNPs, our results revealed that the genic SNP markers did not detect more genetic differences between the illegally traded A. sinensis trees and cultivated ones than the nongenic SNP markers did, indicating that they are not functionally discernable from the cultivated trees. Our study revealed that sources labelled as natural by poachers might not have natural origins, which is especially true for agarwood-producing species given their limited natural populations and their long and extensive cultivation history. Our results may reduce the public’s desire for natural agarwood from A. sinensis and other agarwood-producing species and benefit the legal agarwood trade.
... Aquilaria sinensis (Thymelaeaceae) is an economically important evergreen tree endemic to South China (Jim 2015). Its wood can produce agarwood, called 'Chen Xiang' in Chinese, which is a famous resin used for incense and Chinese traditional medicine (Zhang et al. 2012). ...
... A. sinensis can produce resin only when the wood is wounded by external factors such as worms, wind breaking branches, fungal infections or artificially by drilling holes or cutting the barks (Zhang et al. 2012). Because the components of agarwood cannot be produced artificially, they are in great demand in the market (Xu et al. 2014), over harvesting highly threatens its population stabilization in the wild (Jim 2015;Chen et al. 2016). Recently, A. sinensis has been listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (http://www.iucnredlist.org). ...
... Deforestation also results in habitat fragmentation threating A. sinensis population health and sustainability (Zou et al. 2012). Additionally, as A. sinensis is economically important, overexploitation has seriously threatened its populations continually (Jim 2015). All these factors definitely led to loss of genetic diversity in A. sinensis populations, especially in less protected areas (Zou et al. 2012). ...
... Although the cultivation of A. sinensis for the agarwood industry in Hong Kong ceased since the last century given pirates activities, remaining populations persist in the countryside of Hong Kong, including lowland, broad-leaved forests, and fung shui woods (Yip and Lai, 2004). Nevertheless, these natural populations are under threats of illegal felling and harvesting (Jim, 2015;AFCD, 2018;Chen et al., 2019). ...
The incense tree Aquilaria sinensis (Thymelaeaceae) can produce agarwood with commercial values and is now under threat from illegal exploitation in Hong Kong, impairing the local population and biodiversity. Together with other species of Aquilaria, it is listed in the CITES Appendix II, which strictly regulates its international trade. To understand the population structure of A. sinensis and to make relevant conservation measures, we have sequenced 346 individuals collected in Hong Kong and southern mainland China. Population genomic analyses including principal component analysis, neighbor-joining tree construction, ADMIXTURE, and hierarchical pairwise-FST analyses suggested that genetically distinct populations are contained in certain areas. Genomic scan analyses further detected single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) outliers related to plant defense, including the CYP71BE gene cluster. In addition to the population analyses, we have developed a modified hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) DNA extraction protocol for obtaining DNA from agarwood samples in this study, and resequencing of DNA extracted from two agarwood samples using this method allows us to successfully map to the sample corresponding localities in the phylogenetic tree. To sum up, this study suggested that there is a genetically distinct subpopulation of incense tree in Hong Kong that would require special conservation measures and established a foundation for future conservation measures.
... In addition to rosewood trafficking, illegal felling of agar trees is another common timber crime in Hong Kong. Increasing number of transborder itinerant theft from mainland China have been found from 2005-2013 9 . Illegal logging is a highly destructive wildlife crime, as it threatens both the targeted tree species and the entire habitat along with decline in biological diversity. ...
Quality and quantity of DNA extracted from wood is important for molecular identification of wood species, which can serve for conservation of wood species and law enforcement to combat illegal wood trading. Rosewood (Dalbergia and Pterocarpus) and agarwood (Aquilaria) are the most commonly found hardwood in timber seizure incidents. To monitor international trade of timber and commercial wood products and to protect these endangered wood species from further population decline, in this study, we have compared three extraction protocols for DNA extraction from 12 samples of rosewood and agarwood timber logs, and later applied the best DNA extraction protocol on 10 commercial wood products claimed to be rosewood and agarwood. We also demonstrated the applicability of DNA mini-barcoding with multi-loci combination with reference library for identifying the species of timber and commercial wood products. We found that a silica column-based method with guanidine thiocyanate-containing binding buffer served the best in DNA extraction from different parts of wood in all three genera with good quality and quantity. Single barcode region ITS2 or multi-loci combinations including ITS2 barcode region generally provide better discriminatory power for species identification for both rosewood and agarwood. All 10 products were identified to species-level using multi-loci combination. In terms of accuracy in labelling, 80% of them were labelled correctly. Our work has shown the feasibility of extracting good quality of DNA from authentic wood samples and processed wood products and identifying them to species level based on DNA barcoding technology.
... Agar trees can be found in the Sylhet, Chittagong, and Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) forests of Bangladesh. Agar trees (Aquilaria malaccensis) are currently being widely produced as a plantation species in Bangladesh to supply raw materials for agar-based industries [7]. The crops are one of Bangladesh's most prospective non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which earns huge foreign currency through exporting of attar (agar oil) and other value-added products [8]- [11]. ...
