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The effect of feeding enrichment toys on the behaviour of kennelled dogs (Canis familiaris)
Abstract
In general, an animal's inability to perform specific behaviours (for example, due to a lack of suitable stimuli or physical restraint) is often viewed as a cause of reduced welfare of animals kept in captivity. There is increasing evidence that the opportunity to display more species-specific appetitive behaviours is beneficial to captive animals. The present pilot study aimed to investigate the effects of feeding enrichment toys on the behaviour of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) housed under laboratory conditions.
... The ability to provide an animal with the opportunity to display its natural abilities and tendencies can be a challenge in captive animal welfare 16 . Some of these needs, such as appetitive feeding behaviors, could be fulfilled by providing feeding enrichment activities to animals 17 . Many studies on contrafreeloading have been assessed through foraging behavior [e.g., 9,18 ], as many of the species tested are natural foragers 1 . ...
... Prior research reported that the welfare of a dog is improved when given more opportunities and time to forage 52 . The impact of feeding enrichment has been studied in kenneled dogs [e.g., 17 ], and the benefits of enrichment to dogs in the home setting have been documented 54 . Providing food enrichment to dogs can result in an increase of time spent on appetitive feeding behaviors, allowing dogs to satisfy their natural tendencies, which is inherently rewarding 17 . ...
... The impact of feeding enrichment has been studied in kenneled dogs [e.g., 17 ], and the benefits of enrichment to dogs in the home setting have been documented 54 . Providing food enrichment to dogs can result in an increase of time spent on appetitive feeding behaviors, allowing dogs to satisfy their natural tendencies, which is inherently rewarding 17 . Feeding enrichment has also been shown to result in a higher activity level 17 , which can have beneficial effects such as preventing obesity 55,56 . ...
Contrafreeloading is the behavior of working for food when also provided with identical food that does not require effort to obtain. This behavior has been observed in humans and non-human animals, including domesticated species. In the current investigation, we assessed whether companion animals, specifically domestic dogs, contrafreeload when presented with two feeders simultaneously, a snuffle mat (a work for food device) and a tray (a freely available food device). Thirty-eight pet dogs participated in the study in which ten feeding trials were presented where food was distributed equally in both feeders. Three overarching research questions were considered: (1) Do dogs prefer to contrafreeload and/or are they willing to contrafreeload, (2) is activity (step count) or body condition score (BCS) related to contrafreeloading behavior and, (3) does previous experience with puzzle feeders impact contrafreeloading behavior? Two general linear models were conducted assessing the effects of sex, experience, age, activity and BCS on the proportion of first choices to the snuffle mat (ICs) and the number of interactions with the snuffle mat while food was still available in the tray (INs). Overall, when assessing the proportion of first choices to each feeder, dogs demonstrated a willingness to contrafreeload but not a preference to contrafreeload. In a reduced model, only one term, owner-reported body condition score, had a significant effect, suggesting that dogs with a higher BCS demonstrated a greater proportion of first choices for the snuffle mat (F (1,36) = 7.72, p = 0.009, η2p = 0.177). In evaluating the number of interactions with the snuffle mat while food was still available in the tray, the model was not significant (F (5,29) = 1.231, p = 0.320, η2p = 0.175). This study represents the first investigation of contrafreeloading in domestic pet dogs and informs recommendations for canine enrichment.
... Environmental enrichment, including feeding/chewing toys, has the potential to mitigate destructive behaviours, excessive barking, and stereotypies in dogs. These toys serve to alleviate stress by simulating natural hunting behaviours, enhancing canine activity, fostering cognitive learning, and decreasing cortisol levels (Boonhoh et al., 2023c;Gaines et al., 2008;Schipper et al., 2008;Su et al., 2019). Additionally, the act of chewing on toys, in particular, contributes to the maintenance of a healthy oral cavity by effectively reducing plaque and tartar buildup (Ketter et al., 2020). ...
... Edible chew toys can also cause disorders of the digestive tract, such as diarrhoea, vomiting, and bowel obstruction, in some dogs (Arhant et al., 2021). Natural rubber (para rubber) has been used to make toys (Li et al., 2018;Schipper et al., 2008), this material might be expensive but naturally flexible and tolerant of animal teeth, making it safer for animals compared to plastic and silicone. ...
... sky, Dowling-Guyer, 2016). Moreover, the application of feeding toys demonstrated potential in mitigating additional unwanted behaviours including excessive barking, destructive tendencies, and stereotypies, while also contributing to a reduction in cortisol levels (a stress hormone) within dogs (Schipper et al., 2008;Ibrahim et al., 2020;Boonhoh et al., 2023c). ...
Improper feeding methods can be linked to canine behaviour problems, as the conventional bowl-feeding approach fail to mimic natural behaviour and is associated with obesity. Feeding toys can potentially contribute to the enhancement of dog behaviour by mimicking natural hunting behaviour and promoting increased canine activity. Para rubber is a natural rubber with high flexibility and is tolerant of animal teeth, making it safer for animals compared to plastic and silicone. This study had two main objectives: firstly, to examine dogs' preferences for the scent and colour added to a para rubber toy; and secondly, to explore the impact of using para rubber feeding toys on dog behaviours. The feeding toys were produced from natural rubber, with added scents and colours incorporated during their production. Subsequently, these toys were distributed to dog owners for evaluation. Owners completed the Thai version of the C-BARQ questionnaire, which evaluate canine behaviour both prior to and following a month of interaction with the toys. The findings indicated that dogs exhibited a preference for yellow toys over blue ones, as well as a preference for vanilla-scented toys compared to those with a beef scent. Following one month of consistent use of the para rubber toy, dogs tended to reduce various undesirable behaviours. Notably, excitation behaviour showed a nearly threefold decrease, and this reduction was statistically significant (p = 0.003). These outcomes emphasise the potential of natural rubber feeding toys in mitigating excitation-related behaviours, while also highlighting dogs' preference towards specific colours and scents. Consequently, there is a suggestion that enhancing toys with appealing scents or colours might foster greater interaction between dogs and their toys, potentially leading to a positive influence on their overall behavioural welfare.
... Herron et al. [34] provided shelter dogs with behavioral training and toys, both involving food rewards; they also found a decrease in both undesirable behaviors such as barking and jumping when greeting, and in general activity (which was deemed desirable in the shelter setting). In another study, the provision of food within toys (or feeding enrichment) to laboratory-housed dogs also found a significant decrease in time spent inactive, as well as an increase in measures of locomotion and appetitive behaviors [35]. ...
... The discrepancy may be explained by the baseline environmental conditions for these subjects. For various reasons related to the need to keep dogs separated, kenneled subjects experience small enclosure spaces, few to no opportunities to socialize with conspecifics and humans, limited access to outdoors, and a lack of furniture [28,30,[51][52][53][54]. Kenneled dogs have also been observed to spend most of their time inactive [28,35,55]. As a result of these conditions, it is safe to assume that companion dogs, living in human homes, are generally exposed to more complex environments and activities than kenneled dogs. ...
... Schipper et al. [35] found that providing feeding toys promoted appetitive behaviors and increased activity levels (time spent moving) in dogs. Our results did not align with these findings; After participating in the enrichment intervention, there were no significant differences in appetite in dogs who received toys. ...
Retail dog toys are often provided to companion animals to provide cognitive and physical stimu- lation and improve the animals’ quality of life. These toys, sometimes known as “enrichment toys”, have been shown to play a role in increasing appetite and activity levels and decreasing undesirable behaviors (e.g., barking, self-isolating behaviors) in some domestic dog (Canis familiaris) populations. In this study, we evaluate the effect of toys on appetite, activity levels, and positive affective states as measures of well- being in companion dogs. Behaviors were compared before and after regular interactions with different types of toys over twelve days. We found that provisioning companion dogs with toys did not significantly alter their activity level, rate of food consumption, or cognitive bias. While dogs who received more complex toys showed a slightly improved cognitive bias, there were no significant differences in behaviors be- tween the subjects who received “less complex” toys (e.g., a bone, ball) and “more complex” toys (e.g., puzzle toys). We conclude with reflections on the relevance of our subject population to the result seen, and on the different forms of the cognitive bias test.
... The most common method used to reduce chronic stress is adding items to the environment, referred to as enrichment, which has decreased the frequency of certain behavioral disorders [22]. Enrichment is used in shelters and has been shown to improve the overall welfare of dogs [14,21,[23][24][25]. Enrichment plans are successful if they increase desirable behaviors, such as play, and decrease stereotypical behaviors or other behaviors associated with poor welfare, such as frequent vocalization [26]. ...
... However, further classification or comparisons are currently lacking, and in practice, most organizations give out enrichment with the belief that all enrichment is equally beneficial in all situations. Despite the amount of research conducted on specific enrichment items and human contact in the shelter [14,16,18,24,26,30,[31][32][33][34][35][36], the effectiveness of different types of enrichment items in reducing stress during morning cleaning is one area yet to be explored. ...
... Shelters often have sustained high levels of noise, which may physiologically compromise the dogs [45]. As multiple studies have reported the benefits of enrichment during chronic stress [14,[23][24][25]33], our study results also emphasize the importance of incorporating enrichment items during acute stress moments in shelters. ...
The length of stay for some animals has increased with the recent reduction of animals euthanized in US shelters and animal control facilities. Research examining the effectiveness of different types of enrichment on buffering the effects of acute daily stressors in the shelter environment, such as kennel cleaning, is lacking. In addition, daily known stressors can result in undesirable behaviors that could lead to a need for euthanasia. Ways to effectively reduce the effects of daily stressors while optimizing strained resources is currently a high priority. In this study, we presented shelter dogs with food, tactile, and scent enrichment items to increase (arousing) or decrease (calming) activity during the daily stressor of morning kennel cleaning. We found that calming, rather than arousing, enrichment items were associated with body position scores indicative of lower stress in dogs, with calming scent enrichment (lavender) producing the most significant benefit. In contrast, items that showed the greatest reduction in vocalization were arousing (ball) compared to other arousing conditions. Our findings suggest that different unwanted behaviors in the kennel environment often associated with stress can be reduced using specific types of enrichment during a daily stressful event. Further, the results illustrate that enrichment items other than food might be more effective at decreasing certain undesirable behaviors. Overall, this study provides insight into how shelter workers might effectively use enrichment items during an unavoidable acute stressor. With many shelters keeping dogs longer, addressing events that might cause repeated stress in this population may indirectly help with adopting and lowering euthanasia rates due to unwanted behavior that develops due to repeated exposure to this necessary but acute stressor of morning cleaning.
... EE is used as a standard part of dog husbandry across a range of environments including the home [8], kennels [9][10][11][12][13] and laboratories [14]. The reported benefits of EE for dogs include reduced stress [10,15], decreases in stereotypic and abnormal behaviours [10,12,14], increased relaxation [16], improved cognitive abilities [3,13] and reduced barking or vocalisations [13,15,16]. ...
... EE is used as a standard part of dog husbandry across a range of environments including the home [8], kennels [9][10][11][12][13] and laboratories [14]. The reported benefits of EE for dogs include reduced stress [10,15], decreases in stereotypic and abnormal behaviours [10,12,14], increased relaxation [16], improved cognitive abilities [3,13] and reduced barking or vocalisations [13,15,16]. Recently there has also been an increase in the number of studies reporting or reviewing the use of different EE types (e.g., the use of olfactory [16,17] and auditory EE [16,18]) to improve dog welfare, particularly in rehoming or shelter environments [19]. ...
... EE is used as a standard part of dog husbandry across a range of environments including the home [8], kennels [9][10][11][12][13] and laboratories [14]. The reported benefits of EE for dogs include reduced stress [10,15], decreases in stereotypic and abnormal behaviours [10,12,14], increased relaxation [16], improved cognitive abilities [3,13] and reduced barking or vocalisations [13,15,16]. Recently there has also been an increase in the number of studies reporting or reviewing the use of different EE types (e.g., the use of olfactory [16,17] and auditory EE [16,18]) to improve dog welfare, particularly in rehoming or shelter environments [19]. ...
Environmental enrichment (EE) can be used to enhance the environment of various animals. The aim of this pilot study was to determine the effects of seven EE activities (Bonding, Bubble machine, Conspecific play, Interactive toy, Playhouse, Stuffed food toy and Tug play) on dog behaviour, pre- and post-EE for dogs housed in an office environment during training as part of an assistance dog training programme. EE activities resulted in a significant increase in the frequency of relaxation behaviours (p < 0.01) and a significant reduction in alert (p < 0.01) and stress behaviours (p = 0.02). Results suggest various benefits of the different activities with Conspecific Play and Playhouse activities having the greatest overall positive behaviour change when compared to the other activities. The food-based EE activities (Interactive toy and Stuffed food toy) had the least behaviour change of all the activities provided. Findings will be of interest to pet owners, animal rescue centres, dog trainers and working dog organisations.
... Pullen et al. (2010) deducted that chewable toys provided on the floor were preferred by dogs than hanged toys. Inanimate enrichment in the form of food-filled toys was found to promote desirable behaviors in shelter dogs (Schipper et al., 2008). The provision of such toys seemed to enhance adoptability and public preference for shelter dogs (Wells and Hepper, 1992;Luescher and Medlock, 2009), because locking for long times in shelters has been correlated with a worsening of behavior and poor welfare (Wells et al., 2002). ...
... The experimental procedures consisted of four phases according to recommendation of Schipper et al. (2008) as follows: 1) Habituation period for the presence of cameras and researchers. 2) Baseline period (pre-enrichment phase), in which the subject animals were observed before the provision of enrichment. ...
... Post-enrichment increased feeding time may be due to that feeding enrichment encourages animals to perform natural foraging and feeding behaviors with the use of food as a reward (Young, 1997). In addition, it helps animal also to display more behavioral repertoire on the short run, therefore improving the welfare of kennelled dogs (Schipper et al., 2008). Increased foraging behavior may decrease unwanted behaviors, and also helps to increase physical activity, which can benefit the animal's physical condition. ...
