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Plant genetic resource initiatives in international development

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Governments both in developed and developing countries are exploring means to support comprehensive plant genetic resource programs interactive with the international network coordinating global distribution and conservation of germplasm. National plant genetic resource programs can serve as an effective interface between the conservation of a country’s biological resources and their availability for use in crop improvement. Recent developments in the global exchange of germplasm, molecular characterization of genetic diversity, and conservation biology, and the increasing size of many collections have focused renewed attention on national germplasm capabilities. Within the context of international development, genetic resource initiatives have been supported through projects designed to improve crop efficiency and productivity in developing countries. These research programs, many of which are based at international agricultural research centers, have also provided a means to fund crop-specific plant genetic resource activities. This funding includes support for germplasm conservation and evaluation, conventional breeding, and, more recently, biotechnology. Support for plant genetic resource initiatives at the national level is becoming more appropriate for development assistance. However, for this support to become more institutionalized, a number of steps must be taken and suitable policies determined.
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Plant genetic
resource
initiatives
in
international
development
*
JOEL I.
COHEN'
and ROBERT BERTRAM2
I
Biotechnology
Specialist,
Office
of
Agriculture,
Bureau for Science and
Technology,
Agency for
International
Development,
Washington,
DC,
U.S.A.
2
Agricultural
Research
Specialist,
Consultative
Group
on
International
Agricultural
Research
Staff,
Directorate
for
Food
and
Agriculture,
Agency for International
Development,
Washington,
DC,
U.S.A.
Abstract Governments both in developed and developing countries are exploring means to
support comprehensive plant genetic resource programs interactive with the international
network coordinating global distribution and conservation
of
germplasm. National plant
genetic resource programs can serve
as
an effective interface between the conservation of a
country's biological resources and their availability
for
use in crop improvement. Recent
developments in the global exchange of germplasm, molecular characterization of genetic
diversity, and conservation biology, and the increasing size of many collections have focused
renewed attention on national germplasm capabilities.
Within the context
of
international development, genetic resource initiatives have been
supported through projects designed to improve crop efficiency and productivity
in
developing countries. These research programs, many of which are based at international
agricultural research centers, have also provided a means to fund crop-specific plant genetic
resource activities. This funding includes support for germplasm conservation and evaluation,
conventional breeding, and, more recently, biotechnology. Support for plant genetic resource
initiatives at the national level
is
becoming more appropriate for development assistance.
However, for this support to become more institutionalized, a number
of
steps must
be
taken
and suitable policies determined.
Introduction
International agricultural assistance traditionally has supported research to
improve crop efficiency and productivity
in
developing countries. Support
of these research programs, many of which are based at international and
national agricultural research centers, also has provided a means to fund
crop-specific plant genetic resource activities. This funding has included
support for germplasm conservation and enhancement, conventional
breeding, and, more recently, biotechnology.
* The opinions expressed are those
of
the authors and not necessarily those of the Agency
for
International Development.
L.
Knutson
and
A.K. Stoller (eds.). Biotic diversity
and
germplasm presen'alion, global imperatives.
© 1989 Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-94-010-7549-7
460
A new project proposed jointly between the U.S. Agency for Inter-
national Development's mission in New Delhi and the Indian Council
of
Agricultural Research links development objectives with a comprehensive
plant genetic resource system. This proposed project builds upon the
Government of India's seventh 'Five Year Plan' which identified the con-
servation of plant, animal, and fish germplasm as a priority area in the field
of
agricultural research. In accordance with this statement, the Fourth and
Fifth Meeting
of
the Indo-US Subcommission on Agriculture identified
genetic resource conservation as an area
of
priority for joint collaboration
[1
].
Establishing national priorities for the conservation
of
genetic resources
is
but one example
of
recent developments which help create a framework
supportive
of
collaborative germplasm initiatives. Other examples include:
increased attention given
to
global exchange
of
germplasm, increased empha-
sis
on creating a sustainable agricultural resource base, increasing progress
in the molecular characterization
of
genetic diversity, new emphasis being
placed on conservation biology, and a growing need for a national role in
genetic resource programs. These developments have lent importance and
urgency to national genetic resource initiatives, allowing them to achieve
independent project status as opposed to remaining minor activities sub-
sumed within broad development objectives.
Recent proposals considering genetic resource initiatives in a system and
development project context have helped explore national program oppor-
tunities.
For
these activities
to
continue and become more institutionalized,
a number
of
steps must
be
taken and suitable policies be determined. To
understand these steps and policies, we first describe the context that relates
genetic resources and international development activities.