The study was conducted to investigate the socio-economic characteristics of the agar farmers, the extent of constraints in agar wood cultivation; and the factors allied with constraints in agar tree farming. Despite the enormous potential of agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Roxb.) production in Bangladesh, it has yet to gain traction due to socioeconomic, technical, and marketing challenges. The cultivation of agar trees is largely centered in the Sylhet region, where a large number of agar farmers engage. This research was carried out in Maulvibazar district's Barlekha upazila (sub-district) to better understand and assess the restrictions and factors that affect agar tree cultivation. A survey was conducted with 120 households during September 2018 to March 2019. Descriptive statistics, rank order, coefficient of correlation, and multiple linear regression were used to examine the data. Out of 12 constraints, the most significant barrier was a lack of funds to engage in agar farming (2.81), which was followed by a lack of technical guidance (2.71). The lack of labor was the least important constraint faced by the farmers (1.43). It was revealed that education, household size, farm size, number of trees per farmer, annual income, experience in agar farming, agar wood cultivation under trees and knowledge of agar cultivation of the farmers were shown to be realized to agar plantation constraints. However, education, farm size, annual revenue, and agar growing experience were identified as major drivers of the degree of agar farming constraints. The study identified various policymakers' potential to address the influencing variables (education, farm size, annual revenue, and agar farming experience) in establishing agar farming. Furthermore, finance facilities, adequate agar farming instruction, and forest department introspection could all help to reduce agar farming obstacles.
... Although a stringent monitoring of agarwood trade is obligatory, smuggling of agarwood continues (CITES 2004). The illegal activities focus on producer countries of natural agarwood, such as China, Sri Lanka and Malaysia (Subasinghe 2013;Jim 2015;Peng et al. 2015). One problem is the abuse of agarwood products as adulterant, which risks human health (Coghlan et al. 2012). ...
Aquilaria is an endangered agarwood-producing genus that is currently protected by international laws. The agarwood trade is strictly monitored to prevent illegal harvesting, which has caused high demand for this natural product. Other plant sources of similar appearance or fragrance as agarwood are used as adulterant species in counterfeit products. To promote species identification via the DNA barcoding technique, the existing DNA barcoding database in our laboratory was enriched with seven plant barcoding sequences from a commercially important Aquilaria species ( Aquilaria beccariana ) and seven adulterant species ( Cocos nucifera , Dalbergia latifolia , Pinus contorta var. latifolia , Santalum album , Strychnos ignatii , Thuja sp. and Terminalia catappa ). DNA barcoding with high-resolution melting analysis (Bar-HRM) showed that the mini-barcode internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) was an effective gene locus that allows for a rapid and species-specific detection of Aquilaria and their adulterants, while four other mini-barcodes ( rbc L, trn L intron, ITS2 and 5.8s) functioned as a support and a crosscheck for the barcoding results. The accuracy of the Bar-HRM technique in species origin identification was further assessed with seven agarwood blind specimens. The Bar-HRM technique is a potential tool for validating agarwood-species origin and detecting products with adulterant species.
... Hong Kong is also a major trade hub for legally traded wildlife-with rare species sold as ornaments, traditional medicines, cuisine, and pets. There is more ivory on sale in Hong Kong than in any other city in the world (Martin & Vigne, 2015), and there is also significant trade in live reef fish (Wu & Sadovy, 2016), turtles and tortoises (Cheung & Dudgeon, 2006), agarwood (Jim, 2015), shark fins (Clarke, Magnussen, Abercrombiea, Mcallister, & Shivji, 2006) (Knights, Hofford, Andersson, & Cheng, 2015). ...
As the global epicentre of wildlife trade, Hong Kong plays an important role in the preservation or demise of biodiversity, including species found continents away. If mismanaged, legal trade in threatened species can lead to unsustainable exploitation. Inaccurate and incomplete trade records from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) undermine the regulation of this trade. We examine the trade of hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) teeth to illustrate the extent of mismatched data between key trading nations. More than 90% of global hippo teeth trade is imported to, and re-exported from, Hong Kong. Of that imported, over 75% originated in Tanzania or Uganda, but there are notable disparities in declared trade volumes. In most transactions, Hong Kong declares more volume imported than the volume declared exported by Uganda. Overall, Hong Kong has reported the import of 3,176 kg more hippo teeth than declared exported by Tanzania. This indicates that actual trade levels may exceed internationally agreed quotas. In total, over 14,000 kg of hippo teeth is unaccounted for between Uganda and Hong Kong, representing more than 2,700 individual hippos—2% of the global population. This gross discordance in trade data undermines regulatory measures and challenges the persistence of hippo populations in Africa.
Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis lamk.)
Brainea insignis is the only species in the genus Brainea. It is widely distributed in the Asia and Australia continents, but usually in small, fragmented populations. Owing to its sensitivity towards habitat changes and human disturbance, the population of this fern is deteriorating. At present, it is classified as an endangered species in China. In this study, we assessed the forest diversity and vitality status of B. insignis in its natural habitat. A total of 63 vascular plant species belonging to 55 genera of 40 families were recorded in the 1200-m2 study plot. The Raunkiaer’s frequency index indicated that B. insignis was experiencing a decline in stand size and structure although the overall level of vitality was 18.58. One-way ANOVA revealed that significant differences were detected between the basal diameter, tree height, crown size, and number of leaves of B. insignis in the study plot, but not between tree height and number of leaves. Proper conservation management is requisite to ensure continuous survival of this relict species in the wild despite eqinterference from evolution and urbanisation from mankind.