Key words: behavior, feeding enrichment, cortisol, dog, welfare, kennel Environmental enrichment used in captive animals with goals of increasing the activity, behavioral diversity, utilization of the environment and reducing abnormal behaviors. The present study was designed to determine the springing feeding bottles toy ameliorative effect on behaviors and cortisol level of kenneled Caucasian dogs. Sixteen healthy kenneled Caucasian shepherd dogs were utilized under four phases: 1) habituation period, 2) baseline period (pre-enrichment phase), 3) treatment period (enrichment phase)-and 4) post-exposure period (post-enrichment phase). Each phase last for 3 days during which dogs were video recorded for state and event behaviors except the first one. Hair was collected during the three phases (pre, during and post enrichment) for cortisol analysis. The provision of the feeding enrichment shorter the lying time and stereotypies frequencies, while increased the activity level. These behaviors persisted after withdrawal of enrichment with improvement in feeding time. Hair cortisol levels also was lower during and after enrichment with a marked reduction after withdrawal. Therefore, it appears that the provision of feeding enrichment toy could improve the behavioral repertoire and decrease cortisol level in kennelled dogs, and thus enhance its welfare.
... Consistently provided cognitive stimulation [35][36][37][38] Variability (vs. habituation) [35,39,40] Type of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [17,[36][37][38]41] Duration of cognitive stimulation that is appropriate for the dog based on their age, breed/breed type, health/medical condition, and behavioural characteristics [17,[36][37][38] Animals 2023, 13, 2620 8 of 23 ...
... Consistently feasible access [10,12,14] Food should be palatable and provided in a manner that allows comfort in eating and satiety 1,2 [39,50] Appropriate amounts of sufficient quality food that is composed of an adequate and balance of macro and micronutrients based on dogs' age, weight, and individual health needs 1 [10,14,51] Provision of physical exercise 1 ...
It is crucial for good dog welfare that humans be able to accurately and adequately recognize and meet dogs’ needs. However, humans may do a poor job of recognizing dogs’ needs due to their tendency to anthropomorphize. The aim of this study was to develop a framework for dogs’ needs that would help humans to recognize and meet their actual needs, thereby improving dogs’ quality of life. Using the Delphi method, to reach as close to a consensus as possible from an expert panel, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs was adapted to become the Dogs’ Hierarchy of Needs. To do so, the relevant scientific literature was reviewed to identify 37 specific dog needs, which were group into seven need groups. Those groups were then organized onto five need levels, which were as analogous to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as possible. The expert panel was asked to assess various aspects of the adapted hierarchy in comparison to the original, including face validity, whether they agreed with how the need levels were ordered in terms of importance/priority, and whether they felt that any need groups should be more or less prioritized for any specific dog categories (e.g., senior dogs). After three rounds of expert feedback, there was sufficient consensus for all aspects except items pertaining to the prioritization of any need groups for specific dog categories. That aspect of the adapted hierarchy will need to be readdressed in the next phase of this project: the development of a tool to assess the quality of life of dogs that reside in shelters/rescue organizations and post-adoption once they have been rehomed.
... However, since exploration is restricted most of the time, under-stimulation may occur, which, in turn, can lead to boredom, passive behaviour, and consequently lower welfare. In kennelled laboratory or shelter dogs, physical enrichments like resting places (Döring et al., 2016), a kennel inside a pen (Hubrecht et al., 1992), access to an outdoor area (Döring et al., 2016, Spangenberg et al., 2006 and toys (Meunier and Beaver, 2014;Schipper et al 2008;DeLuca and Kranda, 1992;Hubrecht, 1993;1995) were found to stimulate dogs and hence improve their welfare. ...
... Recommendations for laboratory dogs kept in permanently confined places, such as in a pen, include being provided with stimulation in the form of training, socialization, human contact, and environmental enrichment with toys (Meunier and Beaver, 2014). Laboratory dogs provided with environmental enrichment were found to show more active behaviours, increased appetite, and lower frequency of excessive barking (Schipper et al., 2008). Unfortunately, scientific data on effects of housing on pet dogs, family dogs or working dogs are scarce. ...
he Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA) has requested VKM for an opinion regarding the risk of reduced animal welfare, associated with dogs kept permanently outdoors and dogs that are used for long-distance sled dog racing in Norway.
Outdoor housing
Permanently housing of dogs outdoors is relatively common in Norway, in particular for polar breeds and sled dogs.
VKM has identified several factors why housing dogs outdoors may be stressfull for the dogs.
Risk associated with weather conditions and temperature
Weather conditions have been identified as a risk for dogs kept permanently outdoors. For dogs to be suited to cold weather conditions, exposed body parts should be covered by fur and the coat should be extremely thick in order to avoid frostbite and hypothermia. The temperature tolerance observed in polar dogs does not apply to mixed breeds like Alaskan husky, due to variability in the thickness and structure of insulating fur.
Risk of infection and social stress
With regards to outdoor housing, additional hazards were identified in association with large group housing. Keeping dogs in such conditions, irrespective of whether tethered or kept in pens, increases the risk of exposing them to pathogenic agents. Crowding dogs together may also expose them to social stress from more dominant individuals.
However, scientific data on risks of reduced animal welfare associated with dogs kept permanently outdoors is scarce. The extent to which dogs tolerate being permanently kept outdoors, will largely depend on management practices.
Assigning a specific risk is not possible as many factors are involved.
Risk-reduction measures include access to heated rooms, daily removal of faeces, regular cleaning and disinfection of premises and equipment, and careful management of groups of dogs with stable hierarchies.
Sled dogs
Sled dog racing has become increasingly popular in Norway. According to the NFSA, many dogs that participate in long-distance races, such as the Finnmark Race and the Femund Race, often experience health problems.
Sled dogs are subjected to strenuous physical activities, both during racing and during the training season. VKM has identified several factors why sled dog racing may reduce animal welfare.
Current obligatory resting times not sufficient
Insufficient recovery period could result in fatigue or even fatalities, and is therefore a significant hazard. In Norwegian sled dog races, there are rules for obligatory resting at checkpoints, ranging from 8 to 33 hours in total, depending on the length of the race. Increasing the obligatory resting time, starting with 10 hours per day, e.g. 24 hour period (which is the minimum biological requirement in dogs,) and adjusting upwards, will decrease the risk of reduced welfare.
Other risk factors
Low ambient temperatures do not generally represent a problem while dogs are running. Hyperthermia may become an issue in sled dogs with thick coats, especially during extensive physical work at warm winter days.
Dogs demonstrating repeated vomiting during a race have an increased risk of aspiration pneumonia, may not obtain the required energy intake, and may develop more severe gastrointestinal-disorders and dehydration. Compulsory veterinary controls by appropriately experienced veterinarians should alleviate some of the risks.
Gastric ulcers are often associated with strenuous physical activity. Longer and / or more frequent rest periods, together with access to adequate food and drink, can reduce the risk of reduced animal welfare.
Updating guidelines and improving existing regulations
The risk assessment will be used by NFSA as a scientific framework for updating “Guidelines for outdoor housing of dogs” from 2003, and compliance with the present Animal Welfare Act. This information is intended to provide a more solid scientific basis for ensuring animal welfare, better guidance for both owners and race veterinarians, and to improve existing regulations in sled dog racing.
The VKM Panel on Animal Health and Welfare is responsible for the assessment.
... Dogs benefit from an environment enriched with toys or feeding enrichment (Wells, 2004;Schipper et al., 2008;Pullen et al., 2010) as well as from interactions with humans (Coppola et al., 2006;Shiverdecker et al., 2013;Willen et al., 2017;McGowan et al., 2018). ...
... So-called interactive games or toys are designed for the joint application of dog and human and therefore combine the benefits of human interaction, food and cognitive enrichment (e.g. Meehan and Mench, 2007;Schipper et al., 2008;McGowan et al., 2018). The basic idea behind interactive games is to solve a task and thereby gain access to a treat under the close supervision of a human. ...
Interactive games may boost positive well-being by combining the benefits of rewards with cognitive and social enrichment. However, a hasty introduction can lead to low success and frustration. We examine two methods of introducing an interactive game to dogs to test whether they elicit differences in success rate, stress-related behavior, and autonomic regulation of the heart.
Twenty-eight shelter dogs were tested with an interactive game that consists of four boxes with different opening mechanisms. Dogs were introduced to the game in one of two ways: gradually vs hastily. Gradual introduction consisted of allowing the dog to first play a partial (2 out of 4 boxes) version of the game with a human demonstrating the opening mechanism of the boxes twice, followed by exposure to the complete game. Hasty introduction consisted of the same procedures but with the complete game presented before the partial version. Dog behavior was obtained via video recordings and pre- and post-game mean heart rate (HR), its overall variability (SDNN), a measure of parasympathetic activation (RMSSD) and their balance (RMSSD/SDNN) were assessed using beat-to-beat intervals obtained with a Polar heart rate monitor (RS800CX). Linear mixed effects analyses (LMM) were calculated for success and behavior component scores and for change from pre- to post-game period in HR/HRV variables. In addition, HR/HRV parameters were analyzed with Pearson correlations.
Dogs introduced to the game in a gradual manner had a significantly higher rate of success (LMM: p < 0.001) and displayed less stress related-behavior, e.g. lower scores for the arousal (p < 0.001) and displacement (p < 0.001) components. Correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between HR and RMSSD during baseline in all dogs (pre-game, day 1: gradual: r = -0.52; hasty: r = -0.72) that transformed into a strong positive correlation in the gradual introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = 0.78), whereas it remained negative over all evaluation periods in the hasty introduction group (post-game, day 2: r = -0.83).
Overall, our findings suggest that the way a moderately difficult game is introduced plays a major role in determining how the experience is perceived. A gradual introduction including demonstration promoted a more enjoyable experience characterized by greater likelihood of reward, less stress-related behavior, and a physiological profile that may involve activation of both branches of the autonomic nervous system. We suggest that this may be a physiologic signature of successful achievement in which skills are balanced against difficulty.
... Lack of neutral to positive interactions (such as accompanying and social play) from cohabited dogs [48,87] 11. Limited access to toys [90,92] 12. Quarantine or isolation due to infectious diseases [93] 13. Single housing [48,87] 14. ...
The welfare of shelter dogs is a growing concern, particularly in regions like Taiwan, where public animal shelters (PASs) often face overcrowding. This study aimed to identify and prioritise welfare conditions (WCs) affecting shelter dogs in Taiwan’s PASs, offering insights into their impacts on population and individual welfare. A modified Delphi approach engaged 14 experts to evaluate the prevalence, severity, and duration of 59 potential WCs using the Five Domains model. The welfare impact of each WC on individual dogs was assessed as the product of severity and duration, with WCs scoring a median of 3 or higher considered critical. Of the 59 identified WCs, 49 were deemed critical. The most prevalent WCs were “limited access to toys” (median = 4.00), “insufficient foraging opportunities” (median = 4.00), and “intermittent, excessive barking noise” (median = 4.00). The most impactful WCs for individual dogs were “depressive disorders” (median of the product of duration and severity scores = 16.00), “fear-related or anxiety disorders” (median = 15.00), and “limited space” (median = 15.00). The Physical Environment Domain and the Behavioural Interactions Domain were highlighted as having the most significant and prolonged negative effects on welfare. This study provides a comprehensive WC list for shelter dogs, guiding future welfare improvements and resource allocation strategies.
... We developed dog and human behavior ethograms for this study based on prior research on both dogs [27,31,[38][39][40][41][42][43][44]) and humans [45][46][47][48], including past research on AAIs [27,31,49] and behavior coding within the TSST-C paradigm [50]. The ethograms were developed by reviewing prior literature and generating a list of behaviors associated with movement, stress/stress coping, and affiliative/contact seeking interactions, and specific operational definitions were created for each of these behaviors. ...
Youth mental health interventions incorporating trained therapy animals are increasingly popular, but more research is needed to understand the specific interactive behaviors between participants and therapy dogs. Understanding the role of these interactive behaviors is important for supporting both intervention efficacy and animal welfare and well-being. The goal of this study was to develop ethograms to assess interactive behaviors (including both affiliative and stress-related behaviors) of participants and therapy dogs during a social stress task, explore the relationship between human and dog behaviors, and assess how these behaviors may vary between experimental conditions with varying levels of physical contact with the therapy dog. Using video data from a previous experimental study (n = 50 human–therapy dog interactions, n = 25 control group), we successfully developed behavioral ethograms that could be used with a high degree of interrater reliability. Results indicated differences between experimental conditions in dog and human behaviors based on whether participants were interacting with a live or a stuffed dog, and whether they were allowed to touch the dog. These findings suggest that physically interacting with a live dog may be an important feature of these interventions, with participants demonstrating increased positive behaviors such as laughing and smiling in these conditions. Dog behaviors also varied based on whether they were in the touching/petting condition of the study which could indicate reactions to the session and has potential welfare implications for the dogs. Future research should focus on identifying specific patterns of interactive behaviors between dogs and humans that predict anxiolytic outcomes.
... Notably, the presence of the female stands out as the most effective stimulus, positively impacting both sleep quality and cyclicity. This is consistent with the existing literature regarding social environmental enrichments: dogs need a physically 13,24 and socially 11,17 stimulating environment in order to avoid stress-related behavior, such as displacing activities and stereotypies 11,43 , and abnormal HPA axis activation 44 while promoting natural behavior 45,46 . It is noteworthy that the improvement in sleep quality and cyclicity in the presence of the conspecific female occurred in a shelter, i.e. an environment where one of the main causes of sleep disturbance in dogs is noise pollution from the barking of other dogs 47 . ...
Shelters are stressful environments for domestic dogs which are known to negatively impact their welfare. The introduction of outside stimuli for dogs in this environment can improve their welfare and life conditions. However, our current understanding of the influence of different stimuli on shelter dogs’ welfare is limited and the data is still insufficient to draw conclusions. In this study, we collected 28 days (four weeks) of telemetry data from eight male dogs housed in an Italian shelter for a long period of time. During this period, three types of enrichment were introduced into the dogs’ pens for one week each: entertaining objects, intraspecific, and interspecific social enrichment, by means of the presence of female conspecifics and the presence of a human. To quantify their impact, we introduce novel metrics as indicators of sheltered dogs’ welfare based on telemetry data: the variation of heart rate, muscle activity, and body temperature from an average baseline day, quality of sleep, and the regularity for cyclicity of the aforementioned parameters, based on the day-night cycle. Using these metrics, we show that while all three stimuli statistically improve the dogs’ welfare, the variance between individual dogs is large. Moreover, our findings indicate that the presence of female conspecific is the best stimulus among the three explored options which improves both the quality of sleep and the parameters’ cyclicity. Our results are consistent with previous research findings while providing novel data-driven welfare indicators that promote objectivity. Thus, this research provides some useful guidelines for managing shelters and improving dogs’ welfare.
