ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Emerging adults have high rates of heavy episodic drinking (binge drinking) and related risks including alcohol-impaired driving. To understand whether social networking sites (SNSs) used on mobile devices represent a viable platform for real-time interventions, this study measured emerging adults' use of two popular SNSs (Facebook and Twitter) during the Mifflin Street Block Party. This annual festival is held in Madison, Wisconsin and is known for high alcohol consumption. Event attendees ages 18-23 years were recruited by young adult research assistants (>21 years). Participants completed a brief in-person interview assessing drinking intensity, use of SNSs, and use of SNSs to plan transportation. Analyses included t-tests, chi-squared tests, and Fisher's exact tests. At the event, nearly all of the 200 participants (97 %) consumed alcohol and 18 % met criteria for heavy episodic drinking. Approximately one-third of participants had used Facebook or Twitter on the day of the event. Facebook use (23 %) was more prevalent than Twitter use (18 %), especially among heavy episodic drinkers. Use of either SNS was 41 % among females and 24 % among males (χ (2) = 6.01; df = 1; p = 0.01). Plans to use a SNS to arrange transportation were relatively uncommon (4 %), but this was more frequent among heavy episodic drinkers (11 %) compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers (2 %) (Fisher's exact p = 0.02). These results indicate that SNSs are used during alcohol consumption and warrant exploration as a way to facilitate connections to resources like safe ride services.
Content may be subject to copyright.
S H O R T R E P O R T Open Access
Emerging adultsuse of alcohol and social
networking sites during a large street festival: A
real-time interview study
Jennifer M. Whitehill
1*
, Megan A. Pumper
2
and Megan A. Moreno
2,3
Abstract
Background: Emerging adults have high rates of heavy episodic drinking (binge drinking) and related risks including
alcohol-impaired driving. To understand whether social networking sites (SNSs) used on mobile devices represent a
viable platform for real-time interventions, this study measured emerging adultsuse of two popular SNSs (Facebook
and Twitter) during the Mifflin Street Block Party. This annual festival is held in Madison, Wisconsin and is known for
high alcohol consumption.
Findings: Event attendees ages 1823 years were recruited by young adult research assistants (>21 years). Participants
completed a brief in-person interview assessing drinking intensity, use of SNSs, and use of SNSs to plan transportation.
Analyses included t-tests, chi-squared tests, and Fishers exact tests. At the event, nearly all of the 200 participants (97 %)
consumed alcohol and 18 % met criteria for heavy episodic drinking. Approximately one-third of participants had used
Facebook or Twitter on the day of the event. Facebook use (23 %) was more prevalent than Twitter use (18 %), especially
among heavy episodic drinkers. Use of either SNS was 41 % among females and 24 % among males (χ
2
=6.01;df=1;
p =0.01). Plans to use a SNS to arrange transportation were relatively uncommon (4 %), but this was more frequent
among heavy episodic drinkers (11 %) compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers (2 %) (Fishers exact p = 0.02).
Conclusions: These results indicate that SNSs are used during alcohol consumption and warrant exploration as a way
to facilitate connections to resources like safe ride services.
Keywords: Alcohol, Mifflin Street Block Party, Binge drinking, Drunk driving, Social networking sites, Social media,
Facebook, Twitter, Emerging adult
Background
Alcohol use is among the leading causes of morbidity
and mortality for emerging adults age 18 to 24 years [1].
Approximately 54 % of college students and 50 % of
their non-college attending peers report alcohol use in
the past 30 days [2]. A particularly risky setting for alco-
hol consumption and associated negative consequences
are alcohol-themed events and parties such as New
YearsEve,StPatricks Day, spring break or Halloween
[3, 4]. These events can lead to heavy episodic drinking
even among students who typically abstain [3, 5]. Previous
work has illustrated associations between heavy alcohol
at these events and negative health and behavioral
consequences including driving after drinking, and
committing acts of theft or vandalism [6].
One specific alcohol-themed event takes place yearly
in Madison, Wisconsin. The Mifflin Street Block Party
(MSBP), held in May on a major street adjacent to the
University of Wisconsin-Madison (UW-Madison) cam-
pus, is a day-long event in which 2 blocks of Mifflin
Street are blocked-off from vehicular traffic and booths
are set up with music and food. In 2011, alcohol was
served to those who are over age 21. The street and
nearby off-campus student housing become a destination
for partying by approximately 10,00015,000 individuals.
A majority of MSBP attendees are students, though other
members of the Madison community attend as well. In re-
cent years, the MSBP event has led to arrests for open
containers and underage consumption [7, 8], as well as
more serious violent offenses [9]. Alcohol-themed events
* Correspondence: jmw@umass.edu
1
Department of Health Promotion and Policy, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© 2015 Whitehill et al.; licensee BioMed Central. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain
Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article,
unless otherwise stated.
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21
DOI 10.1186/s13011-015-0016-3
like MSBP occur at many colleges and universities and
can present challenges for institutions wishing to keep
their students safe from alcohol-related harm [3]. As law
enforcement, communities and universities consider
novel approaches to appropriately limit or sanction
alcohol-themes events, innovative ideas to reduce harm
are needed.
Use of online social networking sites (SNS) is wide-
spread among emerging adults and may offer new possi-
bilities for identification of problem drinking and
interventions to prevent related consequences during
alcohol-themed events. Nearly 75 % of 1824 year-olds
use Facebook [10] and 31 % use Twitter [11], the two
most popular SNSs. Young adults with dense online so-
cial networks and strong emotional links to their online
peers report more alcohol use [12]. Online discussions
of substance use have been found to support social
norms that are permissive of alcohol use [13]. Research
among college students demonstrates that they fre-
quently display references to alcohol consumption on
their Facebook profiles [14, 15]. These references are
positively associated with clinical measures of problem
drinking [16]. A 2014 study in the Wisconsin Medical
Journal illustrated that UW-Madison students frequently
posted on Facebook about their intention to attend the
MSBP and these postings were highly correlated with
high levels of alcohol consumption at MSBP [17].
