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Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Functions: Going beyond Simply Moving to Moving with Thought

January 2015

Source
PubMed

Authors:

University of British Columbia - Vancouver

Studies of the cognitive benefits of physical activity need to move beyond simple aerobic activities that require little thought (treadmill running, riding a stationary bicycle, or rapid walking) and resistance training. Many studies have looked at this in older adults, and the evidence points strongly to those activities having little or no cognitive benefit, certainly little or no improvement to the executive functions that depend on prefrontal cortex. There is encouraging evidence for other types of physical activity improving executive functions; however they have received far less study.

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Central

Annals of Sports Medicine and Research

Cite this article: Diamond A (2015) Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Functions: Going beyond Simply Moving to Moving with Thought. Ann Sports

Med Res 2(1): 1011.

*Corresponding author

Adele Diamond, Division of Developmental Cognitive

Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, UBC, 2255

Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada, V6T 2A1,

Tel: 604 822 7220; Fax: 604 822 7232; Email:

Submitted: 29 December 2014

Accepted: 14 January 2015

Published: 19 January 2015

OPEN ACCESS

Keywords

•Physical exercise

•Cognitiveexibility

•Executive functions

Short Communication

Effects of Physical Exercise

on Executive Functions: Going

beyond Simply Moving to

Moving with Thought

Adele Diamond*

Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Canada

Abstract

Studies of the cognitive benets of physical activity need to move beyond simple

aerobic activities that require little thought (treadmill running,riding a stationary

bicycle, or rapid walking) and resistance training. Many studies have looked at this

in older adults, and the evidence points strongly to those activities having little or

no cognitive benet, certainly little or no improvement to the executive functions that

depend on prefrontal cortex. There is encouraging evidence for other types of physical

activity improving executive functions; however they have received far less study.

INTRODUCTION











   

           











         

           





    

          



        

   

inhibitory

control, including selective attention    

       



working memory 

        

    



   cognitive flexibility   



      



   

     



    





      

       





       





          





  



        

    

        



      

       

Central

Diamond (2015)

Email:

Ann Sports Med Res 2(1): 1011 (2015) 2/5

        

      

  all



   

     

         





     

       





          

       

   

     



           

    



           

       

          

 







           



   



            

  



           

     

  



        





72 years



      

          









      

   

            

      

         

     

         

          



        

     



      



       





       

       

       

       

         

       





         

           

          



     

         

   

    

   





         

          

   

          





   

  





    

      









         



         

   



            





         



 

        

Central

Diamond (2015)

Email:

Ann Sports Med Res 2(1): 1011 (2015) 3/5





    

 



      







       

            

 

    





     

         

     

         

          

    



REFERENCES

          



          



       



            

      



 

     





 





           

         



          

        

     



          

   

       



 

 

 





    





 



         

         

       



       

       



         

         









          

       



         

        

      



           

    









        

        



    

  



    

        









       

   



         











        

       

        

         

        



         

       



Central

Diamond (2015)

Email:

Ann Sports Med Res 2(1): 1011 (2015) 4/5

        

    



       





 



   



            

       



          

    

       



           





    

    



     

    



    

         



       





Central

Diamond (2015)

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Ann Sports Med Res 2(1): 1011 (2015) 5/5

Diamond A (2015) Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Functions: Going beyond Simply Moving to Moving with Thought. Ann Sports Med Res 2(1): 1011.

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Mobile Electroencephalography Reveals Differences in Cortical Processing During Exercises With Lower and Higher Cognitive Demands in Preadolescent Children

Article

Mar 2023

Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine whether cortical activity changes during exercise with increasing cognitive demands in preadolescent children. Method: Twenty healthy children (8.75 [0.91] y) performed one movement game, which was conducted with lower and higher cognitive demands. During a baseline measurement and both exercise conditions, cortical activity was recorded using a 64-channel electroencephalographic system, and heart rate was assessed. Ratings of perceived excertion and perceived cognitive engagement were examined after each condition. To analyze power spectral density in the theta, alpha-1, and alpha-2 frequency bands, an adaptive mixture independent component analysis was used to determine the spatiotemporal sources of cortical activity, and brain components were clustered to identify spatial clusters. Results: One-way repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed significant main effects for condition on theta in the prefrontal cluster, on alpha-1 in the prefrontal, central, bilateral motor, bilateral parieto-occipital, and occipital clusters, and on alpha-2 in the left motor, central, and left parieto-occipital clusters. Compared with the lower cognitive demand exercise, cortical activity was significantly higher in theta power in the prefrontal cluster and in alpha-1 power in the occipital cluster during the higher cognitive demand exercise. Conclusion: The present study shows that exercise complexity seems to influence cortical processing as it increased with increasing cognitive demands.