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Agarwood is a highly valuable aromatic plant variety mostly found in the tropical forest. The people of Assam have been practicing Agarwood cultivation and its trade for several decades. In this paper, an attempt has been made to investigate the indigenous knowledge system associated with the agar trade, i.e., detection of agar bearing plants, collection, processing, extraction of oil, and marketing of agarwood and its livelihood opportunities for the rural people. Naharani, a micro area with a few revenue villages located in the Golaghat district of Assam, has been selected for the study. This area is the hub of the Agar trade, and the local people have inherited this tradition from their ancestors. For this study, visit to different household industries, site observation, interviews with the people engaged in agar trade, and household surveys were carried out during 2016 and 2018. A simple random sampling technique was used for the selection of the sample household. Data have been collected from the randomly selected 975 households with a well-structured schedule-cum-questionnaire. Sustainable livelihood framework analysis was done to measure the livelihood assets of the people. It has been found that the agar trade and its associated practices have a significant contribution to the socioeconomic condition of the rural people. As agarwood is now rarely found in the wild state, people have used to plant it in their homesteads and also developed plantation sites for its sustainable production. The homestead cultivation of agarwood and its trade alone contributes about 15-60% to the total annual income of the households. Although agarwood cultivation is commercially viable and sustainable, the farmers and traders are currently facing lots of hurdles to properly carry out their business in Assam.
Nature has the potential to provide wide-ranging economic contributions to society – from ecosystem services to providing income to communities via fair trade of resources. Unsustainable trade in wildlife, however, threatens biodiversity and its ability to support communities and a functioning planet. It is therefore important to have clear systems in place for tracing traded wildlife. Monitoring legal wildlife trade in all species is as important as it is for trade in protected species, since flows of the legal trade correlate with, and provide cover for, illegally traded wildlife. The majority of wildlife trade research is focused on species listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The concurrent, considerably larger legal wildlife trade in both CITES and non-CITES-listed species, however, remains unexamined – despite the fact that if mismanaged, it can lead to over-exploitation. Here we analyzed 20 years of data from the UN Comtrade database, aiming to detail the scale, composition, and trends across all taxa of wildlife traded legally, and to indicate opportunities for improvement. From 1997-2016 the value of this trade totaled between US$2.9 and 4.4 trillion. Of this, $ 2.9 trillion wildlife was traded under “specific” codes that specify taxonomic order and below, while around $1.4 trillion was traded under “broad” codes that declare wildlife to taxonomic class and above. The top 10 trading nations/territories accounted for 51.4% of the total value of wildlife traded. The top commercial categories for wildlife trade were seafood (82%), furniture (7%), and fashion (furs and hides) (6%). In these three major categories, vague commodity codes such as “Fish”, “Tropical wood”, and “Other furs” were used to declare 23%, 24% and 26% of items traded, respectively – despite encompassing thousands of species. This lack of granularity imperils biodiversity as trade cannot be comprehensively monitored. We recommend that there is a review of what species are traded under these broad code descriptions, and a distillation of codes to taxonomic Family or Genus level in the next HS Code review period, particularly in the pet, traditional Chinese medicine and furniture categories. In addition, interdisciplinary research into legal wildlife trade should be increased to provide forensic, policy, economic and social solutions to improve trade management.
Aquilaria Malaccensis Lamk. (Thymelaeaceae), commonly known as Agar wood, Aloe wood or Agaru is a highly valuable aromatic plant variety mostly found in the tropical forest. It is the source of enigmatic aroma and is globally famous for its fragrant resinous content which is used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. In India, Aloe wood, which is mostly found in north-eastern part and Assam is famous for its utilitarian aspects. It is the source of livelihood to more than 50,000 people and indirectly to 1.5 lakh beneficiaries in Assam. Unfortunately, it has received little attention towards its contribution to the rural economy and hence, it is necessary to throw some light on this aspect. Here, an attempt has been made to investigate the indigenous
knowledge system associated with the agar trade i.e. detection of agar bearing plants, collection, processing, extraction and marketing of Agar wood products which helps in the development of cottage industry in this region. This paper reports a case study which has been carried out in Naharani, a micro area with a few revenue villages located in the Golaghat district of Assam. This area is the hub of the Agar trade and the local people have inherited this tradition from their ancestors. In this study, visit to different cottage industries, site observation, interview with the people engaged in agar trade and household survey have been carried out. From the study, it has been found that the agar trade and its associated practices have significant contribution to the
socio-economic condition of the rural people. As the agar wood is now rarely found in wild state and people have used to plant it in their homesteads and also developed plantation sites for its commercial production and sustainability.
Essential oils have been used for centuries in ethnobotany and ethnobiology. Today, they are common ingredients in food, dietary supplements, personal care products, and aromatherapy. They are produced from aromatic plant material most often grown or collected by small farmers and low wage laborers from many different corners of the world. The loosely regulated supply chain tends to be long and opaque. Smuggling, adulteration, and contamination are commonly encountered biomass problems that affect finished good quality and integrity. Local governments and international organizations publish recommendations for Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to resolve some of the supply chain issues, but adherence is voluntary. Since the U.S. and many other countries enforce good manufacturing practices (GMP) and quality standards on finished goods, companies must take meticulous steps to assure their plant biomass is clean and unadulterated.