Nearly half of emerging adults own a smartphone that
permits mobile use of SNSs [18]. A majority of Facebook
users in the United States access the site via a mobile
device [19], but previous research has not addressed
whether social media is used during episodes of drinking
when there are other sources of influence competing in
real time for attention (e.g. music, food, friends who are
present, etc.) From a public health perspective, the use
of SNSs from mobile devices creates the potential to
reach individuals where and when they are actively
drinking alcohol. Prior qualitative work suggests that
some college students thought SNS features could be
useful for obtaining help in an emergency or if safe
transportation is needed [20], but the extent to which
emerging adults use SNSs in real time during alcohol
consumption remains unknown. Understanding the
characteristics of those who may use SNS in this manner
could have implications for targeting efforts to prevent
alcohol related harm. Female gender is associated with
higher use of SNSs, generally [21], but it is unclear if this
holds true in the context of alcohol use. Further, those
who engage in heavy episodic drinking are at high risk for
alcohol related problems, so it is useful to understand
whether that type of drinker is also using SNSs. Thus, the
purpose of this exploratory study was to: 1) assess the pro-
portion of emerging adults who use Facebook and/or
Twitter during a drinking event, 2) determine whether use
of these SNSs varies by gender or drinking intensity, and
3) assess patterns in intent to use SNSs for planning
transportation.
Methods
Study design
This cross-sectional study utilized participant interviews
on-site at a large, alcohol-themed event to capture real-
time data.
Setting
Data were collected during the Mifflin Street Block Party
in May 2012. This event had approximately 5,000 at-
tendees, most of whom were college students. This event
was an ideal environment in which to study drinking be-
havior and SNS use in real-time, as it had a significant
social media presence with 7,959 likeson the event's
Facebook page as of November 1, 2012 [22]. Study pro-
cedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board
at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Participants
Participants were emerging adults attending the street
festival. Inclusion criteria limited participants to those
between the ages of 18 and 23 years. Persons who ap-
peared to be heavily intoxicated were not approached.
Procedure
During the street festival, between 12 pm and 5 pm, 7
research assistants (age > 21) were present at the MSBP
in 5 different locations. The research assistants were
trained to use a standardized protocol for data collec-
tion. The data collectors selected and approached indi-
viduals and asked if they were interested in participating
in a brief interview about social media and alcohol use.
After a script was read, interested individuals provided
oral consent. Data collectors read interview questions to
the participants and recorded their responses using pen
and paper. The interview lasted approximately 510 min.
Data collection
Rather than asking participant age directly, age was
assessed as a yes/no response to the question Are you
between the ages of 18 and 23?in order to avoid disclo-
sures of underage drinking. The interviewer then assessed
gender.
To assess alcohol consumption, the interviewer asked
the participant if he/she had been drinking any alcohol
that day. Participants who indicated they had been
drinking were asked: What time did you begin drinking
today?and How many drinks have you had so far?
The interviewers recorded the time the interview took
place so that the duration of drinking could be
calculated.
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21 Page 2 of 6
All participants who indicated that they had been
drinking were asked about SNS use. To assess SNS use,
drinkers were asked: Have you used Facebook since you
started drinking today?and Have you used Twitter since
you started drinking today?Finally, to assess patterns in
whether SNS are used for planning safe transportation we
asked all participants: Do you plan to use Facebook or
Twitter to arrange transportation home tonight?
Participants received a small (0.5 L) bottle of water as
an incentive for participation.
Constructed variables
Drinking duration was calculated by subtracting the re-
ported time that drinking began from the time at which
the interview was conducted. The rate of drinking was ob-
tained by dividing the number of reported drinks by the
duration of drinking. We multiplied the hourly rate by 2
in order to obtain an estimate of heavy episodic drinking
that was in line with g criteria from the National Institutes
of Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), defining
heavy episodic drinkers as males who drank at a rate of 5
or more drinks in two hours and females who drank at a
rate of more than 4 drinks in 2 h [23] We categorized
heavy episodic drinkers as those with a drinking duration
of 2 or more hours and a rate greater than or equal to 5
(for males) or 4 (for females) drinks per 2 h.
Analysis
All analyses were conducted using Stata 12 computer soft-
ware. Analysis first involved calculating descriptive statis-
tics (means and proportions) for all variables. Chi-square
tests were used to assess differences in categorical vari-
ables by gender and status as a heavy episodic drinker.
Fisher's exact test was used in instances where the ex-
pected values were less than 5 observations in at least
one cell of the 2 × 2 table. T-tests were used to assess
between-group differences for the continuous variables
for drinking duration and number of drinks.
Results
A total of 200 individuals completed the study and 52 %
were male. Research assistants approached 214 individ-
uals: 8 people refused to participate (response rate = 96 %)
and 6 were ineligible due to being outside the target age
range of 18 to 23 years. The majority (97 %) of emerging
adults surveyed reported drinking alcohol on the day of
the event. On average, participants had been drinking for
5 h (SD = 2.4) and consumed 7.4 drinks (SD = 4.6). Almost
one quarter of participants had met NIAAA criteria for
heavy episodic drinking (Table 1). Males and females had
statistically significant differences in the number of drinks
consumed at the event and in the duration of drinking,
with males having higher values on both of these mea-
sures (Table 2). The proportion of participants who met
criteria for heavy episodic drinking was similar for males
(19 %) and females (17 %); chi-squared tests indicated this
difference was not statistically significant.
Overall, 32 % of participants used either Facebook or
Twitter since they began drinking that day, with 23 %
reporting Facebook use and 18 % reporting Twitter use.
Use of both SNSs was higher for females than for males
(Table 2). For females, 42 % used either SNS at the event,
whereasthiswastrueforonly25%ofmales(χ
2
= 6.01;
df=1;p=0.014).
There were several differences in SNS use based on the
intensity of drinking, as shown in Table 3. More heavy epi-
sodic drinkers (40 %) used Facebook compared to non-
heavy episodic drinkers (19 %) (χ
2
=7.07;df=1;p=0.008).
Twitter use was less common among heavy episodic
drinkers (9 %) than among non-heavy episodic drinkers
(20 %), although this difference was not a statistically sig-
nificant difference (Fishers exact test, p = 0.145).
Use of SNS for transportation planning was relatively
rare for the sample overall (4 %), but heavy episodic
drinkers (12 %) were more likely report intention to use
SNS to plan transportation compared to non-heavy epi-
sodic drinkers (2 %) (Fishers exact test; p = 0.02).