International context for genetic resources and development projects
Genetic resource issues, especially in recent years, often have been charac-
terized in terms
of
germplasm-rich countries providing and germplasm-poor
countries using. In many cases, these terms have been used interchangeably
with developing and developed countries, or South and North, respectively.
However, these terms are not entirely reflective
of
the actual occurrence and
provenance
of
genetic resources.
From the aspect
of
international development activities, especially those
that relate to agricultural research and development, a very different situa-
tion would appear to be operative. From this perspective, a large, decen-
tralized network
of
genetic resource activities is evident in both developed
and developing countries. This global network, as described by the Inter-
461
national Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR),
is
composed
of
a
consortium
of
national, regional, and international institutes cooperating
in
diverse activities and various segments
of
germplasm systems [2].
The coordination required for germplasm exchange within the global
network illustrates the interdependence that already exists between par-
ticipating genebanks [3]. This interdependence is helping to erase the artifi-
cial distinction between 'germplasm users' and 'germplasm providers.'
Whether germplasm represents materials native to a given area has far less
consequence than what it
is
needed for, how much
is
available, its viability,
and national abilities for storage, exchange, and use. The emerging global
network uniting users and providers
is
so interdependent that scientists
often assume both roles.
Contrasted with the importance
of
this global network, genetic resource-
specific activities seem to have a relatively low status among development
priorities. Germplasm conservation
is
a long-term activity, the initial invest-
ment being subject to considerable recurrent costs. Argument for this type
of
investment
is
hampered because
few
demonstrated economic linkages,
such as jobs, production, and income -
all
important criteria for both donors
and developing country ministries -have been ascribed to national germ-
plasm systems. Funds for development must compete with a host of other
potential uses; within agriculture, emphasis has been placed on cultivar
development and release, extension, and other high-payoff activities.
The sense that germplasm activities are being attended to elsewhere -as
in the case
of
the Agency for International Development (AID) through
central funding
of
the IBPGR, International Agricultural Research Centers
(IARCs), or through activities supported by the U.S. Department
of
Agri-
culture -must certainly
playa
role
in
the lower priority accorded to activities
specifically designed to enhance germplasm conservation or use.
The low priority ascribed to germplasm development often
is
supported
by plant breeders burdened with the incessant demand for release
of
new
cultivars. A similar negative attitude can be encountered from development
administrators and ministry officials faced with a wide range
of
pressing
opportunities. Many breeders do not utilize exotic material because
of
the
extensive back-crossing required,
or
they rely on material provided
by
the
IARCs
or
from pre-breeding programs,
if
it
is
used at all. Many breeders do
not familiarize themselves with material available from genebanks because
of
its non-adapted nature, poor combining ability, and their belief that
variability
in
elite germplasm is far from exhausted [4].
Fortunately, the IARCs have the resources and means to assess and use
exotic materials and can make the resulting lines available through inter-
national nurseries and yield trials distributed to national programs. They
cannot, however, carry this responsibility alone, particularly for crops
outside their research mandates.
462
Linking
national
genetic
resource
programs
to
international
development
Users and providers
of
germplasm, as
well
as conservationists
in
general,
have anticipated the need to further develop capacities in
field
collection,
conservation, and evaluation [5]. However, these needs have not been given
adequate attention by either development practitioners or by developing
country officials. Mutual collaboration between industrialized and develop-
ing
countries, derived from improvement
of
national germplasm systems,
has yet to be completely realized.
As suggested by T.T. Chang, cooperation between countries could begin
around the following generalities: developed countries could serve as
sources
of
funding, preservation and distribution sites, and training centers,
while developing countries could serve as centers of diversity, rejuvenation
of seed
in
home environment, and
in
situ conservation [6].
We
recognize that
these distinctions currently exist; however,
we
expect them to become less
dramatic as national programs
of
developing countries evolve and their
capacity for preservation and distribution increases.
There are several concerns that development agencies may wish to have
addressed before supporting national plant genetic resource programs. First,
they
will
need to be convinced that the proposed activity does not duplicate
germplasm research being conducted elsewhere. This issue
of
duplication
will
have to be balanced by:
1.
The concept
of
functional redundancy within the larger international
system, and
2.
Relationships established between Genetic Resource Units (GRUs)
located at particular international centers and the proposed national
germplasm system.
The relationships between national germplasm systems and germplasm
activities at international agricultural centers
will
become even more
important as national programs evolve. A working balance between the two
systems
will
depend on the specific role each lARC determines for its
germplasm responsibilities and national priority established for a related
genetic resource system (Fig.
1).
Future support for national genetic
resource activities
will
require better coordination
so
that clear responsi-
bilities are established between the two systems.