Abstract
‘Agarwood’ or ‘eaglewood’ (‘Aguru’ in Bengali) is the most expensive wood in the world,
which is an occasional product of a few genera of Aquilaria and Gyrinops in the plant family
Thymelaeaceae. Agar is a scented product, oleoresin, obtained from pathological conditions
of the wood of live trees containing many aromatic substances. Various bacteria and fungi
have been found to be associated with Agarwood formation, although it is still not absolutely
clear which are important or even necessary. The quality of agar mostly depends on the
plant species and the fungal species involved, as well as, certain other unknown factors. The
issues are now to explore the new sources of agarwood to protect the endangered plant
species, to ensure agar formation in 100% of the planted trees, upgrade in quality and most
possibly quantity of agar yield per tree simultaneously minimizing the maturation time. Both
physical and chemical stresses like mechanical wound and induction have long been
practiced to enhance agarwood yield as well as fungal inoculation. Specificity of fungal
infection is a minor criterion of agarwood formation rather than the plant’s physiological state,
immune responses and presence of inducer. The agarwood production could be a
multifaceted field of prospects in Bangladesh. The cultivation of new Aquilaria and Gyrinops
plants and selection of appropriate inocula and inducers should be the priority objective. A
multidisciplinary approach could be initiated with the experts of forestry, mycology,
biochemistry and microbiology to achieve the goal.
Keyword: aquilaria, agarwood, artificial induction, fungi, perfumery
Agar wood is one of the most expensive non-timber wood products of the world. It has a series of names
around the Asia and Pacific region. Bangladesh is producing three major products namely Agar-wood, Agar-oil and Agar dust/powder in Agar wood sector. It has multidimensional uses in perfume, cosmetics and medicine sector. Agar wood has traditional, religious moreover cultural uses in different parts of the world. Major Agar wood producing countries are India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei, Singapore and Bangladesh. Major market/consumers of Agar wood are the Middle East (UAE, KSA and other Arabian countries) and North East Asian countries (Taiwan, Japan and Korean Republic). It has a long history in Moulvi Bazar and nearby districts of Bangladesh too. A very few constraints are creating hurdles toward flourishing this sector in Bangladesh. In this study we would be very much concentrated to identify development barriers of Agar wood sector in Bangladesh and generate few recommendations in this regard. Proper regulatory support from the government could play a very vital role to make it one of the major foreign currency earning sectors for Bangladesh.
Fungi are often used to induce agarwood in Aquilaria trees. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of several fungi on agarwood formation over time in young Aquilaria malaccensis (Lam.) trees. Typical changes in the length and light intensity of the resulting discoloration were observed after three and six month periods following inoculation. Wood samples were observed microscopically and classified into several light intensity groups. The discoloration length was measured longitudinally. The duration after inoculation affected the mean of discoloration length: the 6-month old sample (1.70 cm) had a wider discoloration zone when compared to the 3-month old sample (1.17 cm). When measuring the discoloration intensity, a positive relationship with time was perceived. Digital images, captured using a camera-equipped microscope, revealed that wood samples collected after six months appeared to be 1.8-times darker than after three months. We concluded that time, not the species of any of the tested fungi, had significant effect on discoloration length and intensity. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis of the 6-month old sample yielded some important agarwood compounds such as benzylacetone, anisylacetone, guaiene and palustrol. This demonstrates that the tested fungi have the ability to induce agarwood formation in nursery A. malaccensis trees.
We used whole-tree agarwood-induction technology to produce agarwood from Aquilaria sinensis trees within 20 months, and evaluated the quality of this agarwood. The results showed its characteristics were similar to those of high-grade wild agarwood in terms of texture, chemical constituents, essential oil content, and ethanol-soluble extract content, with the lattermost quality far surpassing the requirement of traditional Chinese medicine agarwood, as indicated in Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2010. To the best of our knowledge, this is first study to show that high-quality agarwood can be produced in whole A. sinensis trees via a chemically induced technology.
We used size-structured Lefkovitch projection matrix analysis to predict future trends in the survival of Aquilaria crassna (Thymelaeaceae), a tropical evergreen forest tree that has been highly sought after for its valuable aromatic wood (agarwood) for millennia. Data on growth, damage to trees by poachers, fruit production, seed dispersal and seedling recruitment were collected from a 30-ha plot in Khao Yai National Park, central Thailand that had seen moderate poaching. The population asymptotic growth rate, λa, and transient growth rate, λtr, found from using the matrix to project the observed population 48 years, were 1.002 and 1.005, respectively, with 95% confidence intervals of [0.985,1.016] and [0.985,1.023]. The stable size distribution obtained from the matrix was reasonably similar to the observed size distribution, suggesting that at the time of the study the population was not far from equilibrium. Sensitivity analysis and simulations of poaching on adult trees indicate that both λ’s are very sensitive to the removal of adult trees and the growth of preadult trees. In particular, the increase in tree mortality and decrease in preadult growth rate caused by agarwood collection seen in some areas could cause extirpation of the population. While in such cases the population appears to be poised on the brink of decline, several factors that we could not evaluate could alter its fate. First, adult deaths could stimulate recruitment of young under the parent trees; second, there is marked year-to-year variation in fruiting success and possibly recruitment; third, there is considerable spatial variation in tree density and recruitment, suggesting that attempts to evaluate future success need to encompass larger spatial and time scales.
This paper reports application of electric, ultrasonic, and georadar tomography for detection of decay in trees and their comparison with the traditional penetrom- eter. Their feasibility in arboriculture is also evaluated, critically considering some "open problems." The experi- ments were carried out in an urban environment on two plane (Platanus hybrida Brot.) trees. Both trees, after felling, showed extensive white rot in the central cylinder. The electric tomography revealed low resistivity zones roughly centered in the trunk. A comparison with the successively cut sections showed a fine correspondence to decayed areas and a strong correspondence between high moisture zones and low resistivity zones. Ultrasonic tomography demonstrated to be a very effective tool for the detection of internal decay, accurately locating the position of the anomalies and estimating their size, shape, and characteris- tic in terms of mechanical properties. With the georadar technique, the high contrast of electromagnetic impedance measured between the inner decayed section and the outside sound section allowed the detection of the interface between the sound and decayed section of the tree, using radar acquisition in reflection modality. The penetrometer profiles detected the low-resistance areas inside the two trunks.