Discussion and conclusions
To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate
the use of social media during a public event at which
alcohol consumption is a primary activity. It builds upon
prior knowledge demonstrating that the use of mobile
devices and social media are ubiquitous among the
emerging adult population [24] by assessing the proportion
that use social media while they are actively drinking. The
purpose of this study was to assess whether emerging
adults use social media during the day of a drinking event,
as understanding this could provide a basis for considering
Table 1 Characteristics of emerging adults age 18-23 years
attending the Mifflin Street Block Party (MSBP)
n = 200 n %
Gender
Male 103 52
Female 97 48
Alcohol use at block party
Used alcohol 192 97
Heavy episodic drinking 43 22
Social networking site use at block party
Used Facebook 45 23
Used Twitter 35 18
Used either SNS 65 33
Planned to use SNS to arrange transportation from block party 7 4
SNS Social networking site. Heavy episodic drinking defined according to
NIAAA criteria (>5 drinks in 2 h for males; >4 drinks in 2 h for females)
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21 Page 3 of 6
future intervention possibilities. The results indicate that
46 % of heavy episodic drinkers used either Facebook or
Twitter while drinking on the day of a large alcohol-
themed event. Fewer emerging adults used Twitter as com-
pared to Facebook, which is consistent with prior research.
In this study, heavy episodic drinkers, known from
previous work to be at elevated risk of alcohol-related
motor vehicle crashes, used Facebook during the drink-
ing episode at higher rates than non-heavy episodic
drinkers and used Twitter at lower rates. This is consist-
ent with previous studies which showed positive associa-
tions between displaying alcohol references on Facebook
and self-reported problematic alcohol use [16]. This
study extends those findings to illustrate that in some
cases, the displayed alcohol references are happening in
real-time during a drinking experience.
Use of social media use for transportation planning dur-
ing this event was relatively low. This may be because
many individuals walk to the event and therefore do not
spend much time considering transportation. Or, it may
reflect the idea that other forms of communication (i.e.
phone calls or text messaging) are used to plan transporta-
tion rather than social media. This is an area that warrants
future exploration. It is possible that if safe ride services
were advertised and offered via social media, SNS use to
plan transportation would increase.
Heavy episodic drinkers also had a greater tendency to
indicate intent to use SNS to plan transportation. Re-
sources to facilitate use of safe transportation, especially
delivered through the Facebook environment, may be
able to reach a population of high-risk drinkers. One
practical translation of this finding could be to encour-
age event organizers to disseminate messages about a
free shuttle bus service or taxi stand locations to individ-
uals who likethe Facebook page of the alcohol-
drinking event. This tactic could allow prevention efforts
to be directly and inexpensively targeted to a high-risk
population. Mobile users of Facebook, like those in this
study, would receive these messages and could poten-
tially even be able to interact with the organizers via
Facebook during the event. Future studies could explore
the feasibility, acceptability, and outcomes of such an
Table 3 Heavy episodic drinking and SNS site use among alcohol-using emerging adults at MSBP
Heavy episodic drinker (n =35) Non-heavy episodic drinker (n =157) p-value*
Alcohol use at the block party
Mean hours drinking (SD)** 3.67 (2.1) 5.35 (2.32) 0.001
Mean number of drinks (SD)** 10.0 (6.0) 6.9 (4.0) <0.001
Social networking site use at the block party
% used Facebook 40 19 0.008
% used Twitter*** 9 20 0.145
% used either SNS 46 30 0.086
% planned to use SNS for transportation*** 12 2 0.020
SNS Social networking site, MSBP Mifflin Street Block Party
Heavy episodic drinking defined according to NIAAA criteria (>5 drinks in 2 h for males; >4 drinks in 2 h for females)
*p-values reported from chi-squared tests unless otherwise indicated
**p-value from t-tests for difference in means
***p-value from Fishers exact test
Table 2 Alcohol and SNS use among alcohol-using emerging adults at MSBP, by gender
Males (n = 99) Females (n = 93) p-value*
Alcohol use at the block party
Mean hours drinking (SD)** 5.5 (2.6) 4.5 (2.0) 0.004
Mean number of drinks (SD)** 9.6 (5.0) 5.4 (3.0) <0.001
% heavy episodic drinkers 19 16 0.696
Social networking site use at the block party
% used Facebook 15 31 <0.001
% used Twitter 14 22 0.142
% used either SNS 25 42 0.014
% planned to use SNS for transportation*** 3 4 0.715
SNS Social networking site, MSBP Mifflin Street Block Party
Heavy episodic drinking defined according to NIAAA criteria (>5 drinks in 2 h for males; >4 drinks in 2 h for females)
*p-values reported from chi-squared tests unless otherwise indicated
**p-value from t-tests for difference in means
***p-value from Fishers exact test
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21 Page 4 of 6
intervention. SNS may also be useful for connecting
drinkers to mobile apps such as Uber and Lyft which
can be used for arranging safe transportation.
This study has limitations. The potential for selection
bias exists because we did not apply standardized ran-
dom sampling techniques, though we endeavored to
sample a variety of event attendees by conducting data
collection throughout the duration of the festival and at
different locations within the event. The data was self-
reported and therefore potentially subject to recall bias.
There is also the possibility of social desirability bias,
though prior research indicates that young adults dis-
close heavy episodic drinking behaviors in other in-
person assessments [25, 26]. The data collectors were
young adults themselves, which may have helped
minimize the potential for this bias. It is possible that
being under the influence of alcohol could have led par-
ticipants to over or under-report their alcohol consump-
tion, which is a limitation of any study in which
participants have consumed alcohol. Our method for
classifying heavy episodic drinkers may have underesti-
mated the number who engaged in this behavior at some
point during the day of MSBP. Because the sample was
drawn from one event, on one day, the results may not
be generalizable outside the context where the study oc-
curred. Efforts to examine whether these results hold
true in other settings are encouraged.
In conclusion, nearly one-third of emerging adults
used SNSs while drinking on the day of MSBP, an
alcohol-themed event; those who drank heavily were
more likely to use Facebook compared to those who did
not drink heavily. This finding should motivate univer-
sities and event organizers to incorporate social media,
especially Facebook, into their plans for advertising harm
reduction strategies and offering safe ride services when
alcohol-themed events take place. Additional research
will be needed to evaluate the reach and impact of such
efforts. Nonetheless, this study is an important first step
towards understanding the potential for targeted, real-
time interventions that use social media to influence be-
havior related to risky alcohol consumption and alcohol
impaired driving.