... Studies on cognitive enrichment are currently available for several species of mammals (Clark et al., 2013;De Jonge et al., 2008;De Rosa et al., 2003;Gottlieb et al., 2011;Rosenberger et al., 2020;Schipper et al., 2008;Van Os et al., 2018) and birds (Coulton et al., 1997;Smith et al., 2021;van Zeeland et al., 2013). A common finding of these studies is that individuals presented with the choice between a freely available resource (e.g., food) and the same resource that can be accessed by solving a problem (e.g., a puzzle feeder) would prefer the latter option. ...
For many mammalian and avian species, it has been proposed that cognitive enrichment, such as puzzle feeders, can improve welfare in captive conditions. A well‐established method to evaluate the need for cognitive enrichment is to observe the preference of the animal between freely available food and a puzzle feeder. We investigated this preference in a teleost fish, the guppy. In most of our experimental trials, guppies first chose the feeder with freely available food over the puzzle feeder, in contrast with what was observed in most other species. Nevertheless, the guppies' number of choices for the puzzle feeder was significantly greater than zero. Moreover, after consuming the freely available food, most of the guppies tackled the puzzle feeder. This pattern of results suggests that guppies displayed a certain interest in the puzzle feeder that was overshadowed by their strong attraction towards the free food. Interestingly, several measures of performance indicated that female guppies responded more positively towards the puzzle feeder as compared to the males, suggesting sex differences in the preference for cognitive enrichment. In conclusion, our study highlights the potential significance of cognitive enrichment for captive fish. Considering that the number of individual fish maintained in captivity exceeds by far that of any other vertebrate group, it is paramount to investigate cognitive enrichment in other teleost species.
... The feeding toy elicited more interest from the dogs than the bowl, especially when the owner accompanied them. These results are similar to those of previous studies, which found that dogs preferred feeding toys [15], and the toys stimulated appetitive behaviors, increased exercise activity, and lowered barking frequencies [27]. The human owner may influence dogs to play and interact with the toy more than when they are left alone with the toys. ...
Background and Aim: A conventional feeding bowl is the primary method that dog owners use to feed their dogs, but this may not encourage natural behaviors and may even exacerbate unwanted behaviors. This study aimed to compare a conventional feeding bowl to a feeding toy in relation to behavior, cortisol levels, and heart rate variability (HRV).
Materials and Methods: The behaviors of four dogs were recorded and analyzed while being fed using either a stainless bowl (B) or a feeding toy (T) and either alone (A) or accompanied by a dog owner (O) for 30 min with each treatment (BA, BO, TA, and TO treatments). The dogs that were fed alone with the stainless bowl (BC) or the feeding toy (TC) were fed for 15 min/day for 7 days with their treatment, and serum cortisol levels measured on the first and last days of treatment. The dogs fed by the stainless bowl (BH) or the feeding toy (TH) with the owner present for 15 min for each treatment had their heart rate (HR) and HRV recorded by Polar® H10 during feedings The results were compared using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), repeated measure ANOVA, and Student’s t-test.
Results: The dogs spent more time eating and interacting with the feeding toys than stainless bowls. The activity of the dogs was higher when using feeding toys, particularly with the TO treatment. Cortisol levels were significantly lower on day 7 than on day 1 of the TC treatment. The dogs’ HR was higher during TH treatment than during BH treatment. All HRV parameters were decreased significantly when feeding the dog with the toys.
Conclusion: The results of this study support the idea that feeding enrichment supports the natural feeding behaviors of dogs as they mimic hunting and playing behaviors. This reduced unwanted behavior, cortisol levels, and HRV, and increased food consumption, eating duration, and active behaviors. The presence of the dog’s owner is important because it can enhance feeding and active behaviors, and feeding enrichment can improve the dog’s welfare and the dog-human relationship.
... Options for mental management include adding in puzzles, frozen food toys, low impact training techniques such as scent work, tracking, and so forth. [78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86] Combined physical and mental stimulation may include training the low movement components of sports such as rally and obedience and an increased number of targeted home exercises as dictated by the therapist [87,88]. Pharmaceutical management may also be needed as part of the coping plan for some patients or for some duration of the exercise restriction period. ...
Patient-centered care is increasingly advocated in human physical therapy and musculoskeletal rehabilitation to improve quality care and patient outcomes. Veterinary physical rehabilitation is an essential aspect of veterinary care and is inherently multidimensional. Historically, rehabilitation focused on physical aspects and omitted components critical to success, including the owner of the patient, the behavioral status of the patient, and anticipated future activities. These other components need to be considered to create genuine patient-centered care plans, which are needed to improve quality of care and patient outcomes. This article will outline a framework for veterinary patient-centered care focused on physical rehabilitation.
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1hJEe_,641GC0rd
... Ambulates at any speed. [9,36] Position in kennel (inand outside kennel are mutually exclusive) ...
Every shelter dog is faced with the challenge to adapt to a kennel environment. To monitor the welfare of individual shelter dogs, evaluating behavioural and physiological parameters, potentially useful as indicators for adaptability of individual dogs is crucial. Nocturnal activity, i.e. resting patterns, has already been identified as a candidate indicator of adaptability and can be easily measured remotely with the help of sensors. We investigated the usefulness of a 3-axial accelerometer (Actigraph®) to monitor nocturnal activity in shelter dogs every night during the full first two weeks in-shelter starting directly at shelter intake, as a measure of welfare. Additionally, urinary cortisol/creatinine ratio (UCCR), body weight and behaviour data were collected to evaluate stress responses. A control group of pet dogs in homes, matched to the shelter dog group, was also monitored. Shelter dogs had higher nocturnal activity and UCCRs than pet dogs, especially during the first days in the shelter. Nocturnal activity, both accelerometer measures and activity behaviour, and UCCRs decreased over nights in the shelter. Smaller dogs had higher nocturnal activity and UCCRs than larger dogs and showed less autogrooming during the first nights. Dogs with no previous kennel experience had higher nocturnal activity and UCCRs, and showed less body shaking, than dogs with previous kennel experience. Overall, sheltered dogs also showed less body shaking during the first night. The number of dogs showing paw lifting decreased over days. Age class and sex effected only few activity behaviours. Shelter dogs significantly lost body weight after 12 days in the shelter compared to the moment of intake. Shelter dogs had disrupted nocturnal resting patterns and UCCRs compared to pet dogs and seem to partly adapt to the shelter environment after two weeks. Sensor-supported identification of nocturnal activity can be a useful additional tool for welfare assessments in animal shelters.
... In this scenario, the response "coming when called" could be considered a behavioral cusp [129], as it is a requisite skill for being safely off leash, affording access to new environments, new opportunities to engage in species-typical behaviors associated with "feeling good" [130], and contact with new reinforcers, including but not limited to access to variable scents. Additional examples of enrichment include food puzzles from which animals must manipulate an object to obtain food [131], chews and toys meant for gnawing and dissecting [132], sniffing, which induces positive judgment bias [133][134][135], and play with humans or conspecifics [136]. Enrichment was shown to positively impact behavior welfare indicators by increasing behavior variability and exploration and decreasing stress-related behaviors. ...
Simple Summary
Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process.
Abstract
Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... Environmental enrichment could be a way to reduce shelter dogs' stress and improve their life condition. In shelter dogs, it has been demonstrated that animate and inanimate enrichments-characterized by human contact and food-filled toys, respectively-influence dogs' behaviour and help to prevent undesirable behavioural patterns (reviewed in [13,[19][20][21][22]). ...
Shelters are stressful environments for domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Evaluating dogs’ welfare is crucial to improve their life condition and to promote a better management of shelters. We aimed at verifying which variables improved welfare in 10 shelter dogs ((hosted in the shelter “Centro cinofilo Caerite” in Bracciano (Rome)) by analysing their behavioural responses in different environmental conditions. Furthermore, faecal samples were taken to measure cortisol metabolites (CM), a non-invasive method to evaluate adrenocortical activity in dogs. Dogs were observed for a total of 400 h in 4 different cage conditions: (i) alone in a cage; ii) alone in an enriched cage; (iii) in cage with conspecifics; (iv) in cage with regular interaction with humans outside the cage. Alone in the cage situation showed highest frequencies of displacement activities (Friedman test: χ2 = 13.32; p = 0.004). In contrast, being in the cage with conspecifics seems to reduce displacement activity frequency, as well as the level of faecal cortisol metabolites (Friedman test: χ2 = 8.04; p = 0.045). Our results suggest that conspecifics’ presence is the best way to reduce stress in shelter dogs. This research could provide some useful guidelines for managing shelters and improving dogs’ life condition.
... Research on dogs to date has primarily been limited to populations of kenneled dogs in laboratory or shelter settings [19]. For example, studies in laboratory-housed dogs have demonstrated that provision of chew toys was successful in decreasing inappropriate chewing and time spent inactive [20], while the provision of a treat-stuffed toy contributed to more variable behavioral patterns, including decreased inactivity and barking and increased appetitive behaviors [21]. In shelter dogs, enrichment provided in the form of training sessions and food-filled toys increased sitting, lying, and quiet behavior, as well as decreased jumping [22], while the provision of classical music resulted in more time sleeping and less time vocalizing [23]. ...
Simple Summary
Dogs are a social species and may experience negative emotions when left alone even for short periods of time. This study explored the effectiveness of different food-based enrichments on engaging dogs, and alleviating potential negative emotional states caused by social isolation. The results indicated that dogs spent the most time interacting with a long-lasting chew. They also responded to this enrichment with the most positive and calm emotions when compared to a treat-dispensing toy and a smart treat-dispensing device. Long-lasting chews should be further explored as an enrichment for improving dog emotional wellbeing during periods of separation from their caregivers.
Abstract
Dogs may experience negative emotional states when isolated from human caregivers and conspecifics. This study aimed to evaluate how dogs interact with different enrichments during a short period of social isolation, as a first step towards identifying methods for improving their emotional wellbeing. Using a cross-over design, dogs (n = 20) at the Waltham Petcare Science Institute were exposed to four different food-based enrichments while left alone in a familiar room for 20 min: long-lasting chew (Chew), kibble in a treat-dispensing toy (Toy), and kibble dispensed through a smart treat-dispensing device with (Device + Voice) and without (Device) a person talking to the dog. Time spent engaging with each enrichment item and emotional valence and arousal (7-point scale collected every 5-min) were scored from videos. The results of linear mixed models indicated Chew was the most successful enrichment, with dogs having lower arousal scores (p < 0.05 vs. Device and Toy) during the first five minutes of isolation, higher positive valence scores (p < 0.05 vs. all) during the second five minutes of isolation, and spending the most total time engaged (p < 0.01 vs. all). Based on these findings, long-lasting chews should be further explored to assess their impact on dog emotional wellbeing.
... Regarding item "pet toys", only 1.5% of respondents attributed it with high importance. A study in the Netherlands found that the use of chewable toys by dogs in kennels stimulated their appetitive behavior and increased their level of physical activity, and decreased their stress levels, at least in the short term, thus promoting the welfare of dogs housed in kennels [41,42]. Regarding cats, it is important to understand that playful behavior is natural in all cats, being a release of energy and stress that can help felines adapt to a new environment in a rescue shelter [43]. ...
Introduction: A bioterrorist attack is the intentional release of pathogenic micro-organisms, such as viruses, bacteria, or their toxins, with the aim of causing illness or death in people, animals, or plants. In this study, we investigated the knowledge and practices related to bioterrorism preparedness in Central Portugal. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was performed with a convenience sample in the population of Aveiro, Central Portugal, to assess their knowledge about bioterrorism, self-perceived preparation to act in case of bioterrorism and pet owners’ preparation. An online validated questionnaire was completed by 198 participants from January to February 2020. Results: In this study, 46.0% of the respondents answered that they knew nothing about bioterrorism or had never heard about the possibility of bioterrorist attacks. In the case of an attack, 77.8% participants did not consider themselves prepared to act, and 62.1% did not know how to use personal protective equipment. More than half of the respondents (60.6%) were not familiar with the local emergency response system in response to catastrophes/bioterrorist attacks. Almost all respondents (95.6%) assigned high importance to drinking water and food for pets, but only 22.9% of respondents attributed high importance to pet carrier boxes, an item essential for cat evacuation. Conclusion: This is the first survey of this kind in Portugal concerning bioterrorism preparedness in citizens and animals. Results suggest that Portuguese knowledge is limited, and people have inadequate preparedness for a bioterrorist attack. These results reinforce the importance of further studies to better understand the existing gaps in knowledge of Portuguese citizens, strengthen the need to adopt the One Health concept in preparedness plans and emphasize the crucial role of health education in prevention.
... However, the dogs included in the sample were presented with different forms of environmental enrichment and rewards, such as rawhides and enrichment toys, which have a documented effect on supragingival calculus. 30,31 They were also fed a commercially available dry kibble, which should ensure proper nutrition to maintain periodontal health. 7 The results of this study showed that the prediction of PD grading had a significant correlation with age, breed, and sex. ...
To evaluate the effectiveness of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) in reducing gingivitis following professional dental prophy-laxis in dogs in a prospective, randomly controlled, double-blind study. The study included 47 dogs (male n = 23, female n = 24), with a mean age of 6.5 ± 2.6 years and a bodyweight of 28.9 ± 5.3 kg. Breeds included: Belgian Malinois Shepherd Dogs (n = 23), German Shepherd Dogs (n = 14), Labrador Retriever (n = 4), and Dutch Shepherd Dogs (n = 3). The left side of the mouth was treated by performing dental prophylaxis (control group). The right side received dental prophylaxis and a single session of PBMT using a Class IV therapeutic laser (treatment group). Each side was graded individually for periodontal disease (PD), gingivitis, and calculus. Follow-up observations were conducted on days 1, 3, 8, and 15 post-treatment. Results were compared using a Mann-Whitney Test. Multiple regression was run to predict PD, gingivitis, and calculus scores using age, sex, and breed. A p < .05 was considered significant. The PBMT group (PG) showed significantly lower gingivitis scores from day 1 to 15 post-treatment. PD had an increasing prevalence with age. Age and breed contributed to the prediction of PD, gingivitis, and calculus grading. This study showed that PBMT significantly reduced the grade of gingivitis following dental prophylaxis, and may be a useful adjuvant procedure following dental prophylaxis.