While most
of
the lARCs have sizeable GRUs, each center determines
the priority and role that such units have within their mandates. Certain
points
of
commonality between the G R Us have been established, including
their overall goal to conserve and safeguard samples
of
extant diversity from
their mandate crops and to make these freely available to
all
users [7].
However, the resources available at each center for its
GRU
vary greatly.
463
Figure
1.
Balance of responsibilities
for
genetic resource activities divided between the inter-
national agricultural research centers and enhanced national programs.
The International Rice Research Institute CIRRI) has accepted the mandate
for conserving the full spectrum of rice germplasm and has placed this
responsibility within its International Rice Germplasm Center [8]. Other
centers, such as the International Center
of
Improvement of Maize and
Wheat (CIMMYT), are seeking to facilitate greater national abilities in
germplasm systems and have informal agreements with
IBPGR
regarding
germplasm storage responsibilities for their mandated crops [9].
These understandings between national and international genetic
resource programs should evolve in a complimentary manner, similar to
those established by the IARCs and national programs regarding responsi-
bilities for germplasm development and subsequent cultivar release [10]
(Fig.
2).
A second area
of
concern to potential donors is the degree to which a
proposed activity complements existing agricultural research and develop-
ment activities in the host country. Development programs only recently
have considered projects for the management and construction
of
national
germplasm programs. However, indefinite support
of
national systems by
donors
is
not feasible, so each country must be prepared to assume recurrent
costs and plan for future expansions eventually. Projects to develop national
germplasm systems must complement existing development priorities and
include host country commitment to assume recurrent costs on an agreed
upon timetable.
Development projects traditionally provide incremental, focused assist-
ance through host country governments and donor missions for specific
priorities
of
national economic importance [11]. Development agencies
have focused on enhancing national capabilities determined by host country
464
NPGRS
IARC Component in
International
PGR
Network
International Agricultural
Research Centers
Germplasm
Development
t
Genetic
Resource Unit
. Active
Base
Naticmat
Agr'icWtural
Rasearet!
Pmatams
r~--·---··-······-~*1
,
I
t
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Cultivar
Development
NPGRS
. Active
Base
I I L
_________
••
_.
______
J
Figure
2.
Division
of
responsibilities for germplasm and cultivar development integrated with
division between responsibilities for genetic resource activities.
projections and donor strategy statements. Projects developing national
capabilities in germplasm
will
have to be included in future documents
of
this type while gaining acceptability at the mission, country, central, and
regional bureaus and at Congressional levels. Efforts
of
this type
will
link
genetic resource activities with vital economic and production strategies and
policies. This linkage, focusing on utility,
is
a vital step for
all
nations
establishing a national germplasm system.
Another consideration involves the relation
of
proposed genetic resource
systems to conventional plant breeding programs. Support provided to
enhance national capabilities
in
germplasm management has a different goal
and purpose than does support provided for cultivar development. How-
ever, for genetic resource systems to be effective, they must be an inde-
pendent yet integrated part
of
a country's overall agricultural research
program. The linkage between genetic resource activities and plant breeding
can be fostered through active collections and pre-breeding,
or
enhance-
ment; however, such activities alone
will
not ensure collaboration and
flow
of
genetic materials. This
will
depend upon initiatives of both breeders and
germplasm managers.
It is through such linkages that obstacles to using new and unusual
germplasm in breeding programs can be partially overcome. Breeders can
465
make
themselves familiar with available variability by vIsItmg genetic
resource
nurseries.
Germplasm
curators
can
produce
and
distribute catalogs
of
available accessions,
noting
traits
of
special
interest
to
breeders.
Linkage
between
cultivar
development
and
germplasm
systems
are
best
developed
through
interdisciplinary
crop
advisory
committees
able
to
advise
on
development
priorities simultaneously (Fig. 3).
This
will
provide
justifica-
tion
of
support
at
a
more
basic
level by determining
to
what
degree
breeders
are
able
to
use
unadapted
or
unimproved
germplasm.
No
simple
answer
exists for this
question.
In
countries
where
resources
are
severely limited, any
diversion
of
effort
from
more
urgent
problems
may
meet
with opposition.
It
is fair
to
say,
though,
that
plant
genetic
resource
activities
have
been
neglected in
many
countries,
with
traditional
agricultural
research
programs
receiving
most
of
the
support
given
to
plant
sciences.
We
think
that
some
shift in
this
balance,
or
lack
of
it, is
warranted
at
this time. First, from
the
point
of
view
of
genetic
resource
programs,
a significant
international
system
now
exists
to
back
up
and
benefit from
the
operation
of
national
programs.