European Journal of Educational Research Examining the Associations Between Calibration Accuracy and Executive Functions in Physical Education

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Full-text available

Jan 2023

p style="text-align: justify;">This study examined students’ calibration of performance in a sport skill in relation to their performance in an executive functions test. A total of 265 students in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades participated in the study. The students took an executive functions test, and then they were tested on a basketball shooting test, after having provided a personal estimation regarding their performance. Based on students’ actual and estimated performance, the bias index was calculated to classify students into three categories; accurates, underestimators and overestimators, while the accuracy index (absolute values of the bias index) was also calculated. The results showed a positive but small magnitude relation between students’ scores in the executive functions test and their performance calibration, while accurate scored higher on the executive function test compared to over estimators and under estimators. These results are similar to those of previous studies with elementary school children that employed cognitive tasks and were discussed with reference to theoretical and empirical implications.</p

Παιχνίδια φυσικής δραστηριότητας και γνωστικής πρόκλησης

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Το βιβλίο Παιχνίδια Φυσικής Δραστηριότητας και Γνωστικής Πρόκλησης παρουσιάζει παιχνίδια φυσικής δραστηριότητας και γνωστικής πρόκλησης που στοχεύουν στην αύξηση της φυσικής δραστηριότητας και στην ενίσχυση της γνωστικής ανάπτυξης των μαθητών/τριών. Περιλαμβάνει τρεις εκπαιδευτικούς οδηγούς, τον Οδηγό Εκπαίδευσης, τον Οδηγό Πρακτικής Εφαρμογής και τον Οδηγό Παιχνιδιών. Στο εκπαιδευτικό αυτό υλικό τεκμηριώνεται θεωρητικά η σημασία των παιχνιδιών φυσικής δραστηριότητας και γνωστικής πρόκλησης, παρουσιάζονται εμπειρικά δεδομένα για τις θετικές τους επιδράσεις και περιγράφονται αναλυτικά τα παιχνίδια αυτά. Παράλληλα, δίνονται οδηγίες για την εφαρμογή των παιχνιδιών στην πράξη καθώς και κατευθύνεις για την προσαρμογή και την ανάπτυξη νέων σχετικών παιχνιδιών και δραστηριοτήτων. Το εκπαιδευτικό υλικό απευθύνεται σe εκπαιδευτικούς φυσικής αγωγής που διδάσκουν στο σχολείο και ενδιαφέρονται να εμπλουτίσουν τα προγράμματα φυσικής δραστηριότητας που εφαρμόζουν στο μάθημά τους. Απευθύνεται επίσης και σε προπονητές που δραστηριοποιούνται στον παιδικό αθλητισμό και επιδιώκουν την ολόπλευρη ανάπτυξη των μικρών αθλητών/τριών τους. Ακόμη, το βιβλίο μπορεί να αποτελέσει χρήσιμο βοήθημα για φοιτητές/τριες τμημάτων Φυσικής Αγωγής και Αθλητισμού που θέλουν να εμπλουτίσουν τις γνώσεις τους για τις επιδράσεις της φυσικής δραστηριότητας στη γνωστική ανάπτυξη των μαθητών/τριών και να εμπλουτίσουν τα προγράμματα που σχεδιάζουν τόσο για το μάθημα της φυσικής αγωγής όσο και για τα άλλα πρακτικά μαθήματα. Το έργο αυτό υλοποιήθηκε στο Τμήμα Επιστήμης Φυσικής Αγωγής και Αθλητισμού του Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλίας και υποστηρίχθηκε από το Ελληνικό Ίδρυμα Έρευνας και Καινοτομίας (ΕΛ.ΙΔ.Ε.Κ.) στο πλαίσιο της Δράσης «1η Προκήρυξη ερευνητικών έργων ΕΛ.ΙΔ.Ε.Κ. για την ενίσχυση των μελών ΔΕΠ και Ερευνητών/τριών και την προμήθεια ερευνητικού εξοπλισμού μεγάλης αξίας» (Αριθμός Έργου: 1041).