Abbreviations
SNS: Social networking site; MSBP: Mifflin Street Block Party; SMS: Short
message service; L: Liter; NIAAA: National Institutes of Alcoholism and
Alcohol Abuse.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authorscontributions
JW performed the statistical analysis and drafted the manuscript. MP
participated in the design of the study, coordination, and data collection,
and helped draft the methods of the study in the manuscript. MM
conceived of the study and participated in the design and coordination, and
helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgments
The authors of this study would like to acknowledge Leah Wachowski,
Natalie Goniu, Shari Schoohs, Mara Stewart, Angie Davis, and Lauren
Kacvinsky for helping with the data collection process.
Author details
1
Department of Health Promotion and Policy, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA.
2
Center for Child Health, Behavior and
Development, Seattle Childrens Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA.
3
Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
Received: 19 December 2014 Accepted: 29 April 2015
References
1. Hingson RW, Zha W, Weitzman ER. Magnitude of and trends in alcohol-
related mortality and morbidity among U.S. college students ages 18-24,
1998-2005. J Stud Alcohol Drugs Suppl. 2009;S16:1220.
2. Paschall MJ. College attendance and risk-related driving behavior in a national
sample of young adults. J Stud Alcohol. 2003;64:439.
3. Neighbors C, Atkins DC, Lewis MA, Lee CM, Kaysen D, Mittmann A, et al.
Event-specific drinking among college students. Psychol Addict Behav.
2011;25:7027.
4. Neighbors C, Walters ST, Lee CM, Vader AM, Vehige T, Szigethy T, et al.
Event-specific prevention: addressing college student drinking during
known windows of risk. Addict Behav. 2007;32:266780.
5. Lee CM, Maggs JL, Rankin LA. Spring break trips as a risk factor for heavy
alcohol use among first-year college students. J Stud Alcohol. 2006;67:9116.
6. Neal DJ, Fromme K. Event-level covariation of alcohol intoxication and be-
havioral risks during the first year of college. J Consult Clin Psychol.
2007;75:294306.
7. City of Madison. Release: Mifflin Street Block Party 2011. Available at:
http://www.cityofmadison.com/news/mifflin-street-block-party-2011.
Accessed May 22, 2015.
8. Adams B. Crowd smaller at Mifflin Street block party but arrests up.
Milwaukee, WI: Wisconsin State Journal; 2012.
9. DeLong K. Police say Mifflin street block party smaller this year. Available at:
http://fox6now.com/2012/05/06/police-say-mifflin-street-block-party-smaller-
this-year/ Accessed December 5, 2014.
10. Hampton KN. Social networking sites and our lives. Washington, DC: Pew
Internet and American Life Project; 2011.
11. Smith A, Brenner J. Twitter use 2012. Washington, DC: Pew Internet and
American Life Project; 2012.
12. Cook SH, Bauermeister JA, Gordon-Messer D, Zimmerman MA. Online network
influences on emerging adultsalcohol and drug use. J Youth Adolesc.
2013;42:167486.
13. Stoddard SA, Bauermeister JA, Gordon-Messer D, Johns M, Zimmerman MA.
Permissive norms and young adults' alcohol and marijuana use: the role of
online communities. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2012;73:96875.
14. Moreno MA, Briner LR, Williams A, Brockman L, Walker L, Christakis DA. A
content analysis of displayed alcohol references on a social networking web
site. J Adolesc Health. 2010;47:16875.
15. Egan KG, Moreno MA. Alcohol references on undergraduate males'
facebook profiles. Am J Mens Health. 2011;5:41320.
16. Moreno MA, Christakis DA, Egan KG, Brockman LN, Becker T. Associations
between displayed alcohol references on Facebook and problem drinking
among college students. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166:15763.
17. Moreno MA, Kacvinsky L, Pumper M, Wachowski L, Whitehill JM. Associations
between social media displays and event-specific alcohol consumption by
college students. Wis Med J. 2013;112:2516.
18. Smith A, Rainie L, Sickuhr K. College students and technology. Washington,
DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project; 2011.
19. Constine J. Facebook reveals 78% of us users are mobile as it starts sharing
user counts by country. Available at: http://techcrunch.com/2013/08/13/
facebook-mobile-user-count/ Accessed 2015 March 28.
20. Kazemi DM, Cochran AR, Kelly JF, Cornelius JB, Belk C. Integrating mhealth
mobile applications to reduce high risk drinking among underage students.
Health Educ J. 2014;73:26273.
21. Duggan M, Smith A. Social media update 2013. Washington, DC: Pew
Internet and American Life Project; 2013.
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21 Page 5 of 6
22. Unknown. Offical Facebook page - Mifflin Street Block Party '12. Available at:
http://www.facebook.com/mifflinstreetblockparty?fref=ts. Accessed November
1, 2012.
23. National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. What is a standard drink?
Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/PocketGuide/
pocket_guide2.htm. Accessed 22 May 2015.
24. Duggan M, Smith A. Social media update 2013. Washington, DC: Pew
Research Center; 2013.
25. Midanik LT, Greenfield TK. Telephone versus in-person interviews for alcohol
use: results of the 2000 national alcohol survey. Drug Alcohol Depend.
2003;72:20914.
26. Celio MA, Vetter-O'Hagen CS, Lisman SA, Johansen GE, Spear LP. Integrating
field methodology and web-based data collection to assess the reliability of
the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT). Drug Alcohol Depend.
2011;119:1424.
Submit your next manuscript to BioMed Central
and take full advantage of:
Convenient online submission
Thorough peer review
No space constraints or color figure charges
Immediate publication on acceptance
Inclusion in PubMed, CAS, Scopus and Google Scholar
Research which is freely available for redistribution
Submit your manuscript at
www.biomedcentral.com/submit
Whitehill et al. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy (2015) 10:21 Page 6 of 6
... Young adults may regularly use SNSs while drunk or initiate drinking while online (Barnes et al. 2016). For example, SNSs were frequently used by young adult heavy episodic drinkers while drinking during a block party (Whitehill, Pumper, and Moreno 2015). SNS and alcohol use leads to posting alcohol-related images on an individual SNS profile (Stoddard et al. 2012), an act that may independently predict additional alcohol use. ...