National
programs
add
depth
to
the
international
network
and
greatly
increase
accessibility
of
germplasm
to
potential
users.
On
the
plant
breeding
side, genetic
resource
programs
remain
a
longterm
activity,
but
their
impor-
tance
and
potential
contribution
cannot
be
ignored.
Interest
in
genes
from
germplasm
collections
increases
as
crops
require
additional
stress
tolerance
or
disease
resistance
characters.
Systems Approach
to
Genetic Resources
I AdministTi
tlve
J-j
interdisciplinary
.~
Management
Crop
1 ComntIUees
(I) (II) (III) (IV)
Genetic
Resou-ce
AcquiSition
Characterization
eo..serva
tlon
Surveys and
Evaluation
e
Development
e
Exploration
Envwonment
eB
•••
eln
Situ
Priorities
Exchange
interactions
Active
e Ex
Situ
e Quarantine
--
Information
System
Flow
01
Malerlal
+H
I Germplasm
;,nhancemenl
I
Pre·
Breeding
'.
Flow
01
Requests
I
Breeding
I
PrIvate
Seed I
I
Cultln
r
Releu.
I
eo...panles
T
I
Farmer
I
Figure
3.
National genetic resource system components and
flow
chart with linkages to
interdisciplinary crop advisory committee, breeding, and seed companies.
466
System and project context for national germplasm programs
Development support for a systems approach to plant genetic resources
(Fig.
3)
represents modifications based upon previous examples of genetic
resource impact chains [12]. Donors
will
decide on a case-by-case basis
which components
of
this comprehensive system
will
be supported.
Administrative management
of
a complex germplasm system
is
a job not to
be underestimated.
It
is in this area
of
human resource development that
donor agencies have extensive experience. However, decisions as to where
and how to develop such management
will
require coordination with other
national systems.
Within the main body
of
the system itself are four germplasm-oriented
disciplines: genetic resource surveys, germplasm acquisition, characteriza-
tion and evaluation, and conservation. A fifth area, computer-based infor-
mation systems, connects the other four. Each component has its own
requirement for training, research, and management, in addition to its opera-
tional responsibility.
Major components within each of these areas are listed
in
Fig.
3.
It
is
recognized that these may vary, depending upon the system required. The
ability to plan for genetic resource surveys and conservation sites with
development perspectives in mind is an important feature. Included within
acquisition are exploration, exchange, and a
fully
operative plant germplasm
quarantine system. Characterization and evaluation must include plans for
localized trials to evaluate genotype
by
environment interactions and should
correspond with needs
of
breeders. Conservation includes not only base and
active collections but also reflects relative national priorities extended to
ex
situ and
in
situ efforts.
Once material has been processed through this internal system, it
is
available for use
by
plant breeders, pathologists, entomologists, and other
researchers.
It
either can be used directly or enter pre-breeding programs for
germplasm enhancement, with agronomically
fit
material advanced to
breeding programs for further introgression. Enhancement can include com-
bining or pyramiding
of
desired genes for disease resistance
or
other special
characters. The exact path taken
will
vary from crop to crop.
The connections established here between users, both public and private,
are key linkages between national germplasm priorities and conventional
development priorities
of
cultivar improvement. Linkages with private seed
companies, both national and international, can be particularly valuable as
a means to increase support for germplasm activities while increasing the
role
of
genetic resources
in
commercial product development.
Potential goals for projects supporting a national germplasm system
could include the following: conservation
of
biological diversity, preserva-
467
tion of a country's sustainable agricultural resource base, and modernization
of
scientific institutes. The first purpose, at the project purpose level, would
be to provide the means to complete a comprehensive, national plant genetic
resource system which
will
strengthen, enhance and coordinate the facilities
and research activities required for conserving, collecting, evaluating, and
exchanging plant genetic resources. The second purpose would be to
enhance a nation's role
in
the global exchange network, including the
operation
of
a safe and efficient germ plasm quarantine system.
Once goal and purpose have been established, actual objectives or accom-
plishments must be determined. This entails deciding on the level
of
support
for each component
of
a national system targeted for development. Deter-
mining appropriate support for components necessitates decisions based
in
part upon items presented in Table
1.
Based upon these considerations,
specific accomplishments for each individual national project
will
be deter-
mined. Potential accomplishments include examples listed in Table
2.
Not all countries or national germplasm systems will warrant such com-
plete investment. However, donors may find it useful to develop priorities
for potential funding requests from countries enlisting their support. Criteria
for screening such requests should take into account items enumerated in
Table
1.