Agarwood is the fragrant resin-infused wood derived from the wounded trees of Aquilaria species. It is a valuable non-timber forest product used in fragrances and as medicine. Reforestation for Aquilaria trees in combination with artificial agarwood-inducing methods serves as a way to supply agarwood and conserve of wild Aquilaria stock. However, the existing agarwood-inducing methods produce poor-quality agarwood at low yield. Our study evaluated a novel technique for producing agarwood in cultivated Aquilaria trees, called the whole-tree agarwood-inducing technique (Agar-Wit). Ten different agarwood inducers were used for comparison of Agar-Wit with three existing agarwood-inducing methods. For Aquilaria trees treated with these ten inducers, agarwood formed and spread throughout the entire tree from the transfusion point in the trunk to the roots and branches of the whole tree. Agarwood yield per tree reached 2,444.83 to 5,860.74 g, which is 4 to 28 times higher than that by the existing agarwood-inducing methods. Furthermore, this agarwood derived from Agar-Wit induction was found to have a higher quality compared with the existing methods, and similar to that of wild agarwood. This indicates Agar-Wit may have commercial potential. Induction of cultivated agarwood using this method could satisfy the significant demand for agarwood, while conserving and protecting the remaining wild Aquilaria trees.
Background
Marie Unna hereditary hypotrichosis (MUHH) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterised by coarse, wiry, twisted hair developed in early childhood and subsequent progressive hair loss. MUHH is a genetically heterogeneous disorder. No gene in 1p21.1–1q21.3 region responsible for MUHH has been identified.
Methods
Exome sequencing was performed on two affected subjects, who had normal vertex hair and modest alopecia, and one unaffected individual from a four-generation MUHH family of which our previous linkage study mapped the MUHH locus on chromosome 1p21.1–1q21.3.
Results
We identified a missense mutation in EPS8L3 (NM_024526.3: exon2: c.22G->A:p.Ala8Thr) within 1p21.1–1q21.3. Sanger sequencing confirmed the cosegregation of this mutation with the disease phenotype in the family by demonstrating the presence of the heterozygous mutation in all the eight affected and absence in all the seven unaffected individuals. This mutation was found to be absent in 676 unrelated healthy controls and 781 patients of other disease from another unpublished project of our group.
Conclusions
Taken together, our results suggest that EPS8L3 is a causative gene for MUHH, which was helpful for advancing us on understanding of the pathogenesis of MUHH. Our study also has further demonstrated the effectiveness of combining exome sequencing with linkage information for identifying Mendelian disease genes.
China is among the world's richest countries in terms of plant biodiversity. Besides the abundant flora, containing some 33,000
vascular plants (30,000 angiosperms, 250 gymnosperms, and 2600 pteridophytes), there is extraordinary ecosystem diversity,
as well as a large pool of both wild and cultivated germplasms. China is also considered one of the main centers of origin
and diversification for seed plants on Earth, and is especially profuse in phylogenetically primitive taxa and/or paleoendemics
due to the refuge role glaciation played during the Quaternary period. The collision with the Indian subcontinent significantly
enriched Chinese flora and led to the formation of many neoendemisms. However, flora distribution remains uneven, and some
local floristic hotspots are found across China, such as Yunnan, Sichuan and Taiwan. Unfortunately, this biodiversity faces
enormous threats, which have increased substantially over the last 50years. The combined effects of habitat destruction and/or
fragmentation, environmental contamination, over-exploitation of natural resources, and to a lesser extent, introduction of
exotic species, have caused irreparable damage to China's plant biodiversity. Burgeoning economic and population growth have
also contributed to this deterioration. It is believed that up to 5000 flora species are currently endangered in China, with
some taxa having already become extinct. Although in recent years government authorities have made some efforts to preserve
biodiversity, much work remains to be done. While China has established an extensive network of nature reserves and protected
areas, encompassing more than 16% of the total land area, insufficient budgetary and staffing commitments are common limitations
in their management structures. Ex-situ conservation is also deficient, primarily because the botanical gardens are not representative of several local floras, nor
are they often of adequate size or representative of endangered species. The lack of effective and efficient environmental
legislation and education are also problems that continue to accelerate the loss of plant biodiversity in China.
Picus® acoustic tomography was used to map incipient stages of fungal decay in the sapwood of standing Douglas fir, beech, oak,
and sycamore trees 2, 16, and 27months after wounding and artificial inoculation with brown-, soft-, and white-rot decay
fungi. Some wood properties were additionally measured before (velocity of sound) and after (moisture content, weight loss,
and density of sound, discoloured and/or decayed wood) tree felling (28months). With the exception of Trametes versicolor in sycamore, wood decay was not evident from the tomograms in any host-fungus combination. In comparison to measurements
after two months, the device recorded a reduction in sound velocity in some host-fungus combinations after 16 and 27months.