... Coprophagic behavior in laboratory dogs has already been reported by different researchers; in some cases, the habit was frequent, and in others, it was sporadic [21,22]. Similar findings have been observed in owned dogs [3,7,23]. ...
Coprophagia is a common and undesirable behavior observed in dogs; however, little is known about its causes or possible consequences when analysis of the animal’s feces is needed for experimental purposes. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of coprophagy on digestibility, fecal pH, and fermentative metabolites. Twelve healthy dogs with a mean age of 3.50 ± 1.45 years were included and divided into two groups: coprophagic (COP) and non-coprophagic (NCOP). The study lasted 30 days, the last 6 days being used to collect feces for the analysis of the apparent digestibility of coefficients (ADC), fecal pH, and the concentration of short- and branched-chain fatty acids, ammonia, and fecal lactic acid. Statistical analysis was performed using the SAS software. No differences were observed for most variables, except for the ADC of nitrogen-free extract (NFE), which presented the highest average for the COP. This result should be interpreted with caution, as the NFE is estimated from calculations and was not determined in the laboratory; in addition, the results represent not only starch and sugars but also some parts referring to fibers. Therefore, coprophagy seemed not to influence the fecal variables analyzed.
... Although the role of a cat's activity during a WLP is not understood, stimulating it can be a good alternative to strengthen the human-animal bond and decrease stress. 24 Food puzzles Food puzzles have been suggested to increase activity 25 and promote mental well being; 26,27 therefore, they are often proposed in WLP. 17 Although group-controlled studies have failed to prove an increase in activity, 28 in the present study the vast majority (91%) of owners believed that their cats were more active when puzzles were used. However, the use of puzzles did not influence the perceived QoL in the cats, as was observed in another study. ...
Objectives:
The aims of this study were to determine owners' perception of their cats' quality of life (QoL), and whether there is a correlation with weight-loss variables, as well as to identify the main difficulties owners encounter during controlled weight loss in their obese cats.
Methods:
The study was carried out as an e-questionnaire survey addressed to owners of cats starting a weight-loss programme. The e-questionnaire was provided at a single time point after the conclusion of the study (24 weeks).
Results:
Nineteen completed questionnaires were included. Eighteen cats had a lower weight at the end of the weight-loss period, two of which had successfully reached their target weight. Mean weight loss was 13.84% body weight at a rate of 0.53% weight loss/week. Although the perceived QoL was not correlated with weight-loss variables (P >0.05), it increased over time, even in cats that did not reach their target weight, and was statistically correlated with increased activity (r = 0.73; P <0.01), mobility (r = 0.78; P <0.01) and play time (r = 0.61; P <0.01). The main difficulties encountered by owners were not giving (32%) or permitting the cat to eat extra food (26%). The main presumed difficulty for the cat was having its food decreased over time (53%). Most owners considered their cats happy (42%) and quite happy (53%) during the study, and no statistically significant correlations were found between the weight loss, food-seeking behaviour and stress parameters (P >0.05).
Conclusions and relevance:
Although several difficulties were encountered throughout the study, increased QoL and energy levels in their cats were noticed by owners. A positive perspective on weight-loss programmes is important to keep owners motivated and achieve the target weight in their cats. Furthermore, this survey provides insights into the perceived difficulties of weight-loss regimens in cats.
... Elsewhere, Schipper et al. (2008) have demonstrated the beneficial effect of feeding enrichment toys on the behaviour of kennelled dogs. Specifically, the behaviour of eight laboratory dogs was observed in their home cage pre-toy, during interaction with the toy ('Kong extreme™'; a rubber dog toy stuffed with dog treats), and post-toy. ...
While the growing global obesity crisis in humans has attracted a great deal of attention from the media and healthcare professionals alike, the rapid increase in weight problems reported amongst pets is now attracting widespread recognition too. In humans, the emerging science of gastrophysics offers a number of concrete suggestions as to how people can be nudged into eating less by means of the enhanced multisensory design of both foods and the environments in which they choose to eat. In this narrative review, the potential relevance of gastrophysics to helping tackle the growing problem of overweight and obese domestic dogs is reviewed. This involves discussion of both the important similarities and difference in the way in which people and their pets perceive food, and the likely role of various product-extrinsic factors on consumption in the two cases. Nevertheless, despite the differences, a number of suggestions for future research are forwarded that may help to address the growing problem of overweight pets, and the behaviours that give rise to it.
... Dog vocalisation can indicate dog anxiety (Rehn and Keeling, 2011), and in this study, this behaviour tended to be reduced when the owner accompanied the dogs while eating in the both feeding strategies. However, without the presence of the owner, the feeding toy seemed to have no effect on vocalization, which contrary to earlier research (Schipper et al., 2008). The other benefit of the feeding toy was that it tended to reduce serum cortisol (stress hormone) in this experiment (Table 3). ...
Most owners feed their dogs using conventional feeding bowls, which may not encourage natural behaviour and may even exacerbate unwanted behaviour. This study aimed to compare a conventional feeding method (bowl) with a feeding toy in relation of dog behaviour and welfare. The feeding behaviour of four dogs were recorded while being fed using either a stainless bowl or a feeding toy, and either alone or accompanied with human (dog owner). The results showed that dogs tended to consume more food with the bowls but spent more time eating and playing with the feeding toys. The dog owner can positively impact the feeding consumption and eating duration. The passive activity, vocalisation tended to be lower when using feeding toys, particularly when dog owner kept company. When using feeding toy, dogs' heart rate seemed to be higher and the cortisol level appeared lower than using feeding bowls. We proposed that feeding toys support natural behaviours of dogs as they mimic hunting and playing behaviours, and reduce unwanted behaviour and cortisol level. The presence of the dog owner is important as it can enhance the feeding and active behaviours, and can improve either dog welfare or dog-human relationships.
... Environmental enrichment items were more interesting for the dogs when associated with food because it is a reward, reinforcing the behaviors expressed. Therefore, the dogs became more motivated and active, walking and foraging more to search for food ( Schipper et al., 2008 ). Environmental enrichment items not associated with food (e.g. ...
Undesirable and problematic behaviors such as an increase in aggressiveness and attempts to escape are frequently provoked when a pet dog is maintained for long periods in stressful environments such as veterinary clinics or shelters. Environmental enrichment and petting are strategies to increase dogs’ welfare. The aim of this pilot study was to evaluate which of these techniques is better at improving dogs’ welfare in a unique veterinary clinic setting based on the dogs’ behavioral responses. Eight dogs were studied, with four receiving environmental enrichment and four receiving petting (direct human contact). Behaviors were recorded before, during and after applications. These conditions were compared using generalized linear mixed models and Friedman's test. Both methods proved to be efficient and feasible for dogs in this type of setting. In general, environmental enrichment increased the activity of the dogs, since they walked and dug more compared to dogs who were petted. Dogs exhibited more positive social interactions after petting. The other behaviors were exhibited in the same proportion in both treatments. Thus, both interventions can be used to decrease anxiety and undesirable behaviors related to a sheltered environment and should be tested in a standard veterinary clinic environment.
... Toys are an essential enrichment for play, to relieve mild frustration, to combat boredom and to direct chewing [16,17]. Inappropriate chewing can be classified as biting or chewing which causes trauma (damage to teeth or mouth) to the individual and destruction to the environment. ...
Dogs and cats housed in research-, kennel- and cattery-type settings are reliant on caregivers to optimise their day-to-day experiences and welfare. The goal is to provide enriching environments for physical, social and environmental control; behavioural choice and opportunities to live as varied a life as possible. However, there are numerous challenges in these environments such as lack of appropriate enrichment for group housing, budget for equipment/training, study controls, time and space to make improvements. In addition, research settings are required to comply with legislation for care, husbandry and housing, and as standards differ between regions, conditions will vary between settings. Sharing knowledge in this field can only help drive a wider culture of care by helping improve the lives and welfare of animals cared for. This article presents some of the environmental enrichment strategies effective at the Waltham Petcare Science Institute, UK.
... Kennelled dogs may experience poor housing as this management can be associated with lack of control of the environment [17], unpredictability [12,18] and limited opportunities for social contact with humans [5,19] and/or other dogs [6] (for a definition and the importance of welfare for kennel dogs, see [13]). Thus, many efforts to investigate how to provide adequate stimulation in this situation have been made, and several studies have indicated that environmental enrichment is effective in minimizing kennelling stress [4,18,[20][21][22][23][24]. ...
This work was aimed at identifying the effectiveness of two interventions applied to a group of eight kennelled police dogs. Interventions consisted of access to a lawn area (350 m 2) and "toy" (a 30 cm jute rag roll, hanging from the kennel ceiling), both available for 15 min a day, for four days in a row. We collected behavioural data and faecal samples for cortisol metabolites evaluation before, during and after interventions. Faecal cortisol metabolites levels were significantly reduced (Friedman, X2(3) =12.450; p = 0.006) during the second round of intervention, regardless of the type of intervention, indicating that the interventions can have a beneficial cumulative effect. Regarding the frequency of stereotyped behaviour, cluster analysis identified two groups of individuals: (1) high-stereotyping individuals (n = 3) that had a tendency to reduce stereotyping behaviours in the lawn intervention when compared to toy intervention (Friedman, X2(3) = 2.530; p = 0.068), and (2) low-stereotyping animals (n = 5) that did not present significant behavioural changes during the experiment. The variety of behavioural and endocrine parameters evaluated highlights the need to account for the individual in behaviour and welfare research. Overall, our results suggest that even simple environmental enrichment can be an effective method to mitigate behaviour and physiological signs of stress.
... Based on studies of contrafreeloading and foraging behavior of wild-born species living in captivity, foraging enrichment is often recommended for companion animals, such as dogs, cats, and parrots (e.g., Dantas et al. 2016;Meehan and Mench 2007;Schipper et al. 2008). Although contrafreeloading has been studied in domesticated species such as swine and poultry (de Jonge et al. 2008;Jensen 2008, 2009), there have been few studies of preferences to work for food in companion animals. ...
Contrafreeloading is the willingness of animals to work for food when equivalent food is freely available. This behavior is observed in laboratory, domesticated, and captive animals. However, previous research found that six laboratory cats failed to contrafreeload. We hypothesized that cats would contrafreeload in the home environment when given a choice between a food puzzle and a tray of similar size and shape. We also hypothesized that more active cats would be more likely to contrafreeload. We assessed the behavior of 17 neutered, indoor domestic cats ( Felis catus ) when presented with both a food puzzle and a tray across ten 30-min trials. Each cat wore an activity tracker, and all sessions were video recorded. Cats ate more food from the free feed tray than the puzzle ( t (16) = 6.77, p < 0.001). Cats made more first choices to approach and eat from the tray. There was no relationship between activity and contrafreeloading, and there was no effect of sex, age, or previous food puzzle experience on contrafreeloading. Our results suggest that cats do not show strong tendencies to contrafreeload in the home environment, although some cats ( N = 4) ate most food offered in the puzzle or showed weak contrafreeloading tendencies ( N = 5). Eight cats did not contrafreeload. Cats who consumed more food from the puzzle, consumed more food in general, suggesting a relationship between hunger and effort. Further research is required to understand why domestic cats, unlike other tested species, do not show a strong preference to work for food.
... The ethogram (Table 1) was composed of behavioural patterns reflecting activity and resting behaviour and were based on the literature of dog activity studies (Schipper et al., 2008;Part et al., 2014;Owczarczak-Garstecka and Burman, 2016). Practical applicability of the ethogram for the observers in this study was evaluated during pilot observations, i.e. to identify behaviours that were visible on the in-kennel videos and could reliably be scored by the observers. ...
Shelter dogs face the challenge of adapting to a kennel environment. Individual differences in adaptation are known to exist. Resting patterns might be indicative of adaptability to such a novel environment, but need to be evaluated for its usefulness, like every potentially physiological and behavioural parameter. Here, we evaluated nocturnal activity patterns of dogs as indicators of adaptability to novel environments. We measured nocturnal activity (3-axial accelerometer, the Actical®) and two physiological stress parameters, i.e. urinary cortisol/creatinine ratio (UCCR) and body weight in 29 dogs relinquished to a shelter (SD group) in the first two days after intake at the shelter (n = 29), after a 12-day habituation period in the shelter (n = 28) and >6 weeks post-adoption (n = 17). A control group of 29 pet dogs kept at home (CPD group), matching the SD group characteristics, was also assessed for its nocturnal activity and UCCR. Linear mixed model analysis, t-tests and Friedman tests were used to analyse the data.
The main findings are: 1) the SD group exhibited higher nocturnal activity (total activity counts, activity duration and number of rest bouts) the first two nights after intake than on night 12, with decreasing inter-individual variances. Compared to the CPD group they showed higher nocturnal activity on night 1 (all p < 0.001) and night 12 (all p ≤ 0.001) except for total activity counts on night 12. We found no ‘first-night effect’, where sleep is disturbed during the first night; nocturnal activity in the shelter did not significantly differ between nights 1 and 2 in the shelter. 2) In line with literature findings, SD group UCCRs were higher shortly after intake than after a 12-day habituation period and after adoption, and higher than in the CPD group. 3) An interaction was found between weight class and both nocturnal activity and UCCR levels: in their first days in the shelter, smaller dogs showing higher levels than larger dogs. 4) Dogs in the SD group lost, on average, 5% of their body weight between intake and the two-week habituation period.
In conclusion, nocturnal activity, as measured by an accelerometer, may be a valid parameter to monitor adaptability of dogs to a kennel environment. Monitoring nocturnal activity in this way can be a useful and cost-effective additional indicator for assessing dog welfare.
... Allowing dogs to solve problems and work for their food can be as simple as scattering kibble across lawns or floors, or can involve home-made or commercial activity feeders [81]. Schipper and colleagues [82] demonstrated that a relatively simple feeding enrichment toy such as a rubber toy stuffed with dog treats can stimulate appetitive behaviours, increase activity level and behavioural variety, and lower barking frequencies -all of which can be beneficial. Similarly, Zoran and Buffington [16] noted that use of puzzle feeders and hiding food in different locations can encourage cats to exhibit more active (and natural) behaviour, and can enhance muscular activity and neurocognitive function, which can benefit wellbeing [83]. ...