... If user-generated comments function as eWOM and pro-drinking comments can increase drinking intentions, it is expected that exposure to such comments among typical Facebook users would result in increased drinking behavior because, although the literature is not definitive, there is a consistent association between intentions to drink and drinking behavior. Other studies have demonstrated that SNS users drink while using a SNS platform (Barnes et al. 2016;Whitehill, Pumper, and Moreno 2015) and that posting drinking images on SNSs is associated with increased alcohol consumption (D'Angelo, Kerr, and Moreno 2014;Moreno et al. 2012;Moreno et al. 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Alcohol advertising has recently expanded onto social networking sites (SNSs), which allows users to interact with alcohol ads through user engagement features (e.g. Likes or Shares) and user-generated comments. Few studies have evaluated alcohol advertising on SNSs or investigated how ad interactivity may influence ad perceptions. Two inter-related studies were conducted to answer these questions. Methods: In Study 1, alcohol advertising posted on Facebook by Budweiser and Bud Light were evaluated for compliance with a self-regulated alcohol advertising code and for thematic content. User-generated comments written in response to these ads were also evaluated. The results of this study were used to inform Study 2, a 2(within) x 2(between) x 2(between) factorial randomized trial. Participants (n=120) viewed four pre-selected Facebook ads, of which two were compliant and two were non-compliant with a self-regulated alcohol advertising code. Participants also viewed real-world high or low user engagement values and real-world pro- or anti-drinking user-generated comments. Ad appeal, drinking intentions, and individual user engagement were measured after viewing each ad. The results were analyzed using hierarchical linear models. Results: In Study 1, 82% of the ads contained 1 or more violations of a self-regulated alcohol advertising code, and 78% of the ads contained one or more content areas previously associated with code violations. Forty-seven percent of the user-generated comments were positive towards the product or drinking. In Study 2, ads non-compliant with a self-regulated alcohol advertising code scored higher on emotional appeal (p=0.004) while compliant ads scored higher on informational (p<0.001) and source appeal (p=0.034). Pro-drinking user-generated comments significantly increased drinking intentions and individual user engagement. Discussion: Self-regulation has failed to prevent potentially harmful content from appearing in Budweiser and Bud Light advertising posted on Facebook. Non-compliance with existing self-regulated alcohol advertising codes was associated with increased emotional appeal, which may result in the ads being remembered more often and recalled more swiftly. Pro-drinking user-generated comments were associated with increased drinking intentions and increased individual user engagement, both of which are associated with increased alcohol consumption. New regulations may be needed to limit alcohol ad content and the influence of user-generated comments.
... Das and Kim (2015) argued that patterns of tweeting about alcohol could be used as indicators of alcohol use and abuse, where they showed an increase in the prevalence of alcohol-related tweets on weekends and during a major celebration in a particular geographic area. Whitehill, Pumper, and Moreno (2015) surveyed attendees of a street festival, where they measured their SNS use and alcohol use. Their results showed that about a third of alcohol users attending the street festival reported using either Facebook or Twitter during the event, of whom, heavy episodic drinkers reported a higher frequency of using Facebook, yet equal likelihood of using Facebook and Twitter in comparison with nonheavy episodic drinkers. ...
Article
Full-text available
Past research has suggested an associative relationship between social media use and alcohol consumption, especially among the younger generations. The current study takes a generalizable approach to examining the prevalence of posting about alcohol on a popular social media platform, Twitter, as well as examining the predictors of a tweet’s virality. We content-analyzed more than 47.5 million tweets that were posted in March 2015 to explore the prevalence of alcohol-related references, and how alcohol-related references, tweet features (e.g., inclusion of hashtags, pictures, etc.), and user characteristics (e.g., number of followers) contribute to the tweet’s virality. Our findings showed that during March 2015, about two of every 100 tweets in the United States were alcohol-related; whereas the majority of those referenced intoxication. In addition to tweet features and user characteristics, the prevalence of alcohol-related references in a tweet positively predicted the number of likes it received, yet negatively predicted the number of retweets. Given prior evidence supporting the association between social media use and alcohol consumption, the prevalence of alcohol references in tweets and how that contributes to their virality offers insights into the widespread phenomenon of glorifying alcohol use and excessive drinking via social media, pointing to potential negative health consequences.
... For example, the vast majority of young adults (85%) use photo-based social media apps such as Instagram regularly [37,38], and they often use social media-based apps to display their food and beverage intake [39,40]. Further, young adults commonly use photo-based social media apps during drinking episodes, including at parties and festivals [41,42]. Thus, SmartIntake® assessment may be a natural extension of young adults' existing behavior with mobile photography of food and beverage intake. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Heavy drinking is prevalent among young adults and may contribute to obesity. However, measurement tools for assessing caloric intake from alcohol are limited and rely on self-report, which is prone to bias. Objective: The purpose of our study was to conduct feasibility testing of the Remote Food Photography Method and the SmartIntake app to assess alcohol use in young adults. Aims consisted of (1) quantifying the ability of SmartIntake to capture drinking behavior, (2) assessing app usability with the Computer System Usability Questionnaire (CSUQ), (3) conducting a qualitative interview, and (4) comparing preference, usage, and alcohol use estimates (calories, grams per drinking episode) between SmartIntake and online diet recalls that participants completed for a parent study. Methods: College students (N=15) who endorsed a pattern of heavy drinking were recruited from a parent study. Participants used SmartIntake to send photographs of all alcohol and food intake over a 3-day period and then completed a follow-up interview and the CSUQ. CSUQ items range from 1-7, with lower scores indicating greater usability. Total drinking occasions were determined by adding the number of drinking occasions captured by SmartIntake plus the number of drinking occasions participants reported that they missed capturing. Usage was defined by the number of days participants provided food/beverage photos through the app, or the number of diet recalls completed. Results: SmartIntake captured 87% (13/15) of total reported drinking occasions. Participants rated the app as highly usable in the CSUQ (mean 2.28, SD 1.23). Most participants (14/15, 93%) preferred using SmartIntake versus recalls, and usage was significantly higher with SmartIntake than recalls (42/45, 93% vs 35/45, 78%; P=.04). Triple the number of participants submitted alcohol reports with SmartIntake compared to the recalls (SmartIntake 9/15, 60% vs recalls 3/15, 20%; P=.06), and 60% (9/15) of participants reported drinking during the study. Conclusions: SmartIntake was acceptable to college students who drank heavily and captured most drinking occasions. Participants had higher usage of SmartIntake compared to recalls, suggesting SmartIntake may be well suited to measuring alcohol consumption in young adults. However, 40% (6/15) did not drink during the brief testing period and, although findings are promising, a longer trial is needed.