In beech, there was a significant reduction in sound velocity after inoculation with Ganoderma applanatum, Kretzschmaria deusta, and Trametes versicolor. Similarly, a reduction in sound velocity was recorded in sycamore inoculated with Kretzschmaria deusta and Trametes versicolor. In all these combinations, losses in wood weight and wood density were also found. Results showed that the detection of
incipient fungal decay at the periphery of tree stems needs to be improved such that tomograms of the Picus® acoustic tomograph are capable of identifying decay progressing from the sapwood inwards.
One hundred and thirty five randomly selected homegardens were surveyed in the Golaghat and Jorhat districts of Upper Assam to assess the economic prospects of agar (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.) cultivation and the socioeconomic background of the growers. Almost 50% of the households had agriculture as the main vocation and all households practiced homegardening, despite variability in garden size based on socioeconomic factors. Homegarden products including agar and tea contributed to 1 to 45% (mean 14% ±1.15) of the total annual income of the family. Returns from agar to an individual family ranged from Rs 3,000 (US$ 60: From 10 trees after 10 years) to 9,00,000 (US$ 18,000: From 500 trees after 20 years) with an average of Rs 1,14,393 (US$ 2,288: From 106 trees after 13 years). Low input needs and flexibility in site requirements as well as suitability for intercropping make agar a preferred cash crop in the homegardens of Upper Assam.
By their very definition, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) originate in hinterlands and link to final consumers through value chains. This paper quantifies four value chains of the highly valuable agarwood sourced in Lao People's Democratic Republic, by looking at the actors involved and the different stages from harvesting to retail, and incorporates both legal and illegal activities. Data were collected in a national harvest and trade study, an international market survey of Arab markets, and by interviews with key informants. The results show a huge global retail value estimated between USD 666 and 2300 million, of which Lao agarwood accounts for about 2%, i.e., USD 33 million. The export value to Laos is estimated at approx. USD 14 million, with a quantity of wood and wood-equivalents of 931 t. Patterns and domains of value-addition and -appropriation are discussed along with responses in the value chain to over-harvesting and signs of resource scarcity.
沈香は, 東南アジアの熱帯雨林での貴重かつ希少な産物である。良質な沈香の資源が豊富であると考えられているベトナムではAquilaria crassna(ジンチョウゲ科)の心材から採集される。ベトナムにおける沈香の調査で, 今回, Phu Quoc(フーコック)島でのプランテーションについて実現し, 地元の人々に対する面談により栽培に関する情報が得られた。その結果, 島民による沈香の栽培が毎年増加していることがわかった。各地のプランテーションは, 種, 苗木, あるいは若木から行われており, 将来の利益のために他の作物とともに育てられている。プランテーションを振興および開発することは, 野生の沈香原木の保存を率先することになり, また世界市場での高い需要に対応することになるであろうと思われる。 Agarwood is one of most valuable minor forest products of tropical Southeast Asia forests. In Vietnam, considered as rich source of high quality product, agarwood is collected from heartwood of Aquilaria crassna (Thymelaeaceae). Continuing the survey of agarwood in Vietnam, it was carried out on plantations at Phu Quoc Island, and information about cultivation of agarwood was gathered from interview with local people. The results showed that cultivation of agarwood by islanders is increasing every year. Local plantations are based on seeds, seedlings and young Aquilaria trees, which grows together with other crops, for a future profit. The promotion and development of agarwood plantations would be an initiative to preserve natural Aquilaria trees, as well as supply the high demand for agarwood in world market.
Agarwood' or 'eaglewood' ('Aguru' in Bengali) is the most expensive wood in the world, which is an occasional product of a few genera of Aquilaria and Gyrinops in the plant family Thymelaeaceae. Agar is a scented product, oleoresin, obtained from pathological conditions of the wood of live trees containing many aromatic substances. Various bacteria and fungi have been found to be associated with Agarwood formation, although it is still not absolutely clear which are important or even necessary. The quality of agar mostly depends on the plant species and the fungal species involved, as well as, certain other unknown factors. The issues are now to explore the new sources of agarwood to protect the endangered plant species, to ensure agar formation in 100% of the planted trees, upgrade in quality and most possibly quantity of agar yield per tree simultaneously minimizing the maturation time. Both physical and chemical stresses like mechanical wound and induction have long been practiced to enhance agarwood yield as well as fungal inoculation. Specificity of fungal infection is a minor criterion of agarwood formation rather than the plant's physiological state, immune responses and presence of inducer. The agarwood production could be a multifaceted field of prospects in Bangladesh. The cultivation of new Aquilaria and Gyrinops plants and selection of appropriate inocula and inducers should be the priority objective. A multidisciplinary approach could be initiated with the experts of forestry, mycology, biochemistry and microbiology to achieve the goal.
The new town program in Hong Kong initiated in the 1970s has thus far shifted about two million people from the old city core to previous rural and countryside areas. Such massive urban growth, resulting in the creation of nine new towns, has brought extensive intrusion into farmlands and natural hill slopes, and imposed widespread influence on pre-urbanization natural and cultural vegetation. This study aimed at understanding the following aspects of the urban forests associated with Tai Po new town development: the nature and magnitude of the positive and negative vegetation changes, the geometric pattern and distribution of forest cover dynamics, the present forest condition and performance, and the factors and processes leading to vegetation modification and restoration. The concepts of precision land use zoning, green infilling and assisted relay floristic in urban forestry work were proposed. The implications of the findings to the preservation and creation of high quality nature in compact urban development were explored.