Consumer suspicion of conventional pet foods, along with perceived health benefits of alternative diets, are fuelling development of the latter. These include raw meat diets, in vitro meat products, and diets based on novel protein sources such as terrestrial and marine plants, insects, yeast and fungi. However, some claim vegan diets may be less palatable, or may compromise animal welfare. We surveyed 4,060 dog or cat guardians to determine the importance to them of pet food palatability, and the degree to which their animals displayed specific behavioural indicators of palatability at meal times. Guardians were asked to choose one dog or cat that had been within their household for at least one year, and not on a prescription or therapeutic diet. Of 3,976 respondents who played some role in pet diet decision-making, palatability was the third most important among 12 factors cited as important when choosing pet diets. For 1,585 respondents feeding conventional or raw meat diets, who stated they would realistically consider alternative diets, palatability was the fourth most important among 14 desired attributes. For the 2,308 dogs included, reported observations of 10 behavioural indicators of palatability at meal times reliably indicated significant effects of increased reports of appetitive behaviour by dogs on a raw meat diet, as opposed to a conventional diet. There was no consistent evidence of a difference between vegan diets and either the conventional or raw meat diets. For the 1,135 cats included, reported observations of 15 behavioural indicators indicated that diet made little difference to food-oriented behaviour. Based on these owner-reported behaviours, our results indicate that vegan pet foods are generally at least as palatable to dogs and cats as conventional meat or raw meat diets, and do not compromise their welfare, when other welfare determinants, such as nutritional requirements, are adequately provided.
... This is in stark contrast to the duration of use of chew toys for 5− 15 min reported by the majority of our respondents. Furthermore, in comparison to conventional chew toys (Wells, 2004;Pullen et al., 2010) toys filled with food induced lower habituation in kenneled dogs and were used considerably longer (Schipper et al., 2008). This was not obvious in our sample, where around half of the dogs used chew toys but also food-filled toys for 10 min or longer. ...
Chewing is a behavioural element of feeding, but dogs also chew on or dissect non-edible items. This can cause considerable problems to owners if directed at household objects. Nevertheless, the provision of chewing material, associated risks and relationships with chewing behaviour and other owner-dog activities have not been investigated so far. The aim of this online survey was to explore how dog owners manage the chewing behaviour of their dog and whether there are relationships to other owner-dog interactions. Of our self-selected participants (1439 filled in the entire questionnaire), 94% provided their dogs with edible chewing material (e.g., rawhide, dried innards, meat), 83% provided inedible chew toys, 73% provided chew toys filled with food and 51% provided hard chewing material (e.g. wood, antlers). Edible materials were provided four to six times a week by the average dog owner. Regarding risks, 67% of respondents stated that their dog never had a problem caused by the use of chewing material, whereas veterinary treatment due to a problem with chewing material was reported by 3.6%. Chewing daily on soft household objects was observed in 2.5% of dogs (other common objects for daily chewing: resting places 2.2 %, clothes/shoes 1.4%); dogs up to one year of age did this more frequently (p < 0.001). Chewing on objects was not substantially related to reported motivation of the dog to play or the frequency of activities with the dog (all rs < 0.2), but was reported to occur in contexts that may cause negative emotional states such as leaving the dog alone (rs = 0.63, p < 0.001) or changes in routine activities (rs = 0.47, p < 0.001). The average reported frequency of provision of chewing material correlated positively (rs ≥ 0.2) with motivation of the dog to play, chewing on objects, human-dog play and calm activities such as petting. Dog owners think that chewing material is important for puppies and even more for adult dogs (p < 0.001). However, it remains to be investigated how motivated dogs are for chewing on different types of materials and whether chewing, as proposed by dog professionals, reduces stress. This seems particularly important for assessing the trade-off between risks and benefits of different chewing materials and its impact on dog welfare.
... Nonetheless, kennel housing for stray or working dogs cannot always be avoided, so it will be useful to design studies that investigate the effect of kennel housing on EFs in more detail. Social and non-social enrichment in kennelled dogs is well known to improve dog welfare and behaviour (Schipper et al. 2008;Wells 2004). However, to our knowledge, less is known about the effects of enrichment on kennelled dogs' cognitive traits. ...
Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes used for effortful self-regulation of behaviour. They include inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and, in some models, attention. In humans, socioeconomic factors and life experiences shape development of EFs. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) must often regulate their behaviour in the human environment (e.g. no jumping up on humans or chasing cats), and life experiences also probably influence the development of EFs in dogs. Research into dog cognition and behaviour has been thriving, and some methods used to explore these concepts (e.g. object-choice task, questionnaires measuring traits like distraction and aggression) are likely to be sensitive to differences in EFs, even if that is not their stated aim. Here we examine relevant studies to identify experiential factors which may influence the development of EFs in dogs living in human care. These are early experience, training, housing and stress. We conclude that the development of dogs’ EFs may be negatively affected by hardships, and positively by surmountable challenges, early in life. Training methods appear important, with punishment-based methods leading to poorer dog EFs. Kennel environments seem to affect dog EFs negatively. While mild stressors might enhance the development of EFs, too much stress seems to have negative effects. Regulation of behaviour, a key outcome of EFs, is crucial for dogs’ integration into human society. We should, therefore, strive to better understand how the environment shapes dogs’ EFs.
... A major problem when housing dogs is the noise exposure and restlessness caused by barking and other forms of vocalisation. Studies from shelter settings indicate that playing classical music [97] or audio books [98] and offering activity feeding [99] can reduce vocalisations. Feeding enrichment, such as by the provision of puzzle toys filled with food, is furthermore valuable by reducing boredom [40]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veteri-nary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associa-tions. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and ad-dress existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive re-sponses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the cli-ents as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... A major problem when housing dogs is the noise exposure and restlessness caused by barking and other forms of vocalisation. Studies from shelter settings indicate that playing classical music [97] or audio books [98] and offering activity feeding [99] can reduce vocalisations. Feeding enrichment, such as by the provision of puzzle toys filled with food, is furthermore valuable by reducing boredom [40]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g. spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Some negative experiences such as short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions. Preemptive analgesia is recommended for known painful procedures. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease stress and fear in patients and consequently their owners – thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... The lack of foraging opportunities, the appetitive phase of feeding behavior [74] might be another reason for the possible development of ARBs in companion animals. Foraging is often regarded as a high priority behavior [75,76], i.e., an internally motivated behavioral pattern that should be performed, or otherwise may induce a state of chronic stress, which may result in behavioral pathology like ARBs as described in many other animal species [77][78][79]. Foraging patterns may include walking, running, jumping, nose pushing, digging, and overseeing the area, all active patterns that imply the daily need for physical exercise and mental challenges in most of our companion animals. Nonetheless, our pets mostly, if not always, get their food for free with minimal foraging challenges, except for going out 3-5 times a day. ...
Over time the human-animal bond has been changed. For instance, the role of pets has changed from work animals (protecting houses, catching mice) to animals with a social function, giving companionship. Pets can be important for the physical and mental health of their owners but may also transmit zoonotic infections. The One Health initiative is a worldwide strategy for expanding collaborations in all aspects of health care for humans, animals, and the environment. However, in One Health communications the role of particularly dogs and cats is often underestimated.
Objective:
Evaluation of positive and negative One Health issues of the human-companion animal relationship with a focus on zoonotic aspects of cats and dogs in industrialized countries.
Method:
Literature review.
Results:
Pets undoubtedly have a positive effect on human health, while owners are increasing aware of pet's health and welfare. The changing attitude of humans with regard to pets and their environment can also lead to negative effects such as changes in feeding practices, extreme breeding, and behavioral problems, and anthropozoonoses. For the human, there may be a higher risk of the transmission of zoonotic infections due to trends such as sleeping with pets, allowing pets to lick the face or wounds, bite accidents, keeping exotic animals, the importation of rescue dogs, and soil contact.
Conclusions:
One Health issues need frequently re-evaluated as the close human-animal relationship with pet animals can totally differ compared to decennia ago. Because of the changed human-companion animal bond, recommendations regarding responsible pet-ownership, including normal hygienic practices, responsible breeding, feeding, housing, and mental and physical challenges conforming the biology of the animal are required. Education can be performed by vets and physicians as part of the One Health concept.
... Food enrichments in animal shelters are given to promote quiet time or relaxed chewing/licking in dogs with the goal of decreasing arousal levels and barking (Schipper et al., 2008) (Fig. 18.6). How 'enriching' the items are to the animals, i.e., their biological relevance and their influence on satiating underlying motivations (Newberry, 1995), is rarely assessed in shelter programs due to time constraints. ...
This second edition of Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals is fully revised, expanded, and comprehensively updated with the most current knowledge about the full array of mental health issues seen in animals. Written by key opinion leaders, internationally-recognized experts and specialists, it is comprehensive covering basic principles to mental wellness, emotional distress, suffering and mental illness, through to measurement and treatment. With even more practical information and clinical pearls, this book remains invaluable to veterinary professionals, animal welfare researchers and advocates, and other animal caregivers. This edition has 388 pages with 25 chapters divided into five parts: foundational issues of animal mental health and well-being (Part I, covers chapters 1-4); the pleasant experiences: mental wellness (Part II, chapters 5-10); the unpleasant experiences: distress, suffering, and mental illness (Part III, chapters 11-14); mental health issues in special populations (Part IV, covers chapters 15-22); assessment and management of emotional distress and disorders (5th part, chapters 23, 24, and 25).
Provision of environmental enrichment has become a basic consideration for the animals used in research. Societal concerns, ethical aspects, legal requirement, and quality of research have made animal housing conditions evolve significantly in recent years. Barren cages have been replaced by a variable spectrum of enriched environments. This poses several challenges for both animal care staff and researchers, and therefore, for institutions. In this chapter, responses to some practical questions on provision of environmental enrichment to several of the most commonly used species (rodents, rabbits, dogs, pigs, and macaques) are offered. The general concepts in the rodent section are applicable to all species.
Soft-pelleted, high-fat diets (HFD) are greasy and crumble easily leading to food wastage and hair coat grease accumulation when mice are fed using commercially available feeders. The ideal HFD feeder design should reduce food wastage, facilitate mouse weight gain, and minimize variables such as hair coat grease accumulation that have the potential to alter scratching behaviors. Our study compared the feeding efficiency of 2 commercially available feeders (feeders A and E) to 4 novel feeder designs (feeders B, C, D, and F). Novel feeders had alterations in feeding aperture size, feeding surface area, feeder configuration, and level of food presentation. Male C57BL/6NCrl mice ( n = 120; 4/cage) were randomly assigned to cages containing one of the 6 feeder types and were fed HFD for 12 wk. Feeders and cage bottoms were weighed before use and then weekly at the time of cage change. Mice were weighed before starting the HFD and then biweekly. Scratching behavior was video recorded at 0, 4, 8, and 12 wk. Hair coat grease accumulation was visually scored biweekly. Feeder A use was associated with the highest feed cost due to HFD wastage ($36.98 ± 1.54/cage/wk). Mice fed using Feeder A had the highest average weight gain (23.75 ± 0.8 g, P < 0.005). However, mice also had significantly higher hair coat grease accumulation scores ( P < 0.05) and significantly increased scratching frequency at 4 wk ( P < 0.05) when compared with mice fed using other feeder types. Novel feeder designs utilized 10 to 21 times less HFD dispensed when compared to feeder A. Mice fed using novel feeders also displayed improved welfare, as evidenced by low hair coat grease accumulation scores, and no significant differences in scratching frequency when compared with baseline behavior.
Background:
Canine enrichment feeding (CEF) is recommended by canine professionals, yet research into its use by dog owners is absent. This study is the first to investigate who uses CEF and the perceived benefits and barriers.
Methods:
A cross-sectional survey advertised in July and August 2021 received 1750 usable responses about owner and dog demographics, feeding methods used, canine quality of life and behaviour (Mini-Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire [C-BARQ]).
Results:
Kongs, chews and activity toys were the most popular forms of CEF. CEF was most often used for a treat, delivering meals and keeping dogs busy. Owners not using CEF were more likely to be male and older. Dogs not fed using CEF were more likely to be older, of working type and have lower exercise needs. Furthermore, they were less likely to show meal interest, dog-directed fear or training difficulties. A common perceived benefit was mental stimulation; however, lack of time was commonly perceived to be a barrier. Certain feeding methods were associated with perceptions of reduced hunger and begging.
Limitations:
The survey methodology means there is a risk of selection bias and conclusions cannot be drawn about causation.
Conclusion:
CEF was perceived by most owners to benefit behavioural problems and reduce food seeking. Further research using experimental research designs is required to establish causality.
To investigate the utility of ramps as enrichment and as a method for establishing demand for commodities, the latency to climb a ramp of increasing slope to obtain food was measured in four guinea pigs. The average height where guinea pigs failed to climb was 29.1 cm (slope 14.2 degrees). In addition, the increasing slope altered climbing behavior; when climbing speed was tested using the same slope for all trials within a single session, the guinea pigs maintained their climbing speed as the gradient increased across sessions. In comparison, when the slope was increased with each successful climb within a session, climbing speed was not maintained. Installing the maximum slope climbed can promote increased exercise and foraging but avoid physical harm or barriers to resources. Furthermore, these results indicate that climbing, a simple behavior with measurable differences as a function of slope and thus, effort, could be used as a method for testing the demand for commodities, such as food type or enrichment items, to be included in the husbandry of guinea pigs to improve welfare of the small cavy.
Objectives:
The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge and practices related to disaster preparedness among pet owners in North Portugal. The present research provides an evaluation of differences among pet owners regarding preparedness in the event of disasters.
Methods:
A cross-sectional study was conducted among a convenience sample of 155 pet owners between September and November 2018. Subjects were interviewed using a structured questionnaire with items addressing sociodemographic characteristics and questions related to owners' emergency preparedness and practices.
Results:
In this study, 53.5% of the respondents thought about the possibility of a disaster. Only 21.3% of respondents reported having knowledge on the existence of a disaster kit for pets in case of an emergency. The majority (94.8%) of respondents said they were not aware of the preparedness county-level organization plans. Knowledge and preparedness were found to be significantly higher among dog owners compared with owners of other pet species.
Conclusions:
The results suggest that Portuguese pet owners have inadequate knowledge on how to prepare for inclusion of their pets in a disaster.