Does the Use of Exergames Have a Positive Influence on Executive Functions and Academic Performance of School-Age Children with Specific Learning Disorder? A Literature Review

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Jan 2023
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Acute Effects of Exergaming on Students’ Executive Functions and Situational Interest in Elementary Physical Education

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Jan 2023
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Two studies were conducted to examine the acute effects of exergaming on students’ executive functions and to explore their situational interest regarding these games in elementary physical education. The first study involved a two-group, repeated measures, cross-over quasi-experimental design. Participants were 74 (36 boys) fourth- and fifth-grade students who were assigned to the experimental (38 students) and the waiting list control (36 students) group. The single physical education session with exergames was first implemented with the initial experimental group and after the post-test, the waiting list control group received the intervention. In the second study, a pre-test post-test, the within-subjects design was involved with the experimental group students (48 fourth- and fifth-grade students, 27 boys) who participated in a booster single physical education session with exergames two months after their involvement in a four-week intervention with cognitively challenging physical activity games. Both studies involved pre- and post-intervention measures for executive functions using the design fluency test and a post-test measure for situational interest. During the acute session, students had to follow the movements of an on-screen dancing character in time to a chosen song of the Just Dance 2015 exergame. The results of the first study showed that experimental group students improved significantly from pre- to post-test their scores in design fluency and in cognitive flexibility and in the total score of the design fluency test and their improvements were higher compared to the waiting list control group. The waiting list control group students, after receiving the acute session with exergames, significantly improved their scores in design fluency, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility and in the total score of the design fluency test compared to their pre-intervention scores. Moreover, the second study showed that students’ total score in the design fluency test improved significantly from pre- to post-intervention. In both studies, students reported generally high scores in all subscales of the situational interest questionnaire. These results suggested that an acute exergame-based physical education session attracted students’ interest and positively triggered their executive functions.

MAGYAR PSZICHOLÓGIAI SZEMLE -2023 (Közlésre elfogadott kézirat) Cím: NEUROMÍTOSZOK AZ OKTATÁSBAN -TÉNYEK ÉS TÖREKVÉSEK Angol cím: Neuromyths in education -facts and aspirations

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Jan 2023

Háttér és célkitűzések: A neuromítoszok olyan tévhitek, amelyek az agyműködéssel kapcsolatos információk, jelenségek, idegtudományi eredmények félreértésén alapulnak. E tévhitek az oktatási rendszerben is elterjedtek, és sokszor kapcsolódnak össze különböző, úgynevezett neuropedagógiai elképzelésekkel, amelyek közvetlenül befolyásolhatják a gyakorlati pedagógiai munkát. Az elmúlt húsz évben egyre nagyobb figyelmet kapott az a kérdés, hogy mennyire elterjedtek a neuromítoszok, milyen tényezők befolyásolják jelenlétüket és elfogadottságukat az oktatás területén, és milyen hatást gyakorolnak a tanítási módszerekre. A kutatások egyöntetűen arra jutottak, hogy ezen mítoszok igen elterjedtek mind a pedagógusok, mind a pedagógusjelöltek körében. Ezen mítoszokra olyan fejlesztési javaslatok és terápiás eljárásokat épülnek, melyek hatástalanságuk miatt felesleges idő- és energiaráfordítást is jelenhetnek. Jelen tanulmány célja, hogy egyrészt három elterjedt oktatási neuromítosz tudományos alapjainak rövid áttekintésével bemutassa a jelenség súlyát, másrészt átfogóan ismertesse az oktatási neuromítoszokkal összefüggő tudományos eredményeket, a téma kutatásának jövőbeli irányait. Módszer: Tanulmányunk a neuromítoszokkal, ezen belül a három legelterjedtebb neuromítosszal kapcsolatos magyar és angol nyelvű szakcikkek feldolgozása alapján készült, műfajában narratív jellegű kritikai összefoglaló elemzés. Eredmények: Hazánkban alig jelent meg tanulmány a témában. A nemzetközi szakirodalom azonban egyre szélesebb körben foglalkozik az oktatási neuromítoszokkal, amelyek közül a legelterjedtebbek (1) a tanulási stílusokkal, (2) az agyféltekei dominanciával és (3) az agyféltekei integrációval kapcsolatos mítoszok. A neuromítoszok elfogadását, illetve elutasítását elősegítő (prediktív, illetve protektív) tényezők egyaránt a vizsgálatok homlokterében állnak. Következtetések: A pedagógusok, pedagógusjelöltek és pedagógusképzésben dolgozó munkatársak evidencia-alapú idegtudományi ismereteinek bővítése kulcsfontosságúnak látszik a neuromítoszokkal szembeni küzdelemben. Lényeges szerepet töltenek be az aggyal kapcsolatos korszerű ismeretek, és a neuromítoszok felismeréséhez szükséges kritikai gondolkodás.