Intensively urbanized Hong Kong has a degraded countryside envelope with 170 years of afforestation history. This study assessed seedling quantity, species composition, native-exotic relativity, and native ecological traits in 30 years. Data were analysed by cluster analysis, two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN), and principal component analysis (PCA). The plantations received 16.54 million seedlings from 209 species. Seedling profile skewed towards 142 native species (67.9%) and 9.49 million exotic seedlings (57.4%). The dominant species group had three exotic species each with >1 million seedlings. The abundant group of 27 species had contained 19 natives associated with main primary forest components. The 179 species in frequent and rare groups denoted changing and diverse species selection. Analysis of start and truncation times found 50% of natives with ascending trend and 33% of exotics with descending trend. Aggregate ecological value of natives increased progressively. TWINSPAN classified native species into two groups with signature characteristics. PCA revealed scattered distribution of natives by adoption trend, start time, truncation time, and ecological value. Ecological restoration of synergistic-mutualistic associations between native plants and wildlife has gained importance. Potential pioneer and enrichment-planting arboreal species were identified to sustain the afforestation programme. Hong Kong has a rich vascular flora with about 390 native tree species, implying that around 250 native tree species had never been used in afforestation. Large-scale planting trials should be conducted to further refine species choice in future afforestation. The findings could inform afforestation and conservation efforts in Hong Kong and other degraded tropical lands.
"Wood and Tree Fungi" provides an up-to-date overview of the various wood and tree fungi that damage trees, lumber, and timber, with special focus given to identification, prevention, and remediation techniques. First, the fundamentals of cytology and morphology, growth and reproduction, formal genetics, and enzymatic wood decay are addressed. Causative factors are then analyzed, followed by descriptions of interactions like antagonism, succession, and mycorrhiza. The more practical section describes damages by viruses on trees and by bacteria on the xylem of trees and on structural timber, wood discoloration caused by molds and stain fungi, wood decays by rot fungi, and preservation methods. The habitats of wood fungi are described as well as tree care. Important tree pathogens and wood decay fungi are characterized for prevention and identification. The final section focuses on the positive effects of wood-inhabiting microorganisms, covering past and classical methods like myco-wood, mushroom cultivation, biological pulping, and "palo podrido", as well as recent biotechnological processes.
Agarwood (especially 〔 沉 香 〕 Chinese chen xiang / 〔 沈 香 〕 Japanese jinkō ), among other subspecies differentiated in East Asian languages, has caught international perfumery attention in conspicuous dimensions in the past years. It belongs to the most sought after perfumery raw materials in the world. The lucrative image of its business makes international businessmen, foreign scientists, perfumers, global industry representatives, as well as locals eager to participate in its international distribution and to improve its artificial mass cultivation and synthetic production. Moreover, efforts transgress mere economic activities in Eastern Asia when perfumery devotees engage in historical research and perfumery experiments, or when they publish on their experiences, as well as when they establish networks with like-minded people.
This book attempted to examine the types and patterns of cross-border crime in Greater China -- Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan -- and to study how the governments in the these places cooperate in the fight against cross-boundary crime. Its data were based on government publications, news reports, Internet news and magazine articles on all the criminal activities across the borders of mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. The data were difficult to be collected from 1990s until 2003, when the mainland visitors' scheme to Hong Kong and Macau began. From 2003 to 2008, I collected lots of data on cross-border crime and then wrote up this book. The book was published at a time when cross-border crime in the region became far more prominent and serious than before. The book focused on how governments in the Greater China region cooperated among themselves to fight different types of cross-border crime. It is useful for researchers interested in understanding the types of cross-border crime, and how governments in the region tackle it. The main argument of this book is that the state's embedded autonomy vis-à-vis crime groups is critical to its control over domestic and cross-border crime. The state's responses to cross-border crime reflects its degree of relative autonomy from criminal groups and organizations. Also, the cooperation among states, or among governments, in Greater China, can curb and control cross-border criminal activities. The main arguments and findings of this book remain valid in the Greater China region many years after its publication. Chapters of this book include (1) Types and Patterns of Transborder Crime in Greater China; (2) The PRC State Response at National, Provincial, and Local Levels; (3), Cross-Border Crime and the Postcolonial State in Hong Kong; (4), Response of the Postcolonial State in Macao; (5) Espionage and Terrorism; and (6) Intergovernmental and Regional Cooperation; as well as (7) Conclusion on the relations between the concept of the state's embedded autonomy and crime control in Greater China. Many years after the publication of this book, its main argument on the embedded autonomy of the states and city-states in the region remains valid and important for us to understand the politics of cross-border crime control.
Tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria Lam. are the principal source of gaharu, one of the most valuable forest products traded internationally. Although these species are the focus of increasing conservation concern, information on their status and distribution is lacking. Information from herbarium accessions, a national forest inventory (NFI), field surveys and gaharu traders was used to assess the distribution of Aquilaria species in Indonesia, indicating population concentrations in Sumatra and eastern Kalimantan. Analysis of NFI data indicated that population densities are relatively low, with values generally
Urban and agricultural developments in Hong Kong are intensive and spatially concentrated in a quarter of the land, leaving a sizeable area of hilly countryside with unrestricted access, relatively empty and unspoilt. Care for this common heritage, in the past, focused on afforestation of the denuded hillslopes especially in reservoir catchments. The remaining parts, covered by grasses and shrubs, hardly received attention. The rapid population growth, urban encroachment and unplanned recreational use, threatened to engulf and ruin the countryside from the 1960s. A country parks programme was initiated belatedly in 1972, and was rapidly accomplished, so that in 1979 40 percent of the land was designated. The parks are broadly divided into high-intensity recreation, low-intensity recreation, and conservation zones. The programme has been successful in encouraging informal outdoor recreation, but has also engendered environmental problems which contradict the principal conservation goal. The overuse of sites and footpaths causes soil and vegetation damage. Hill fires, ignited by, and widely dispersed litter, left by, irresponsible and careless visitors, are additional forces of degradation. Long-term management should aim at containing these problems and plan for the anticipated changing recreational demands in the future.