There are multiple modalities in which we have the opportunity to engage with animals through animal-assisted interventions (AAI)Animal-assisted interventions (AAI). These can range from assisting in nursing care or occupational therapy in a hospital setting or psychotherapy in a more controlled environment and with a particular goal in mind. One overarching theme is that, throughout the different AAI options, animals are used to improve the quality of life of humans. The presence of animals in a variety of settings has been shown to benefit humans greatly, and it behooves us to consider whether these interactions are mutually beneficial or whether they might result in potential negative consequences to the animals’ well-being. The present book offers an overview of the uses of animals in assisted interventions and therapy from the perspective of the animal. This chapter describes the present understanding of the science of animal welfare with a primary focus on how it applies to such interactions.
Our own experiences and scientific evidence demonstrate the significant positive impact therapy animals have on us, including our physical and emotional well-being. For the safety of all animals involved in animal-assisted interventions (AAI), and the humans they interact with, the well-being of therapy animals must also be carefully evaluated. The physical well-being of a therapy animal is paramount for its welfare, as well as the welfare of the humans that benefit from the animal interaction. Appropriate preventative and wellness care can reduce the occurrence of disease in animals and allow for a longer, better quality of life.
Dogs experience both acute and chronic stress when living in animal shelters. Current best practices recommend a variety of techniques for reducing stress such as enhanced human interactions including play or training, novel feeding strategies, increased exercise/group play, and, when possible, group housing. Auditory stimulation in the form of bio-acoustically designed music has shown a stress-relieving effect in dogs experiencing chronic stress such as those living in a kennel. However, there is little research looking at the effect of visual stimulation on stress in shelter-living dogs. Using a two-group (treatment, control) experimental design, the current study examined the effect of auditory and visual content intended to reduce stress, measured by salivary cortisol and behavior, in shelter dogs. The content was delivered through an in-kennel pet videophone unit. Forty-seven dogs were enrolled at one shelter in the United States. While there were no significant differences in pre- and post-test salivary cortisol levels by experimental group (P > 0.05), dogs in the treatment group spent significantly less time in the back of the kennel (P = 0.046) than did dogs in the control group. In addition, two behaviors differed by experimental group at the P < 0.10 level: dogs in the treatment group spent more time grooming (P = 0.066) and less time walking (P = 0. 052) than did dogs in the control group. These results point to a promising area for future research as they suggest that, under certain conditions, auditory and visual enrichment delivered through an individual in-kennel device could be a useful adjunct to an existing enrichment and behavior protocol for shelter-housed dogs.
This is a book. The Preface describing contents is uploaded.
The dog (Canis familiaris) has been domesticated for thousands of years but the effects of different housing regimens on canine behaviour are poorly understood. This study presents behavioural data collected from solitary and group-housed dogs housed in animal shelters and laboratories. The dogs differed greatly in their behaviour under the different housing regimens. Solitary dogs were more inactive (72-85% of observed time compared with group-housed dogs 54-62% of observed time), and spent more time in non-social repetitive locomotory behaviour categories (4-5% compared with group-housed 0.9-2% of observed time). Group-housed dogs were not only able to interact socially, but also spent more time investigating the floor of their pens, presumably because of the increased olfactory stimuli. Group-housed laboratory dogs provided with kennels used them for: rest, play and the control of social interactions. Single-housed dogs, which were housed in smaller pens, had low overall activity and tended towards stereotyped circling rather than pacing. At all the sites the opportunities for interactions with humans were limited (0.24-2.52% of the time observed). The results are discussed in terms of cage design and animal husbandry.
To study animal welfare empirically we need an objective basis for deciding when an animal is suffering. Suffering includes a wide range ofunpleasant emotional states such as fear, boredom, pain, and hunger. Suffering has evolved as a mechanism for avoiding sources ofdanger and threats to fitness. Captive animals often suffer in situations in which they are prevented from doing something that they are highly motivated to do. The “price” an animal is prepared to pay to attain or to escape a situation is an index ofhow the animal “feels” about that situation. Withholding conditions or commodities for which an animal shows “inelastic demand” (i.e., for which it continues to work despite increasing costs) is very likely to cause suffering. In designing environments for animals in zoos, farms, and laboratories, priority should be given to features for which animals show inelastic demand. The care ofanimals can thereby be based on an objective, animal-centered assessment of their needs.
Environmental enrichment is a vague concept referring to improvements to captive animal environments. Some authors have applied the term to an environmental treatment itself, without any concrete evidence that the treatment represented an improvement for the animals. Others have used the term when the main beneficiaries may have been people rather than their captive animals. The criteria used to assess enrichment have also varied according to animal use (e.g. laboratory, farm or zoo animals). In this paper, environmental enrichment is defined as an improvement in the biological functioning of captive animals resulting from modifications to their environment. Evidence of improved biological functioning could include increased lifetime reproductive success, increased inclusive fitness or a correlate of these such as improved health. However, specifying an appropriate endpoint is problematic, especially for domestic animals. Potential methods of achieving enrichment that require further investigation include presenting food in ways that stimulate foraging behaviour and dividing enclosures into different functional areas. The quality of the external environment within the animals' sensory range also deserves greater attention. A common shortcoming of attempts at environmental enrichment is the provision of toys, music or other stimuli having little functional relevance to the animals. Failure to consider the effects of developmental factors and previous experience can also produce poor results. Environmental enrichment is constrained by financial costs and time demands on caretakers, and providing live prey to enrich the environment of predators raises ethical concerns. Future research on environmental enrichment would benefit from improved knowledge of the functions of behaviour performed in captivity and more rigorous experimental design.
The influence of an environmental enrichment programme on the searching behaviour of separate groups of male and female bush dogs at Edinburgh Zoo was evaluated. The enrichment programme involved hiding food in specially constructed wood-piles and other appropriate places in the bush dogs' enclosures. Behavioural data were recorded morning and afternoon for 20 consecutive experimental days and were compared to pre- and post-enrichment programme data, representing basal conditions. Data were collected over a 10-day period for both pre and post enrichment phases. Activities were recorded under seven behavioural categories. There was no significant difference between sexes in the proportion of time spent performing searching behaviour so data were pooled. The enrichment programme appeared to cause an increase (P < 0.01) in searching behaviour from initial basal conditions of 2.7 per cent to 6.1 per cent of total recorded data points. There was a subsequent decrease in searching behaviour (P < 0.01) to 2.5 per cent when basal conditions were reinstated. All dogs showed increases in searching behaviour when enrichment and basal data were compared. The effectiveness of the enrichment programme in terms of increasing the proportion of time spent in searching behaviour showed a significant decline (P < 0.005) over time, probably relating to the dogs increasing proficiency at finding food. It is suggested that the enhanced levels of searching behaviour represent an improvement in welfare.
Six weeks of social and spatial restriction were used as a model to induce chronic stress in Beagles. Behavioral and physiological measurements were performed during a period of enriched spacious outdoor housing in groups (GH) and during a subsequent period of solitary housing in small indoor kennels (IH). Behavioral parameters that may indicate chronic stress in dogs are reported. During IH, the dogs showed significantly (comparison-wise error rate <0.05) lower postures than during GH. IH induced enduring increments in frequencies of autogrooming, paw lifting, and vocalizing, and was associated with incidents of coprophagy and repetitive behavior. So far, we interpret the behavioral changes as signs of chronic stress. Relatively low levels of walking, digging, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and increments in circling are conceived as obvious adaptations to the specific features of the IH system. By challenging the dogs outside their home kennel we tested whether the dogs’ coping abilities were affected by IH. Dogs that were challenged were introduced into a novel environment, given the opportunity to escape from their home kennel, restrained, walked down an unfamiliar corridor, presented a novel object, exposed to loud noise, given food, or confronted with a conspecific. During IH, challenged dogs exhibited higher postures, showed more tail wagging, nosing, circling, urinating, and defecating, and changed more often from one state of locomotion (or posture) to another than during GH. These behavioral changes were observed across the different types of challenges, with the exception of the noise administration test. In the presence of conspecifics, the socially and spatially restricted male dogs behaved more dominantly and aggressive than during the time that they were kept in groups. Such behavior manifested as increased performances of raised hairs, growling, paw laying, and standing over. Both sexes showed increases in paw lifting, body shaking, ambivalent postures, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and trembling in any of the challenges, excluding the walking down the corridor test. In short, during a variety of challenges, socially and spatially restricted dogs exhibited a heightened state of aggression, excitement, and uncertainty. Behavioral differences between dogs that had experienced pleasant and bad weather conditions during GH, suggested that “pleasant-weather individuals” had experienced early stress during the control period, and, as a result, responded to the subsequent period of IH differently. Regardless of the housing conditions, challenged bitches showed stronger indications of acute stress than male dogs. Gender did not affect the chronic stress responses to social and spatial restriction. A low posture and increased autogrooming, paw lifting, vocalizing, repetitive behavior, and coprophagy may indicate chronic stress in dogs, and as such, can help to identify poor welfare. When challenged, chronically stressed dogs may show increased excitement, aggression, and uncertainty, but the nonspecificity of such emotional behavior will complicate its practical use with regard to the assessment of stress.
The term "welfare" refers to the state of an individual in relation to its environment, and this can be measured. Both failure to cope with the environment and difficulty in coping are indicators of poor welfare. Suffering and poor welfare often occur together, but welfare can be poor without suffering and welfare should not be defined solely in terms of subjective experiences. The situations that result in poor welfare are reviewed in this study with special reference to those in which an individual lacks control over interactions with its environment. The indicators of poor welfare include the following: reduced life expectancy, impaired growth, impaired reproduction, body damage, disease, immunosuppression, adrenal activity, behavior anomalies, and self-narcotization. The uses of measures of responsiveness, stereotypies, and animal preferences in welfare assessment are discussed. The need to make direct measurement of poor welfare as well as to use sophisticated studies of animal preferences is emphasized.
Mice housed in standard cages show impaired brain development, abnormal repetitive behaviours (stereotypies) and an anxious behavioural profile, all of which can be lessened by making the cage environment more stimulating. But concerns have been raised that enriched housing might disrupt standardization and so affect the precision and reproducibility of behavioural-test results (for example, see ref. 4). Here we show that environmental enrichment increases neither individual variability in behavioural tests nor the risk of obtaining conflicting data in replicate studies. Our findings indicate that the housing conditions of laboratory mice can be markedly improved without affecting the standardization of results.
Mice housed in standard cages show impaired brain development, abnormal repetitive behaviours (stereotypies) and an anxious behavioural profile, all of which can be lessened by making the cage environment more stimulating. But concerns have been raised that enriched housing might disrupt standardization and so affect the precision and reproducibility of behavioural-test results (for example, see ref. 4). Here we show that environmental enrichment increases neither individual variability in behavioural tests nor the risk of obtaining conflicting data in replicate studies. Our findings indicate that the housing conditions of laboratory mice can be markedly improved without affecting the standardization of results.
This study is an assessment of the use of mealworm dispensers as environmental enrichment devices for Rodrigues fruit bats (Pteropus rodncensis) . Captive animals frequently receive easily consumed food at set times and locations, which often minimizes the time they spend searching for and processing food. The mealworm dispensers used in this study provide an unpredictable food source, which allows the link between foraging and feeding to be reinstated. Mealworm dispensers were placed into the Rodrigues fruit bat enclosure at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and the behaviour of the bats recorded over 14 days. For 7 days the dispensers were empty but, for the remaining 7, 20 mealworms were placed in each dispenser. The number of bats feeding declined with increasing time from initial food presentation in all cases, but the presence of mealworms in the dispensers decreased the rate of decline. In addition, the number of bats active within 20cm of the food in the dishes and on the heater tops increased significantly when mealworms were present. Although the presence of mealworms had no effect on the number of flights made by the group of bats as a whole, both the number of bats on the enclosure floor and the amount of aggression observed in the enclosure decreased when mealworms were present.
Installation of mealworm dispensers meant that the bats found food items as a consequence of their natural exploratory and foraging behaviour, and as such they provided important ingredients for approximating a natural habitat and improving welfare.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the question of whether there exist needs to perform paruc- ular behaviours when the physiological needs of the animal are taken care of. According to current theory, there exist apparent behavioural needs to perform parts of the behavioural repertoires of ani- mals, fulfilling some or all of the following three criteria: ( 1 ) the behaviour patterns are mainly caused by internal factors; (2) the tendencies are gradually built up while they are not being performed; ( 3 ) the mere performance of the behaviour patterns is rewarding. This has led to a "catalogue approach'. where welfare theorists have attempted to divide the behavioural repertoire of different species into those whose expression constitute needs and those that do not. We dispute this simplistic view. In light of the data we review, we argue that it is conceptually wrong to dichotomize and rank the moti- vational effects of external and internal factors. Motivation is inextricably a function of both, al- though the variation in behavioural output may, in a given situation, be explained by the variation in either. In some cases, the tendency to perform a behaviour does rise as a function of time. This may be caused by factors associated with tissue needs or factors intrinsic to the nervous system, or both. However, we see no reason for why a behavioural expression should be a need if its tendency builds up with time and not so if other motivational processes are responsible for its variation. We also argue that although species-specific motor activity sometimes might appear to be reinforcing to an animal. this is, in most cases, difficult to ascertain. Moreover, a need may be present even if the behaviour is not self-rewarding. In assessing the needs of animals we argue for a holistic approach to the motiva- tional control of behaviour. Rather than focusing on one aspect, e.g. whether the behaviour is caused by external or internal factors, we suggest that the total behavioural system is analyzed. When consid- ering even rather simple and well-defined behaviour, like nest building of domestic sows (Sus scr~fa ) and dust-bathing of domestic hens (Gallus gallus), such a complicated picture emerges, that we re- gard it as impossible to denote the performance of some behaviour patterns of a species as 'needs" as opposed to other elements of the repertoire. We reject the 'catalogue approach', but not the idea that there are needs which are best described as ethological; in the sense that preventing an animal from carrying out a certain behaviour in a given situation might cause signs of suffering. There are probabl~ needs associated with the performance of all species-specific behaviour and those are a complex of obtaining a goal and performing the motor patterns. Whether one wants to describe behaviour as a need therefore depends on a knowledge of the environmental context. Thus, a behaviour may be a called need in a particular situation.