Far Transfer Effects of Trainings on Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023
NEUROPSYCHOL REV

Executive Functions are a set of interrelated, top-down processes essential for adaptive goal-directed behaviour, frequently impaired across different neurodevelopmental disorders with variable degrees of severity. Many executive-function-training studies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders have focused on near effects, investigating post-treatment improvements on directly trained processes, while enhancements of skills not directly trained, defined as far effects, are less considered, albeit these could be extremely relevant for reducing the negative impact of a disorder’s core symptomatology. This systematic review and metanalysis aims to investigate the far effect outcomes after EF training in children with different types of neurodevelopmental disorders. 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, while 15 studies were selected in the metanalysis. An overall statistically significant effect size was found in the majority of far effect outcome measures considered in the studies. In particular, trainings on executive functions determine significant far effects on daily life functioning (0.46, 95% CI: [0.05–0.87]) and clinical symptoms (0.33, 95% CI: [0.15–0.51]). Despite a high variability of the results, intensity, frequency and the laboratory/life contexts dimension seem to be the most influential variables in determining far effects. This systematic review and metanalysis highlights the need to measure far effects of executive function training in neurodevelopmental disorders, selecting treatments not only on directly targeted processes, but also according to far impacts on the functional weakness of the disorder.

Acute Effects of Fitlight Training on Cognitive-Motor Processes in Young Basketball Players

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Cognitive-motor training could be used to improve open-skill sport performances, increasing cognitive demands to stimulate executive function (EF) development. Nevertheless, a distributed training proposal for the improvement of EFs is increasingly difficult to combine with seasonal sport commitments. This study aimed to investigate whether a massed basketball training program enriched with Fitlight training can improve EFs and motor performance. Forty-nine players (age = 15.0 ± 1.5 yrs) were assigned to the control and Fitlight-trained (FITL) groups, which performed 3 weeks of massed basketball practice, including 25 min per day of shooting sessions or Fitlight training, respectively. All athletes were tested in cognitive tasks (Flanker/Reverse Flanker; Digit Span) and fitness tests (Agility T-test; Yo-Yo IR1). During the intervention, exercise/session perceived effort (eRPE/sRPE) and enjoyment were collected. RM-ANOVA showed significant EFs scores increased in both groups over time, without differences between the groups. Moreover, an increased sRPE and eRPE appeared in the FITL group (p = 0.0001; p = 0.01), with no group differences in activity enjoyment and fitness tests. Three weeks of massed basketball training improved EFs and motor performance in young players. The additional Fitlight training increased the perceived cognitive effort without decreasing enjoyment, even if it seems unable to induce additional improvements in EFs.

Word of mouth and digital marketing to tourist visits in Nusa Lembongan Island

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

This study examines word of mouth and digital marketing to tourist visits on Nusa Lembongan Island, Klungkung Regency. The purpose of this research is to find out the benefits of Word of mouth and digital marketing for tourist visits to Nusa Lembongan Island, Klungkung Regency and also to describe the implementation of Word of mouth and digital marketing to increase tourist visits to Nusa Lembongan Island, Klungkung Regency. The results of the discussion show that the application of digital marketing using digital media provides many benefits to Nusa Lembongan Island, Klungkung, including: (1) It is more cost-effective for promotion, digital marketing is the most preferred, namely in terms of budget, it is indeed more economical. Because promotional tools use digital media, there is no need to re-print brochures. There is no need to also make banners and billboards that are placed along the road, of course, it will cost more. You don't have to make advertisements in print or television media, where the advertising costs are very expensive. Just take advantage of digital media which is currently increasingly diverse to be used as promotional media. Such as using websites, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Email, TikTok and many other social media.