... For example, binge drinkers were found to display their alcohol-related behaviours on social media (Moreno, Christakis, Egan, Brockman, & Becker, 2012;Pumper & Moreno, 2013;Ridout, Campbell, & Ellis, 2012). Being exposed to such virtual pro-alcohol displays may further instigate alcohol consumption during drinking events (Whitehill, Pumper, & Moreno, 2015). ...
Article
Objective: Binge drinking (also called heavy episodic drinking, risky single-occasion drinking etc.) is a major public health problem. This paper provides an overview of recently published evidence concerning the definition and measurement, prevalence rates, health impact, demographic and psychosocial correlates of, and interventions for, binge drinking. Design: Narrative review. Results: Mostly occurring among young people at weekends, binge drinking increases the risk of both acute (e.g. injuries) and long-term negative consequences (e.g. alcohol disorders). Binge drinkers tend to be extrovert, impulsive and sensation-seeking. Stress, anxiety, traumatic events and depression are also related to binge drinking. Both alcohol-related behaviour of parents and general parenting (e.g. parenting styles, monitoring) are also important. Other major risk factors for binge drinking are frequently spending time with friends who drink, and the drinking norms observed in the wider social environment (e.g. school, community, culture). Emergency departments, birthday parties, fraternities and the workplace serve as settings for interventions; these are increasingly delivered via digital and mobile technology. There is evidence of small-sized effects across approaches (brief interventions, personalised normative feedback, protective behavioural strategies etc.) and populations. Conclusion: A more consistent terminology, investigating multi-level influences and identifying the most effective intervention components are challenges for future research.
... Alcohol problems are also more prevalent in emerging adulthood than during any other time of life (Simons-Morton et al., 2016). Indeed,18-24 year olds have the highest rates of past year drinking, binge drinking (including the highest amounts of monthly and weekly binge drinking) and hazardous drinking relative to other age groups and this places them at further risk for alcohol-related problems, including adverse physical, mental, and social consequences (Boak et al., 2015;Dawson et al., 2015;Reich et al., 2015;Whitehill et al., 2015;Willoughby et al., 2014). Based on his theory, Arnett (2005) suggested that increased substance use in emerging adulthood is also functionally related to the challenges of this developmental stage. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: Although it is well established that resilience moderates the effects of child maltreatment on mental health, less is known about the effects of resilience on pathways from child maltreatment to depression symptoms and alcohol problems. Previous researchers have found that difficulties with relationships, identity and affect control (i.e., altered self-capacities; Briere & Runtz, 2002), are important antecedents of child maltreatment and are linked to challenges in adulthood. The current study tested a moderated mediation model of the relationship between childhood maltreatment, altered self-capacities, resilience and both depression symptoms and alcohol problems during emerging adulthood. Methods: Participants were 277 emerging adults (ages 18-24, M = 21.06; SD = 1.93; 69.3% female) recruited from the community who completed an online survey. Using PROCESS (Hayes, 2012), we examined a moderated mediation model of the relationship between child maltreatment, resilience, altered self-capacities, and both depression symptoms and alcohol problems. Results: Problems with identity and affect control mediated the relationship between child maltreatment and depression symptoms, whereas only problems with affect control mediated the relationship between child maltreatment and alcohol problems. In addition, resilience moderated the relationship between child maltreatment and alcohol problems and positively attenuated the relationship between child maltreatment and depression symptoms through identity problems. Conclusion and Implications: These findings provide a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms that link child maltreatment to outcomes in emerging adulthood and highlight resilience and difficulties with identity and affect control as important prevention and intervention targets. Acknowledgments:
... In [5], Christine Lee et al. found that the substance-use related behaviors have similar patterns in data from traditional surveybased approaches and those from social media. In [6], Jennifer Whitehill et al. studied the relationship between mobile usage of social networking sites (e.g. Facebook and Twitter) and the alcohol use in a large street festival. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Drug use and abuse is a serious societal problem. The fast development and adoption of social media and smart mobile devices in recent years bring about new opportunities for advancing computer-based strategies for understanding and intervention of drug-related behaviors. However, the existing literature still lacks principled ways of building computational models for supporting effective analysis of large-scale, often unstructured social media data. Part of the challenge stems from the difficulty of obtaining so-called ground-truth data that are typically required for training computational models. This paper presents a progressive semi-supervised learning approach to identifying Twitter tweets that are related to personal and recreational use of marijuana. Based on a small, labeled dataset, the proposed approach first learns optimal mapping of raw features from the tweets for classification, using a method of weakly hierarchical lasso. The learned feature model is then used to support unsupervised clustering of Web-scale data. Experiments with realistic data crawled from Twitter are used to validate the proposed approach, demonstrating its effectiveness.
... For example, binge drinkers were found to display their alcohol-related behaviours on social media (Moreno, Christakis, Egan, Brockman, & Becker, 2012;Pumper & Moreno, 2013;Ridout, Campbell, & Ellis, 2012). Being exposed to such virtual pro-alcohol displays may further instigate alcohol consumption during drinking events (Whitehill, Pumper, & Moreno, 2015). In addition to the social environment, there are cultural differences in binge drinking across countries. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective: To give an overview of prevalence, trends, and outcomes of binge drinking defined as drinking a high amount of alcohol on one occasion with a focus on European research. Method: Qualitative review based on a computer-assisted search of articles. Results: Males have more binge drinking occasions than females. In so-called  dry  (Northern) countries, a higher proportion of alcohol is consumed in binges than in  wet  (Southern) countries. Among adolescents and young adults in particular, increasing trends could be found. Binge drinking is linked to a variety of detrimental social and health outcomes. Yet, due to different definition criteria, the comparison of the studies is limited. Conclusion: Cross national studies with unified binge criteria and binge drinking in Europe emphasizing consequences are urgent research tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Objectives: To improve health and safety outcomes at mass gathering events (MGEs) for young attendees, it is essential to understand the psychosocial factors that may influence behaviour so that the implementation of support strategies before, during and after MGEs can be developed to enhance outcomes. This review identifies the psychosocial outcomes that may occur at MGEs, including social connection, substance use, risky behaviours and psychological distress and examines what interventions have been implemented to target these outcomes. Study design: Scoping review. Methods: This study examined MGE psychosocial interventions with predominantly youth attendees was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Papers were collected from the databases CINAHL, MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO. Titles and abstracts were scanned for relevance, followed by a full-text screening. Information relevant to the research question was extracted from papers meeting the inclusion criteria. Results: Twenty-six papers met the inclusion criteria. The psychosocial factors that were most studied included social influence, social interactions and psychological stressors, which lead to behaviours such as excessive alcohol consumption, drug taking, risky casual sex and risk taking amongst psychological factors of young attendees. Effective interventions implemented before or during MGEs, such as alcohol-free zones, antidrinking campaigns, psychoeducation and disapproval from parents with regard to drinking alcohol, showed promise in reducing harms. Conclusion: Psychosocial interventions have the potential to reduce harms and enhance well-being for young people attending MGEs. This review has identified gaps and opportunities in the current literature with regard to psychosocial interventions and strategies to support young people at MGEs and makes recommendations to support the development and refinement of evidence-based interventions aimed at young MGE attendees.