With the goal of enhancing psychological well-being, we developed an environmental enrichment programme for eight subadult and six adult giant pandas, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, at the Wolong Breeding Center in Sichuan, China. We used five different enrichment items, each selected because of the different behavioural opportunities they promoted: (1) manipulable plastic objects; (2) a burlap sack full of straw; (3) spruce branches; (4) a fruitcicle (apples frozen in a large ice block); and (5) a puzzle feeder. Each subject received each of the five items on three occasions, for a total of 15 enrichment sessions over the course of the 2.5-month study period. Each enrichment session was paired with a control session in which no enrichment was present. Pandas spent significantly more time active, and displayed a greater variety of object- and nonobject-directed behaviours when enrichment was present. We also found a statistically significant reduction in the rate of and percentage of time engaged in the performance of stereotypic behaviour and behaviours indicative of feeding anticipation. This effect was maintained even when pandas were not interacting directly with an enrichment item, suggesting that enrichment had a motivational carry-over effect in the aftermath of interactions with enrichment items. These results are consistent with the ethological needs model of motivation in that opportunities to perform more natural behaviour appeared to improve motivational indices of well-being. The pandas remained responsive to enrichment across the 15 trials, providing no evidence for habituation or cross-habituation. Age proved to be an important determinant of responsiveness; for example, adults, but not subadults, displayed a significant preference for feeding enrichment. Future studies will assess whether these promising initial results are maintained throughout the lives of captive giant pandas.
Dustbathing in poultry is a highly motivated behaviour which will occur even in the absence of salient stimuli, as ‘sham’ or ‘vacuum’ dustbathing. Some designs of modified cages for laying hens contain dustbaths. The aim of this study was to determine the extents to which conventional and modified cages meet the hens' behavioural need to dustbathe. We assessed the frequency and duration (in 36 cages) and behavioural elements (in 50 cages) included in dustbathing sequences. The location in the cage of dustbathing bouts was recorded to investigate the effects of nest boxes and dustbaths. Bout frequency was not significantly different between cage types, but bouts were shorter (p = 0.02) in conventional cages than in modified cages. Relatively few dustbathing bouts were performed in dustbaths when these were available (mean 8.3% and 26.7% of bouts with restricted and free access to dustbaths, respectively), with most bouts performed by the feed trough and including billraking at the feed. Dustbathing occurred on only 8.5% of all visits to the dustbath with foraging, resting and standing alert being common activities in dustbaths. There was little difference between treatments in the behavioural components included in dustbathing bouts, although for example, rubbing and pecking were more common on the dusty substrate than on the wire floor. The results are discussed in terms of strength of dustbathing motivation.
This study compares the effects of social and physical enrichment on the behaviour and physiological responses of group and pair-housed beagles. Some 432 h of observation were collected from 48 beagles assigned equally to four groups: (1) a control group, (2) a group given increased opportunities for social contact with conspecifics, (3) a group given 30 s day−1 of intensive handling, and (4) a group provided with three different toys/chews permanently suspended in the pen: Rawhide, Gumabone chew and a piece of plastic tubing. After 2 months both the controls and the enriched groups spent less time resting and more time on hind legs looking out of the pen. Both human-socialised and dog-socialised groups maintained pre-treatment scores of ‘sniffing kennel mate’, and ‘time spent in contact with kennel mate’, while the control and environment-enriched groups scores for these behaviours fell, but overall intraspecific socialisation in these groups showed no change. During human-socialisation, dogs' time spent chewing items of cage furniture was reduced by 90%. Following 2 months of environmental enrichment, dogs spent a substantial proportion of their time (24%) using the toys, showing that frequent changes of items are not necessary to avoid habituation, if the appropriate toys/ chews are used. Time spent inactive by environment-enriched dogs fell by 20% of pre-treatment values to 51% of total time. However, socialising with kennel mates also fell by 70% of pre-treatment values to 4% of the total time. Environment-enriched dogs solicited less play, played less and spent less time in contact with their kennel mate. These changes may show a ‘preference’ by the dogs for toys over social activity or they may be due to competition for toys. Environment-enriched dogs also spent less time chewing items of pen furniture (a fall on pre-treatment scores of 85%) and walked less (a fall of 35%). Following the addition of a platform to the pens these dogs spent over 50% of their time on it observing surroundings as well as guarding toy items. The study shows that appropriate enrichment can: increase the complexity of dog behaviour, substantially change the expression of behaviour and help to prevent undesirable behaviours. Small increases in the opportunities for social interactions with handlers may produce changes in behaviour with conspecifics. In large facilities physical enrichment is likely to be the most cost-effective option, but staff should be encouraged to have regular positive socialisation sessions with their dogs.
Cognitive mechanisms are an important part of the organization of the behavior systems of animals. In the wild, animals regularly face problems that they must overcome in order to survive and thrive. Solving such problems often requires animals to process, store, retrieve, and act upon information from the environment—in other words, to use their cognitive skills. For example, animals may have to use navigational, tool-making or cooperative social skills in order to procure their food. However, many enrichment programs for captive animals do not include the integration of these types of cognitive challenges. Thus, foraging enrichments typically are designed to facilitate the physical expression of feeding behaviors such as food-searching and food consumption, but not to facilitate complex problem solving behaviors related to food acquisition. Challenging animals by presenting them with problems is almost certainly a source of frustration and stress. However, we suggest here that this is an important, and even necessary, feature of an enrichment program, as long as animals also possess the skills and resources to effectively solve the problems with which they are presented. We discuss this with reference to theories about the emotional consequences of coping with challenge, the association between lack of challenge and the development of abnormal behavior, and the benefits of stress (arousal) in facilitating learning and memory of relevant skills. Much remains to be done to provide empirical support for these theories. However, they do point the way to a practical approach to improving animal welfare—to design enrichments to facilitate the cognitive mechanisms which underlie the performance of complex behaviors that cannot be performed due to the restrictions inherent to the captive environment.
Behavioral needs may be defined as behaviors that are motivated largely by internal stimuli and, if an animal is prevented from performing them for prolonged periods, the individual's welfare may be compromised. The slow assimilation of advances in ethology into evolving psychological theories during the early development of psychology led to a general view of behavior that precluded the concept of behavioral needs. The relative need to perform a particular behavior has been estimated using the following techniques, in order from the least to the most specific and the strength of motivation (1) observation of a species under "natural" conditions; (2) observation of overt behavior under structured or restricted conditions; (3) requiring an animal to "work" for the opportunity to perform specific behaviors; (4) controlled behavioral deprivation followed by open-field testing; (5) quantification of physiological responses indicative of stress. Careful experimentation is necessary to determine where on the scale of "need" a particular behavior resides.
A key issue in animal welfare is whether keeping animals in conditions where they cannot or do not perform behaviour typical of more naturally-kept members of their species causes them to suffer. Various measures have been used to resolve this issue. The cost an animal is prepared to pay for the opportunity to perform different behaviour can be used as a measure of the importance of that behaviour to the animal. Manipulation of time-budgets is the most reliable method of measuring such costs and of relating “deprivation” to “suffering”.
Captive small felids frequently pace repetitively and/or spend large amounts of time inactive. Presenting a fishing cat with live-fish resulted in more activity (60% less sleeping), increased behavioral diversity, including previously unobserved hunting behaviors, and greater enclosure utilization. Effects persisted for at least 48 h after presentation of live fish, and up to 8 days. In a second study, four leopard cats were fed: (1) once per day, (2) four times per day and, (3) four times per day with food hidden in small piles of brush. Multiple feedings of hidden food increased daily exploratory behavior from 5.5% to over 14%, and increased the diversity of behaviors observed. It also reduced the total duration, and bout length of stereotyped pacing. These studies suggest that providing food to small cats in a way that minimizes predictability of food availability, while maximizing the functional consequences of foraging behavior, can be an effective enrichment technique. These results are discussed in relation to two models of behavioral motivation, one that focuses on the issue of behavioral needs, and the other that emphasizes the importance of information acquisition. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc
Bears are extremely popular among the zoo-going public, yet while many zoo exhibits have undergone dramatic design changes in recent years, most bears continue to be housed in moated grottos constructed largely of gunite. In these traditional exhibits they frequently demonstrate stereotypic locomotor patterns and are often encouraged by the public to beg. Thus, the manner in which most captive bears are exhibited does not facilitate conservation education. It is possible, however, to provide bears with opportunities to demonstrate species-typical feeding and foraging behaviors, even in standard exhibits. Subjects were four individuals of three bear species. Feeding enrichment was provided to one bear per week during three mornings during the summers of 1989 and 1990. Overall, animals were more active, less passive and less often engaged in abnormal behaviors during sessions with enrichment. Effects showed individual variation and were more profound during the second year of the study, when a greater variety of enrichment items was presented. These results suggest that simple and inexpensive methods of enrichment may have a significant, positive influence on the behavior of captive bears. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The food-related stereotypies of some captive species (e.g. mink) are performed most often prior to feeding, while those of others (e.g. pigs and chickens) occur at low levels before feeding and increase after food consumption. It has been suggested that these differences reflect adaptive species differences in how feeding behaviour is controlled. However, this hypothesis rests on several underlying assumptions for which there is incomplete support. One assumption is that there are indeed species differences in the design of motivational systems, and we suggest some specific predictions to test this idea. For example, the ingestion of small portions of food should lead to greater enhancement of local searching behaviour in species whose food supply is particulate and patchy. The basic premise underlying this evolutionary explanation for species differences in stereotypy is that such differences are genetically based, not an artefact of the way different animals are kept. However, we argue that variation in husbandry may also cause variation in stereotypies. For example, the autoshaping literature reveals factors likely to affect pre-feeding stereotypies: unreliable predictors of food delivery, or predictors that occur some time before food is presented, give rise to general locomotory search phases of appetitive behaviour rather than behaviour related to food handling. Farmed mink may therefore show high levels of pre-feeding locomotor behaviour principally because sounds predicting the delivery of their daily meal are quite unreliable and commence long before the food arrives. Lack of space may also inhibit locomotor forms of pre-feeding stereotypies in pigs and chickens. In addition, the high post-feeding appetitive behaviour of these two species may be caused by lack of satiation following food. Overall, evolutionary hypotheses make predictions about stereotypy based on feeding ecology, but there are also alternative causal hypotheses that make predictions based on aspects of husbandry. Together, these may help to explain the forms of existing stereotypies, and to anticipate the forms likely to arise in new husbandry systems or in newly captive species.
The effects of different spatial areas and different social conditions on behaviours of beagles maintained in a laboratory were evaluated. Eighteen female purpose-bred beagles were divided into six groups of three, and housed individually for 3 months each in six different housing conditions: (A) a 6.1 m × 9.1 m outdoor pen; (B) a 1.8 m × 6.1 m outdoor run; (C) a 1.2 m × 3.66 m indoor run; (D) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage; (E) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage with 30 min of forced treadmill exercise, 5 days week-1; (F) a 0.71 m × 0.86 m × 0.69 m cage. Behaviours of six dogs housed in pairs in Conditions A and C were also compared. Behaviours studied were movement, vocalisation, lying down, sleep, object manipulation, barrier manipulation, barrier jumping, fence running, agonistic and affiliative activities, and proximity. Behavioural effects were compared among housing conditions, order of rotation through each housing condition, and behavioural changes over time during each 3 month rotation. Dogs spent more time moving in pens and runs than in cages. Dogs housed in the greatest degree of social isolation spent the most time moving, exhibited the greatest number of bizarre movements, and vocalised the most. Dogs housed in the smallest cages spent more time grooming and in manipulation of enclosure barriers than those housed in any other conditions. Forced treadmill exercise did not significantly alter behaviours. When housed in pairs, dogs spent more time sleeping and showed a tendency to spend less time vocalising than when housed singly. The results indicate that spatial area and activity are not likely to be the most important factors to be considered when evaluating psychosocial well-being of dogs. In assessing the psychosocial well-being of dogs, social isolation may be as harmful or more harmful than spatial restriction.
This study explored the influence of five toys (squeaky ball, non-squeaky ball, Nylabone chew, tug rope and Boomer ball) on the behaviour of 32 adult dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each toy separately for six days, with an intervening period of one day between toys. The dogs' location in their kennels (front or back), activity (moving, standing, sitting or resting) and vocalisation (barking, quiet or other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals on Days 1, 3 and 5 during a control condition (no toy present) and during five experimental (toy) conditions. Whether or not the dogs were observed playing with the toys during the experimental conditions was also recorded. The dogs spent relatively little (<8%) of the overall observation time playing with the toys. The toys elicited varying degrees of interest, with dogs showing a preference for the Nylabone chew over the other toys. The dogs' interest in the toys waned over time, but the speed of habituation to the Nylabone chew was slower than to any of the other toys. The dogs' activity was significantly related to toy condition: dogs spent more time moving and less time standing during the Nylabone chew, squeaky ball and non-squeaky ball conditions than during any of the other conditions. It is suggested that the welfare of kennelled dogs may be slightly enhanced by the addition of suitable toys to their kennels. It is advised, however, that toys are rotated to encourage exploration and reduce habituation. The provision of other forms of environmental enrichment is also recommended.
Mammals are unique among vertebrates in experiencing a need to carry out behaviours which are not necessary for their immediate survival. This poses questions as to the nature of these behavioural needs, how they evolved and their implications for the welfare of mammals in captivity. Evidence is provided to show that mammals carry out daily programmes of activity which meet four kinds of requirement, namely, for security, appropriate environmental complexity, novelty and opportunities for achievement. Within their programmes mammals perform two kinds of activity: work, which relates to day to day survival, and leisure, in the form of curiosity or play, which provides experience which may prove to be of value in the long term.
The existence of behavioural needs is consistent with our knowledge of mammalian evolution. Even the earliest known mammals, living over 120 million years ago, differed from reptiles in having brain to body size ratios four to five times greater. The increase in brain size resulted largely from the massive expansion of a region of the cerebral cortex, known as the neopallium, which acts as a co-ordinating centre for sensory data, and creates a model of the world which determines subsequent action. During the 60 million year tertiary era, relative brain size increased in most orders of eutherian mammals, so that only the more intelligent survived.
Because mammals rely for their survival on collecting and analyzing data and acting intelligently, they need facilities to search for information to establish and monitor their concept of the real world; their psychological well-being depends on an environment which offers such facilities. There are two kinds of behavioural needs; psychological needs, which appear to be unique to mammals, and ethological needs which are experienced by all vertebrates. It is concluded that environmental quality for captive mammals should not just be assessed negatively, by the absence of abnormal behaviours, but more positively by the extent to which it meets their psychological needs.