Association between motor and math skills in preschool children with typical development: Systematic review

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

Mathematics has been the subject in which many school-age children have revealed many difficulties. Research carried out in an attempt to understand the causes of failure in this area pointed to a positive association between mathematical performance and motor performance. Given the importance of math development in future school outcomes, knowing which specific motor components are most associated with math performance can help educators define better strategies for teaching mathematics. In this sense, the present systematic review study aimed to identify the components of motor skills most positively associated with mathematical performance in children with typical development who attend preschool. The PRISMA methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) was used in this study. The databases searched were ERIC, PubMED, SciELO, Scopus and Web of Science. A total of 2,909 articles were identified, of which 18 were included in this systematic review. The main results showed positive associations between fine motor skills, namely fine motor coordination and visuomotor integration, and mathematical performance. The math skill of numerical counting was the most associated with FMS. The main characteristics of the instruments used showed that the tasks of copying figures or drawings are the most used to assess visuomotor integration and the tasks of handling objects with pinch-like movements are the most used to assess fine motor coordination. Given the importance of mathematical performance in future school results, identifying early children with difficulties in fine motor skills will help educators to design better strategies for teaching mathematical skills. In this sense, the need to identify instruments to assess fine motor skills in preschool children with characteristics that facilitate their administration by the educator in the classroom context, i.e., requiring little administration time, not requiring much experience or training, the possibility of being administered to the group/class, few material resources, and the results can be easily interpreted, classified, and associated with mathematical performance.

The Social Neuroscience of Human Animal Interaction (Cover and abstract)

Book

Full-text available

Feb 2016

Sandra Mccune

Ground-breaking book brings together the scientific fields of social neuroscience and human-animal interaction for the first time WALTHAM experts and international collaborators have edited and authored an important new book that applies research in neurobiology and genetics to understanding human-animal interaction; published this week by the American Psychological Association. When you gaze into your dog’s face and he gazes back at you, do you ever wonder what is going on? The ‘mutual gaze’ between individuals is an important aspect of social communication and is essential to establishing intimacy.Such gaze-mediated bonding also occurs between humans and dogs, and is thought to involve brain systems that trigger the release of oxytocin, a hormone known to be involved in social bonding. With a view to increasing our understanding of the bond between people and their pets, experts in the area of human-animal interaction (HAI) at the WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, together with an international and cross-disciplinary group of authors, including collaborators at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, have written and edited a pioneering new book entitled ‘The Social Neuroscience of Human-Animal Interaction’. This publication is the result of a workshop between WALTHAM and partners at the National Institute of Health, a collaboration that has brought about a multi-million dollar program of HAI research. Humans have a wonderful capacity to develop and engage in social interactions both with other humans, and with other species, most obviously companion animals such as dogs and cats and it is becoming clear that the benefits of pet ownership are wide ranging, encompassing positive effects in both physical and mental health, as well as societal benefits such as increasing social connections and support within communities. Although we have been aware of these benefits for some time, the mechanisms driving these benefits are far from clear. This important new book advances our knowledge about HAI, by applying the understanding of how biological systems influence social interactions and behaviour, and how these social structures and processes impact on the brain and biology. Bringing these fields of scientific endeavour together in this book is a critical step in sharing the science underlying how we interact and bond with our pets, and how we can work towards creating a better world for pets.

Want to Optimize Executive Functions and Academic Outcomes? Simple, Just Nourish the Human Spirit

Chapter

Full-text available

Oct 2014

Adele Diamond

Executive functions (EFs; which make possible mentally playing with ideas, giving the considered rather than impulsive response, resisting temptations, staying focused, problem solving, and creatively meeting unanticipated challenges) suffer if we are sad, stressed, lonely, or not physically fit. Any of those can cause us to appear to have an EF disorder when we do not. Given that EFs are critical for academic achievement, f we want students to excel we need to take seriously the fundamental interrelatedness of the different aspects of a person. If emotional, social, or physical needs are ignored, those unmet needs will work against academic excellence. The arts and physical activity can challenge EFs (e.g., by requiring focused attention and discipline) and thus improve them, and they can support EFs (and hence optimal school performance) by bringing joy and pride, building community, and whipping the body into shape. Thus promoting the arts and physical activity may be vital for improving academic outcomes. Schools can improve academic outcomes by increasing the joy and well-being of their teachers and students.

Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012

Adele Diamond

Executive functions (EFs; e.g., reasoning, working memory, and self-control) can be improved. Good news indeed, since EFs are critical for school and job success and for mental and physical health. Various activities appear to improve children’s EFs. The best evidence exists for computer-based training, traditional martial arts, and two school curricula. Weaker evidence, though strong enough to pass peer review, exists for aerobics, yoga, mindfulness, and other school curricula. Here I address what can be learned from the research thus far, including that EFs need to be progressively challenged as children improve and that repeated practice is key. Children devote time and effort to activities they love; therefore, EF interventions might use children’s motivation to advantage. Focusing narrowly on EFs or aerobic activity alone appears not to be as efficacious in improving EFs as also addressing children’s emotional, social, and character development (as do martial arts, yoga, and curricula shown to improve EFs). Children with poorer EFs benefit more from training; hence, training might provide them an opportunity to “catch up” with their peers and not be left behind. Remaining questions include how long benefits of EF training last and who benefits most from which activities.

Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2013
J SPORT SCI

Abstract This study tested the association between aerobic fitness and executive function and the impact of enhanced, cognitively challenging physical activity on executive function in overweight and lean children. Seventy children aged 9-10 years were assigned to either a 6-month enhanced physical education programme including cognitively demanding (open skill) activities or curricular physical education only. Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed aerobic capacity (Leger test) and two components of executive function: inhibition and working memory updating (random number generation task). Indices of inhibition and memory updating were compared in higher- and lower-fit children and intervention effects were evaluated as a function of physical activity programme (enhanced vs. curricular) and weight status (lean vs. overweight). Results showed better inhibition in higher- than lower-fit children, extending the existing evidence of the association between aerobic fitness and executive function to new aspects of children's inhibitory ability. Overweight children had more pronounced pre- to post-intervention improvements in inhibition than lean children only if involved in enhanced physical education. Such intervention effects were not mediated by aerobic fitness gains. Therefore, the cognitive and social interaction challenges inherent in open skill tasks, even though embedded in a low-dose physical activity programme, may represent an effective means to promote cognitive efficiency, especially in overweight children.

Enhancing Children’s Cognition With Physical Activity Games

Book

Jan 2015

Resistance Training and Executive Functions A 12-Month Randomized Controlled Trial

Article

Jan 2010
ARCH INTERN MED

Background: Cognitive decline among seniors is a pressing health care issue. Specific exercise training may combat cognitive decline. We compared the effect of once-weekly and twice-weekly resistance training with that of twice-weekly balance and tone exercise training on the performance of executive cognitive functions in senior women. Methods: In this single-blinded randomized trial, 155 community-dwelling women aged 65 to 75 years living in Vancouver were randomly allocated to once-weekly (n = 54) or twice-weekly (n = 52) resistance training or twice-weekly balance and tone training (control group) (n = 49). The primary outcome measure was performance on the Stroop test, an executive cognitive test of selective attention and conflict resolution. Secondary outcomes of executive cognitive functions included set shifting as measured by the Trail Making Tests (parts A and B) and working memory as assessed by verbal digit span forward and backward tests. Gait speed, muscular function, and whole-brain volume were also secondary outcome measures. Results: Both resistance training groups significantly improved their performance on the Stroop test compared with those in the balance and tone group (P < .03). Task performance improved by 12.6% and 10.9% in the once-weekly and twice-weekly resistance training groups, respectively; it deteriorated by 0.5% in the balance and tone group. Enhanced selective attention and conflict resolution was significantly associated with increased gait speed. Both resistance training groups demonstrated reductions in whole-brain volume compared with the balance and tone group at the end of the study (P <= .03). Conclusion: Twelve months of once-weekly or twice-weekly resistance training benefited the executive cognitive function of selective attention and conflict resolution among senior women.