Article
Purpose The past decade has seen tremendous growth in research focused on understanding college students' alcohol-related social media displays. However, longitudinal studies remain rare. The purpose of this 5-year study was to describe alcohol and abstinence display patterns on Facebook. Methods This prospective longitudinal cohort study recruited incoming 17- to 19-year-old college students from two universities upon entering college. Trained coders evaluated Facebook profiles monthly over five years to identify alcohol and abstinence displays. Alcohol displays were further categorized as general alcohol use or intoxication/problem drinking references. Analyses included multivariate negative binomial regression. Results Among 338 participants recruited (mean age = 18.4, SD = .6), 56.1% were female, 74.8% were Caucasian, and 58.8% were from the Midwest college. General alcohol use references were most common in the spring semester of the third year (mean = 3.9 displays; 95% CI: 3.21–4.73), these often included references to a “21 run.” Intoxication/problem drinking references were most common in spring semester of the first year (mean = .79 displays, 95% confidence interval: .56–1.10) and second year of college (mean = .77 displays, 95% confidence interval: .54–1.11). There were no gender differences associated with alcohol displays at any time point. Abstinence displays were rare and declined in frequency to a low of four total displays in year 5. Conclusions This 5-year study is the first to document patterns of alcohol and abstinence displays throughout the undergraduate experience. Findings may inform planning targeted interventions by time point, or longitudinal studies of other substances or on different platforms.
Article
Context: Innovative strategies are needed to improve the prevalence of working smoke alarms in homes. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report on the effectiveness of Facebook advertising and automated telephone calls as population-level strategies to encourage an injury prevention behavior. Objective: We examine the effectiveness of Facebook advertising and automated telephone calls as strategies to enroll individuals in Baltimore City's Fire Department's free smoke alarm installation program. Participants: We directed our advertising efforts toward Facebook users eligible for the Baltimore City Fire Department's free smoke alarm installation program and all homes with a residential phone line included in Baltimore City's automated call system. Design: The Facebook campaign targeted Baltimore City residents 18 years of age and older. In total, an estimated 300 000 Facebook users met the eligibility criteria. Facebook advertisements were delivered to users' desktop and mobile device newsfeeds. A prerecorded message was sent to all residential landlines listed in the city's automated call system. Results: By the end of the campaign, the 3 advertisements generated 456 666 impressions reaching 130 264 Facebook users. Of the users reached, 4367 individuals (1.3%) clicked the advertisement. The automated call system included approximately 90 000 residential phone numbers. Participants attributed 25 smoke alarm installation requests to Facebook and 458 to the automated call. Conclusion: Facebook advertisements are a novel approach to promoting smoke alarms and appear to be effective in exposing individuals to injury prevention messages. However, converting Facebook message recipients to users of a smoke alarm installation program occurred infrequently in this study. Residents who participated in the smoke alarm installation program were more likely to cite the automated call as the impetus for their participation. Additional research is needed to understand the circumstances and strategies to effectively use the social networking site as a tool to convert passive users into active participants.
Article
Full-text available
Objective College students embrace mobile cell phones (MCPs) as a primary communication and entertainment device. The aim of this study was to investigate college students’ perceptions toward using mHealth technology to deliver interventions to prevent high-risk drinking and associated consequences. Design/setting Four focus group interviews were conducted during the spring and fall of 2011 at a large public university in the southeastern United States of America (USA) to collect data on the applicability of mHealth technology to alcohol-prevention programmes. The participants were students currently enrolled in a face-to-face alcohol-prevention programme. Method Thematic analysis of the content in the transcriptions was used to analyse the focus group responses using a codebook. Results Four major themes emerged which were: (1) education and usability; (2) Skype capabilities; (3) enhanced social networking; and (4) use for tracking and feedback. All of the participants said they would join an alcohol-intervention programme that incorporated mHealth mobile technology as a primary mode of communication. Conclusions The positive responses to the use of mobile applications indicate that use of interactive, real-time technology would be valuable to college students. Given the cost of face-to-face delivery of interventions, the findings are encouraging and support further exploration of the application of mHealth technology. Mobile technologies (mHealth) could provide a more effective delivery of alcohol-intervention programmes and increase the accessibility, relevance, and value of alcohol-intervention programmes.
Article
Full-text available
Researchers have reported that network characteristics are associated with substance use behavior. Considering that social interactions within online networks are increasingly common, we examined the relationship between online network characteristics and substance use in a sample of emerging adults (ages 18-24) from across the United States (N = 2,153; M = 21 years old; 47 % female; 70 % White). We used regression analyses to examine the relationship between online ego network characteristics (i.e., characteristics of individuals directly related to the focal participant plus the relationships shared among individuals within the online network) and alcohol use and substance use, respectively. Alcohol use was associated with network density (i.e., interconnectedness between individuals in a network), total number of peer ties, and a greater proportion of emotionally close ties. In sex-stratified models, density was related to alcohol use for males but not females. Drug use was associated with an increased number of peer ties, and the increased proportion of network members' discussion and acceptance of drug use, respectively. We also found that online network density and total numbers of ties were associated with more personal drug use for males but not females. Conversely, we noted that social norms were related to increased drug use and this relationship was stronger for females than males. We discuss the implications of our findings for substance use and online network research.