Agarwood, also known as eaglewood or gaharu, is a valuable non-timber forest product which sometimes grows in Aquilaria species. The genus species occur mainly in South and Southeast Asia. As a result of a defense mechanism to fend off pathogenes,
Aquilaria species develop agarwood which can be used for incense, perfume, and traditional medicines. The main markets for these products
are in South and East Asia and the Middle East.
The high prices demanded for agarwood has led to the rapid depletion of Aquilaria trees in natural forests. The search for agarwood has spread from one country to another. At present Indonesia and Papua
New Guinea are the main supplies. Because of the rapid depletion of the agarwood in the wild, the species was put on the CITES
Appendix II as endangered.
Efforts have been undertaken to increase the production of the infected wood by deliberately wounding the trees. A variety
of methods is used towards this end. Some recently developed techniques have proven to be most effective. This resulted in
planting of Aquilaria trees by small holders as well as large industrial size plantations.
In this chapter we shall discuss a particular agarwood project in Vietnam and some other locations elsewhere promoting growing
of Aquilaria trees among small holders. The general approach of the project to stimulate the growing of the trees among local communities
will be discussed against the background of the international demand for this highly valuable non-timber forest product. Finally
some potential developments of the future will be described.
When subjected to fungal attack, Aquilaria spp. (Thymelaeaceae) produce a fragrant resin that is traded internationally as gaharu. Socioeconomic aspects of the gaharu trade were investigated via interviews with collectors and local and international traders. In addition, the extent of local and international trade was evaluated by reference to official government statistics. Evidence that gaharu resources are declining obtained from the personal experience of gaharu collectors, and official statistics relating to the declining number of gaharu export companies in operation. Traders also reported that the main source of gaharu has recently switched from Sumatra and Kalimantan to sources in eastern Indonesia (Maluku and Irian Jaya), a finding supported by official statistics. Disparities recorded between official figures for the price and volume of gaharu in local and international trade, supported by comments made by export traders, indicate that a high proportion of the more valuable, high-grade gaharu is traded illegally by personal transaction. Interviews with gaharu collectors indicated that traditional approaches to harvesting are declining, as more nonlocal people become involved in collection, leading to more intensive harvesting practices. Together, these findings suggest that the current Indonesian trade in gaharu is not sustainable.
This article is a first attempt to investigate into HKP and PSB cooperative practices in dealing with cross-border crimes penetrating the two jurisdictions, in the backdrop of "one country two systems" political settlement, provided for under the Basic Law oh Hong Kong. It is hoped that findings from this investigation can be used to inform upon future discussion and facilitate prospective handling of cross-border crimes and criminals. This article is organized into six parts. After this brief introduction, Part II: "The nature and extent of cross-border crime problem in China" informs upon the nature and extent of cross-border crimes in China. Part III: "Problem with cross-border crime between PRC-Hong Kong" gives a brief account of the problem with PRC - Hong Kong cross-border crime calling for mutual assistance and cooperation. Part IV: "PRC - Hong Kong police practices towards cross-border crime" looks into why there is a lack of formal cooperative framework between the PSB and HKP and how, in spite of the lack of formal agreement, the PSB-HKP have been working closely together to deal with cross-border crime in practice. Part V: "PSB's perspective on cross-border cooperation between PSB-HKP" discusses the perceived lack of cooperation by the HKP from the PSB perspective, a thorny issue standing in the way of a better working relationship awaiting to be resolved. Part VI: "Conclusion" summarizes as it reflects upon how best to improve the working relationship between HKP-PRB in the face of exploding cross-border crimes.
この論文は国立情報学研究所の学術雑誌公開支援事業により電子化されました。 Aloeswood is one of the most valuable minor forest products of the Southeast Asian tropical rain forests. Borneo is a center of Aquilaria spp. and many people are collecting aloeswood from upriver mountain ranges. The collected materials are sent downriver to the harbor cities and thence to Singapore, the largest commercial center of aloeswood, where merchants gather from Arabia. Bangladesh and China. Seventy percent of aloeswood is sent to Arab countries and the rest to the China area. Artificial plantations of Aquilaria spp. and various experimental trials to produce aloeswood are being made by local researchers and merchants.
Agarwood is the infected wood of the Aquilaria tree. Called 'the wood of the Gods', its uses range from incense for religious ceremonies, perfume for the Arabic world, medicinal wine in Korea and ornamental functions in China. As a healthy tree the Aquilaria is worth next to nothing, but wounded its defence mechanisms produce agarwood and the tree becomes a valuable commodity. Gerard Persoon goes in search of the natural and social life of a wounded tree.
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Fishing boat smuggled agarwood
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Apple Daily, 2014. Fishing boat smuggled agarwood. Apple Daily, Hong Kong (Newspaper Report on 05 January 2014).
Sustainable Agarwood Production in Aquilaria Trees. Department of Plant Pathology
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The nature and extent of legal and illegal trade in wildlife
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