Physical Activity and Cognitive Performance in the Older Population

Article

Apr 1995

The effect of exercise on cognitive performance in an older population was studied. Thirty sedentary men and women 65–72 years of age were randomly assigned to a walking group, a weight training group, or a placebo control group. Intervention groups exercised 30–60 min 5 days per week for 16 weeks, with the walking group training at 60% heart rate reserve, the weight training group employing the DAPRE method of weight progression, and the placebo control group engaging in mild range-of-motion and flexibility movements that kept their heart rates close to resting levels. At baseline and 16 weeks posttraining each subject completed the Ross Information Processing Assessment (RIPA), a maximal graded treadmill test, and a strength assessment of the knee extensors and elbow flexors. Sixteen weeks of walking improved VO 2 peak of the sedentary subjects 15.8%; VO 2 peak did not improve in the other two groups. Additionally, the RIPA scores of the walking group increased 7.5%, while those of the weight-training and control groups showed little change.

Improved Executive Function and Callosal White Matter Microstructure after Rhythm Exercise in Huntington's Disease

Article

Oct 2014

Background: Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosominal dominant neurodegenerative condition that leads to progressive loss of motor and cognitive functions. Early symptoms in HD include subtle executive dysfunction related to white and grey matter loss in cortico-striatal-thalamic loops. There is no cure for HD and hence a significant need for early intervention with the potential to delay the clinical onset of the disease. Objective: The objective of the present pilot study was to devise a novel behavioural intervention involving drumming and rhythm exercises that targets early dysexecutive problems, such as difficulties in sequence and reversal learning, response speed, timing, and dual tasking. Method: One preclinical person and nine people with early to advanced stages of HD were recruited of whom five completed the two months intervention. The effects of rhythm exercise on executive function, basal ganglia volume, and white matter microstructure in the anterior corpus callosum, the anterior thalamic radiation, and the cortico-spinal tract were assessed post- relative to pre-training. Results: After two months training, improvements in executive function and changes in white matter microstructure, notably in the genu of the corpus callosum that connects prefrontal cortices of both hemispheres, were observed. No changes in basal ganglia volume were present. Conclusion: This pilot study provides novel preliminary evidence that carefully targeted behavioural stimulation in HD can result in cognitive enhancement and improvements in callosal white matter microstructure.

The Neural and Genetic Basis of Executive Function: Attention, Cognitive Flexibility, and Response Inhibition

Article

Aug 2013

Executive function is a collection of cognitive processes essential for higher order mental function. Processes involved in executive function include, but are not limited to, working memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, and impulse control. These complex behaviors are largely mediated by prefrontal cortical function but are modulated by dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic input. The ability of these neurotransmitter systems to modulate executive function allows for adaption in cognitive behavior in response to changes in the environment. Because of the important role these neurotransmitter systems play in regulating executive function, changes in these systems can also have a grave impact on executive function. In addition, polymorphisms in genes associated with these neurotransmitters are associated with phenotypic differences in executive function. Understanding how these naturally occurring polymorphisms contribute to different executive function phenotypes will advance basic knowledge of cognition and potentially further understanding and treatment of mental illness that involve changes in executive function. In this review, we will examine the influence of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and acetylcholine on the following measures of executive function: attention, cognitive flexibility, and impulse control. We will also review the effects of polymorphisms in genes associated with these neurotransmitter systems on these measures of executive function.

Association between objectively-measured physical activity and sleep, NHANES 2005–2006

Article

Dec 2011

Statement of problem: Epidemiological studies examining the association between physical activity and sleep have relied on self-report measures of physical activity and have primarily been conducted in older adults. Therefore, to address these gaps in the literature, the purpose of the present study was to examine the association between objectively-measured physical activity and a variety of self-reported sleeping parameters in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults of all ages. Methods: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2006 were used in the analyses. 3081 adults ranging in age between 18 and 85 were included in the analyses. At the mobile examination center, participants were asked to wear an ActiGraph 7164 accelerometer on the right hip for 7 days following their examination. Questions on sleep were asked during the household interview. Results: After controlling for age, bmi, health status, smoking status, and depression, the relative risk of often feeling overly sleepy during the day compared to never feeling overly sleepy during the day decreased by a factor of 0.65 (95% CI: 0.44-0.97) for participants meeting physical activity guidelines compared to those not meeting guidelines. Similar results were also found for having leg cramps while sleeping and having difficulty concentrating when tired. Conclusions: Objectively-measured physical activity was associated with several self-reported sleeping-related parameters. Future experimental studies are required to confirm that increasing physical activity causes improvements in these parameters.

Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Functions: Going beyond Simply Moving to Moving with Thought

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