Article
Full-text available
Young adults are increasingly interacting with their peer groups online through social networking sites. These online interactions may reinforce or escalate alcohol and other drug (AOD) use as a result of more frequent and continuous exposure to AOD promotive norms; however, the influence of young adults' virtual networks on AOD use remains untested. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between the presence of AOD use content in online social networking, perceived norms (online norms regarding AOD use and anticipated regret with AOD use postings), and alcohol and marijuana use in a sample of 18- to 24-year-olds. Using an adapted web version of respondent-driven sampling (webRDS), we recruited a sample of 18- to 24-year-olds (N = 3,448) in the United States. Using multivariate regression, we explored the relationship between past-30-day alcohol and marijuana use, online norms regarding AOD use, peer substance use, and online and offline peer support. Alcohol use was associated with more alcohol content online. Anticipated regret and online peer support were associated with less alcohol use. Anticipated regret was negatively associated with marijuana use. Peer AOD use was positively associated with both alcohol and marijuana use. Peers play an important role in young adult alcohol and marijuana use, whether online or in person. Our findings highlight the importance of promoting online network-based AOD prevention programs for young adults in the United States.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study was to estimate, among college students ages 18-24, the numbers of alcohol-related unintentional injury deaths and other problems over the period from 1998 through 2005. The analysis integrated data on 18- to 24-year-olds and college students from each of the following data sources: the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Fatality Analysis Reporting System, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Injury Mortality Data, National Coroner Studies, census and college enrollment data, the National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health, and the College Alcohol Study. Among college students ages 18-24, alcohol-related unintentional injury deaths increased 3% per 100,000 from 1,440 in 1998 to 1,825 in 2005. From 1999 to 2005, the proportions of college students ages 18-24 who reported consuming five or more drinks on at least one occasion in the past month increased from 41.7% to 44.7%, and the proportions who drove under the influence of alcohol in the past year increased from 26.5% to 28.9%-7% and 9% proportional increases, respectively. The increases occurred among college students ages 21-24, not 18-20. In 2001, 599,000 (10.5%) full-time 4-year college students were injured because of drinking, 696,000 (12%) were hit or assaulted by another drinking college student, and 97,000 (2%) were victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape. A 2005 follow-up of students in schools with the highest proportions of heavy drinkers found no significant changes in the proportions experiencing these events. The persistence of college drinking problems underscores an urgent need to implement prevention and counseling approaches identified through research to reduce alcohol-related harms among college students and other young adults.
Article
Full-text available
College represents a period of risk for heavy drinking and experiencing unwanted consequences associated with drinking. Previous research has identified specific events, including holidays (e.g., New Years), school breaks (e.g., Spring Break) and personally relevant events (e.g., 21st birthdays), that are associated with elevated risk of heavy drinking and negative alcohol-related consequences. The systematic evaluation of relative risk offers insights into event-specific drinking and an empirical basis upon which to consider allocation of limited prevention resources. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to provide a comparative index of drinking across a wide range of holidays and compare holiday drinking to 21st birthday drinking. Participants were 1,124 students (55% female) who had turned 21 within the previous three weeks in 2008 and provided 90-day retrospective reports of their drinking using the Timeline Follow-back. Results based on a hurdle mixed model for blood alcohol content revealed several holidays that stand out for elevated drinking, including New Year's Eve and July 4th, whereas other holidays appear more similar to weekend drinking, such as Spring Break (approximately last week of March) and graduation (mid-June). Drinking on holidays or special days was substantially lower than drinking on 21st birthdays. Results are discussed in terms of practical applications for targeted intervention efforts on college campuses toward specific events where elevated drinking is known to occur.
Article
Article
The Mifflin Street Block Party is a yearly Wisconsin event known for high levels of alcohol consumption and previous negative outcomes. This study investigated displayed Mifflin references on Facebook and their association with alcohol consumption at the block party. Participants included first-year college students who were enrolled in a longitudinal study involving Facebook profile assessments and interviews. We identified a subset of participants who were interviewed within 28 days following the Mifflin St Block Party. Participants were categorized as "Mifflin Displayers" or "Non-displayers" based on Facebook profile content. Interviews included the timeline follow-back method to assess alcohol use in the past 28 days. Analysis included logistic and linear regression. Among the 66 participants included in this study, 45 (68.2%) were female and 38 (50%) were Mifflin Displayers on Facebook. Among the Mifflin Displayer participants, 18 (27.2%) displayed prior to Mifflin, 11 displayed the day of Mifflin (16.7%) and 19 (28.8%) displayed after. Some participants displayed in more than 1 time frame. A total of 40 (60.6%) reported alcohol use on the day of the Mifflin Street Block Party. The mean number of drinks reported on the day of Mifflin was 8.8 (SD = 6.1), with a range of 1 to 35. Displayed references to Mifflin on Facebook were positively associated with reporting alcohol use at Mifflin (OR = 20.9, 95% CI 5.6-78.8). Displaying Facebook references to Mifflin was associated with alcohol consumption on the day of the event. Future prevention efforts could consider creating Facebook advertisements with safety messages triggered by Mifflin displays.
Article
To examine the associations between displayed alcohol use and intoxication/problem drinking (I/PD) references on Facebook and self-reported problem drinking using a clinical scale. Content analysis and cross-sectional survey. Facebook Web site (http://www.facebook.com/). The study included undergraduate students (age range, 18-20 years) at 2 state universities with public Facebook profiles. The profiles were categorized into 1 of 3 distinct categories: Nondisplayers, Alcohol Displayers, and I/PD Displayers. An online survey measured problem drinking using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) scale. Analyses examined associations between alcohol display category and (1) AUDIT problem drinking category using logistic regression, (2) AUDIT score using negative binomial regression, and (3) alcohol-related injury using the Fisher exact test. Among 307 profiles identified, 224 participants completed the survey (73% response rate). The average age was 18.8 years; 122 (54%) were female; 152 (68%) were white; and approximately 50% were from each university. Profile owners who displayed I/PD were more likely (odds ratio, 4.4; 95% CI, 2.0-9.4) to score in the problem drinking category of the AUDIT scale, had 64.0% (incidence rate ratio, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.27-11.0) higher AUDIT scores overall, and were more likely to report an alcohol-related injury in the past year (P = .002). Displayed references to I/PD were positively associated with AUDIT scores suggesting problem drinking as well as alcohol-related injury. Results suggest that clinical criteria for problem drinking can be applied to Facebook alcohol references.