Obesity is regarded as the most common form of malnutrition seen by veterinarians. An estimated 25% of cats are described as overweight or obese and this condition is a known risk factor for other diseases. It is crucial to find effective and practical ways for veterinarians and pet owners to achieve safe weight loss in cats. The objective of this 4–week trial was to promote weight loss by increasing the activity levels of 18 cats through feeding enrichment, food motivated play, increased intensity play sessions, and the introduction of new enrichment structures. The body condition score (BCS) of the cats was determined by one veterinarian (normal, 4; slightly overweight, 5; overweight, 6; obese, 7). Group 1 was composed of eight cats, which were considered to be overweight or obese (median BCS: 6; range: 5–7), while the remaining 10 cats (Group 2) were normal or slightly overweight (median: BCS 5; range: 4–5). The cats were weighed weekly to monitor for safe weight loss in Group 1 and weight maintenance in Group 2. The change in weight from baseline was evaluated with a paired Student t test. Both groups of cats were fed individually to meet maintenance requirements; with Group 1 being fed a weight reduction dry formula and Group 2 fed a feline maintenance canned diet. The cats were exercised three times daily. Two of the exercise sessions (10 min each) used food as motivation and reward for physical activity. The third session (15 min) consisted of intense play using a variety of new toys and enrichment structures, such as tunnels, large paper bags, boxes, and a custom-built play tower. The cats’ participation in all play sessions was voluntary. The cats were fed twice daily. Half of their ration offered was in an enriched feeding container that required effort and activity to access the food and the balance was offered in a standard dish. The relative amounts of food consumed from either the enrichment container or the dish was recorded. Group 1 cats lost an average of 62 ± 26 g from baseline (−1.1 ± 0.06% body weight) (p = 0.0003) through exercise and feeding enrichment alone. The Group 2 cats did not experience a significant change in weight from baseline, with an average loss of 64 ± 106 g (−0.9 ± 0.7% body weight) (p = 0.09). Despite the short duration of this trial, environmental and feeding enrichment resulted in a small but significant weight loss in Group 1.
This meta-analysis reports the effect enrichment has on the occurrence of stereotypic behavior exhibited by captive zoo mammals. The analysis also identifies which types of enrichment are most effective, which groups of animals benefit the most, and which types of stereotypes are most affected by environmental enrichment. The analysis included 54 studies that yielded 63 effect size statistics. Fifty-seven of sixty-three effect sizes went in the predicted direction (90%), with the animals participating in less stereotypic behavior during the enrichment condition than in the baseline condition. The mean effect size (correlation coefficient r) was 0.46. The combined P-value using both fixed and random effects methods was reveled to be <0.0000001. A file drawer N-value was calculated to identify the number of unretrieved studies (with a combined effect size of zero) that would be needed to nullify the results of this analysis. The file drawer N-value was 1,726, suggesting that it is highly unlikely that the significant results reported in this analysis are nullified by studies that remain in file drawers. Based on these results it was concluded that enrichment substantially reduces the frequency of stereotypic behavior exhibited by mammals living in zoo environments. Zoo Biol 0:1–21, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
In this review we attempt to link the efficiency by which animals behave (economy of animal behaviour) to a neuronal substrate and subjective states to arrive at a definition of animal welfare which broadens the scope of its study. Welfare is defined as the balance between positive (reward, satisfaction) and negative (stress) experiences or affective states. The state of this balance may range from positive (good welfare) to negative (poor welfare). These affective states are momentary or transient states which occur against the background of and are integrated with the state of this balancing system. As will be argued the efficiency in behaviour requires that, for instance, satisfaction is like a moving target: reward provides the necessary feedback to guide behaviour; it is a not steady-state which can be maintained for long. This balancing system is reflected in the brain by the concerted action of opioid and mesolimbic dopaminergic systems. The state of this system reflects the coping capacity of the animal and is determined by previous events. In other words, this integrative approach of behavioural biology and neurobiology aims at understanding how the coping capacity of animals may be affected and measured. We argue that this balancing system underlies the economy of behaviour. Furthermore we argue that among other techniques anticipation in Pavlovian conditioning is an easy and useful tool to assess the state of this balancing system: for estimating the state of an animal in terms of welfare we focus on the conditions when an animal is facing a challenge.
Stereotypies are repetitive, invariant behaviour patterns with no obvious goal or function. They seem to be restricted to captive animals, mentally ill or handicapped humans, and subjects given stimulant drugs. In this respect they are abnormal, although possibly the product of normal behavioural processes. Stereotypies are often associated with past or present sub-optimal aspects of the environment, and have been used as a welfare indicator. It has been hypothesized that stereotypies have beneficial consequences which reinforce their performance, although other means, such as positive feedback, may equally explain their persistence. Empirical evidence links them with lowered awareness of external events, and reduced arousal and distress. However, as most of this evidence is correlational it remains uncertain that the stereotypies are themselves the cause of coping. Furthermore, they are heterogeneous in source of origin, proximate causation and physical characteristics, and they change over time in important respects, becoming more readily elicited by a wider range of circumstances. Therefore the properties of one stereotypy are not necessarily those of another.
The increasingly widespread use of the term ethological ‘need’, implying that the welfare of animals in intensive husbandry systems will suffer if they are unable to express a normal range of behaviour patterns, has been criticized on the grounds that the term has not been clearly defined nor does it rest on a solid scientific foundation. In this critical review, evidence is presented which is consistent with the idea that there are cases in which the performance of behaviour itself does have motivationally significant consequences which are not necessarily related to functional requirements. For example, hens go through nest-building sequences during pre-laying behaviour, even though the nest they created previously is still available. This kind of finding is difficult to explain without involving the concept of ethological ‘need’. Existing models of motivation are shown to be inadequate in explaining much of the behaviour seen in barren or impoverished environments, or when the animals are highly motivated in situations where consummatory behaviour is difficult to carry out. A modified model which can account for the occurrence of these stereotyped, abnormal and repetitive behaviour patterns is presented. The problems raised by equating the term ‘need’ with ‘necessity’ are discussed, particularly in the context of intensive environments where animals are faced with the task of occupying long periods of time with a limited range of behaviour patterns; the authors agree with Dawkins that one solution is its replacement by the concept of ‘elasticity’, but argue that the notion of ‘necessity’ may need to be broadened.
We tested the general assumption that enrichment of the housing environment is rewarding to laboratory rats, Rattus norvegicus. We used the behavioural response in anticipation of a forthcoming reward as a measure of the rewarding property of a simple enriched cage. For this, a Pavlovian conditioning schedule was applied to announce the oncoming transfer to an enriched cage. The response of rats in anticipation of this transfer was compared with that of rats that expected sexual contact, transfer to a standard cage or forced swimming. We also characterized the behavioural profile of the anticipatory response, because until now only general descriptions of this behaviour have been available. The strong increase in activity in anticipation of both an enriched cage and sexual contact and the similar response in terms of the behavioural elements analysed indicate that the appraisal of access to an enriched cage shares a common denominator with the perception of sexual contact. Because sexual contact is generally accepted to have highly rewarding properties to rats, we concluded that the enriched cage is highly rewarding as well. The anticipatory response for sexual contact or an enriched cage was clearly different from the anticipation for access to a standard cage or a forced swim session, indicating that the anticipatory response is related to the positive nature of the stimulus. In general, anticipation appears to be quantifiable by the level of activity measured by the total frequency of behavioural elements displayed. Some behavioural elements, such as exploration, locomotion, arousal and grooming, seem to be more specifically related to the nature of the forthcoming stimulus. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
When individual vertebrates loose grip on their life conditions stress symptoms appear and their welfare becomes problematic. Present day research supports the view that stress can originate when an organism experiences a substantial reduction of predictability and/or controllability (PIC) of relevant events. Behavioural (conflict and disturbed behaviour) and physiological (neuro-endocrine and autonomic processes) aspects of a reduction of PIC are reviewed. The highly dynamic patterns of the homeostatic mechanisms activated during stress make it difficult to deduce any simple relationship between stress and welfare.
A list of relevant stress symptoms has been presented, all of which indicate some stage of serious welfare problems. Their occurrence should never be typical of animals living in a farm, laboratory or zoo housing system. However, if after all this is the case, such systems have to be corrected and replaced by more appropriate ones as soon as possible.
Capuchin monkeys often employ complex manipulative skills while recovering food items. Five captive Cebus capucinus were presented with two identical feeders that required the monkeys to lift up flaps, search through hay, and perform coordinated hand movements in order to obtain food items. The intent of this study was not to merely increase the amount of time the animals spent feeding, but to provide opportunities for greater expression of species-typical foraging behavior. In addition to their regular diet, figs and various types of unshelled nuts were placed inside the feeders. The monkeys avidly searched for and removed food from the feeders, displaying a wide variety of manipulative abilities. The amount of time the animals spent foraging significantly increased (p less than 0.05) whereas the amount of time the animals spent locomoting and resting significantly decreased (p less than 0.05) when the feeders were available. The feeders were portable, durable, easy to clean, and relatively inexpensive.
Supporting Hebb's 1949 hypothesis of use-induced plasticity of the nervous system, our group found in the 1960s that training or differential experience induced neurochemical changes in cerebral cortex of the rat and regional changes in weight of cortex. Further studies revealed changes in cortical thickness, size of synaptic contacts, number of dendritic spines, and dendritic branching. Similar effects were found whether rats were assigned to differential experience at weaning (25 days of age), as young adults (105 days) or as adults (285 days). Enriched early experience improved performance on several tests of learning. Cerebral results of experience in an enriched environment are similar to results of formal training. Enriched experience and training appear to evoke the same cascade of neurochemical events in causing plastic changes in brain. Sufficiently rich experience may be necessary for full growth of species-specific brain characteristics and behavioral potential. Clayton and Krebs found in 1994 that birds that normally store food have larger hippocampi than related species that do not store. This difference develops only in birds given the opportunity to store and recover food. Research on use-induced plasticity is being applied to promote child development, successful aging, and recovery from brain damage; it is also being applied to benefit animals in laboratories, zoos and farms.
Sexual behavior problems do occur as a primary diagnosis, but excessive sexual behavior is a common secondary problem. Mounting occurs in almost half of dogs with behavior problems and 20% of cats with behavior problems.
Neuronal plasticity is a central theme of modern neurobiology, from
cellular and molecular mechanisms of synapse formation in Drosophila
to behavioural recovery from strokes in elderly humans. Although the methods
used to measure plastic responses differ, the stimuli required to elicit plasticity
are thought to be activity-dependent. In this article, we focus on the neuronal
changes that occur in response to complex stimulation by an enriched environment.
We emphasize the behavioural and neurobiological consequences of specific
elements of enrichment, especially exercise and learning
In this study, we report differential behavioural and cognitive effects, as assessed in the open-field and the Morris water maze, following psychological stress in enriched vs. impoverished housed rats. Three stress conditions were evaluated: nonstress, mild stress and powerful stress. Mild stress consisted of exposure to an avoidance box but without shock, while in the powerful stress condition animals were exposed to an electric shock. The results revealed distinct effects in the differentially housed animals. Prior exposure to a mild stress enhanced escape performance in the water maze in enriched but not impoverished animals. However, preexposure to powerful stress negatively affected animals from both housing conditions in the water maze task, but with the enriched animals less affected than impoverished animals. In the open-field test, stress preexposure reduced locomotion counts in both the differentially housed animals. In addition, the results showed that the enrichment effect on emotional reactivity in the open-field is long-lasting and persists even after extensive training and housing in standard laboratory conditions. The results are discussed in relation to the nature of the behavioural and learning differences between the differentially housed animals.
Concepts of motivation are vital to progress in behavioral neuroscience. Motivational concepts help us to understand what limbic brain systems are chiefly evolved to do, i.e., to mediate psychological processes that guide real behavior. This article evaluates some major motivation concepts that have historic importance or have influenced the interpretation of behavioral neuroscience research. These concepts include homeostasis, setpoints and settling points, intervening variables, hydraulic drives, drive reduction, appetitive and consummatory behavior, opponent processes, hedonic reactions, incentive motivation, drive centers, dedicated drive neurons (and drive neuropeptides and receptors), neural hierarchies, and new concepts from affective neuroscience such as allostasis, cognitive incentives, and reward 'liking' versus 'wanting'.
It is known that stress can influence the sensitivity to rewarding stimuli. Previous observations revealed that socially stressed rats do not display an appetitive behavioural response in anticipation of a reward. A previous study showed that this insensitivity to rewards (anhedonia) could be restored by chronic administration of an antidepressant. Several lines of evidence exist for the role of dopamine in the mechanism of action of antidepressant treatments concerning their therapeutic effect on anhedonia. Therefore, it was hypothesized that regular activation of the reward system, that involves mesolimbic dopaminergic systems, could counteract the effect of social stress on reward-sensitivity. For this, it was investigated whether a treatment of regular reward announcements could prevent the development of anhedonia. This was confirmed by the result that socially stressed rats that received this treatment were able to display anticipatory behaviour which is characterized by increased activity after presentation of a stimulus that was previously associated with a sucrose reward. Surprisingly, a non-treated socially stressed group, that did not show an anticipatory response for sucrose, did display anticipatory behaviour for another type of reward (enriched cage). It seems that, although one might assume the existence of an anhedonic state based upon the absence of anticipatory activity towards a sucrose reward, this assumption cannot be generalised to other types of reward. It will be discussed whether this might be caused by the highly rewarding properties of the enriched cage which probably has a therapeutical efficacy of its own.
A comparison of social and environmental enrichment methods for laboratory housed dogs 182–195194 rAuthor's personal copy Hughes The notion of ethological ‘need’, models of motivation and animal welfare
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- Schipper
Hubrecht, R.C., 1993. A comparison of social and environmental enrichment methods for laboratory housed dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 37, 345–361. L.L. Schipper et al./Applied Animal Behaviour Science 114 (2008) 182–195194 rAuthor's personal copy Hughes, B.O., Duncan, I.J.H., 1988. The notion of ethological ‘need’, models of motivation and animal welfare. Anim. Behav. 36, 1696–1707
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Cage enrichment and mouse behaviour
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