Advantages
provided
by
efficient
national
germ
plasm
programs
Modem and effective national germplasm programs can provide for species-
specific research and evaluation that are often beyond the scope
of
the
IARCs. This
is
particularly important to non-mandate crops, which are
Table I. Supporting components
of
national germplasm systems.
Decisions should be based upon the following criteria:
I. Current operational status of national system
2.
Number of accessions held at present and number envisioned at completion of project
3.
Number and type of species (crops, primitive cultivars,
wild
and weedy relatives) to be
conserved
4.
Potential number of users
5.
Present status of base and active collections
6.
Willingness and ability to participate
in
the reasonable, free, and open exchange of
germplasm
7.
Potential designation
by
International Board
for
Plant Genetic Resources
as
a base
collection site
8.
Regional importance placed upon development of particular national system and its
potential role in the international system
for
germplasm exchange
468
Table
2.
Accomplishments attributable to projects supporting national germplasm system
projects.
Potential project accomplishments would include:
l.
A comprehensive inventory
of
national base and active collections
2.
Upgrading the quality
of
localized active collections
3.
Strategic design of future collaborative plant exploration and collection trips
4.
Priorities for new ex situ collections and for
in
situ reserves
5.
Standardized germplasm
data
and information base
6.
Enhanced base collection facilities
7.
Establishing interdisciplinary crop advisory committees
8.
Management support and human resource development
9.
Enhancing germplasm quarantine facilities and procedures
often
of
considerable importance to local economies and which form
an
integral part
of
indigenous farming systems. National programs concerned
with these indigenous crops provide valuable support for conservation and
evaluation activities that might otherwise be neglected.
An important component
of
this research includes evaluation in crop-
specific environments to
give
better estimates
of
genotype by environment
interactions. Local evaluation solidifies the tie between national programs
and regional, active collections. Support to active or working collections
makes them an integral part
of
development efforts by linking genetic
resource systems with conventional breeding programs and assisting
in
the
characterization and evaluation
of
germplasm (Fig. 4). These and other
advantages derived from enhanced national programs are listed in Table
3.
Nationally supported active collections generally handle materials for
Table
3.
Advances derived from enhanced national germplasm systems.
Potential advances derived from development assistance to national systems:
l.
Ability to participate in international germplasm exchange
2.
Provide
for
species-specific evaluation often beyond the scope
of
the international agricul-
tural research centers
3.
Evaluation in agreement with plant breeding objectives, facilitated through support
to
active collections
4.
Better estimates of genotype
by
environment interactions
5.
Coordinated user information network
6.
Centralized control over germp\asm quarantine procedures
7.
Catalyst
for
collaborative collection and conservation
8.
National systems
will
develop a broader base
of
support in host-country scientific commu-
nity
469
IARC
National
PGR
Program
Active
Active
Collections Collections
~
~
t t
~
I
Base Base
Evaluation
Evaluation
Collections
Collections
~
,
..
Breeding
Programs
I.
Breeding
Programs
~----------------~
Bilateral
...
1 Donor
Support
r
Figure
4.
Linkage between collection (base and active), evaluation responsibilities, and
breeding programs.
short to intermediate periods
of
storage and have storage and handling
requirements that are less exacting and comprehensive than those
of
base
collections. They generally turn materials over faster and are better situated
in
decentralized locations than long-term base collections. These regional
locations provide breeders with easier access to materials and provide for
observations in environments similar to those in which they would be used.
Field space
will
be
needed for such grow-outs, and this may require linkage
to university or agricultural research centers. Recurrent costs associated
with maintaining and evaluating germplasm will need to be calculated, but
this
is
an area in which many developing countries have a distinct advantage,
since labor costs are relatively low.
Not surprisingly, the
IBPGR
has made the development
of
active
genebanks an institutional priority,
in
part because they help bridge con-
servation and use [13]. Active genebanks substantially contribute to the
documentation and information available to base collections through their
regeneration, characterization, mUltiplication, and distribution
of
genetic
materials. Active linkage favors the development
of
national systems driven
by
demand and interest
of
the local research community, increasing the
probability that resources
will
be provided to conduct the activity beyond
the period
of
donor support.
470
Just as
is
the case with active genebanks, developing countries have
considerable comparative advantage in relation to
field
genebanks. Field
genebanks maintain vegetatively held material and are especially useful
in
handling perennial and woody species. Many tropical species cannot be
handled as dried, cold-stored seeds and instead must be held for short
periods
or
maintained
in
the
field.
Spices, herbs, and medicinal and plan-
tation crops are among the plants that may best be handled
in
this way.
In
addition, literally hundreds
of
species
of
fruits and nuts may be best suited
to management near their native habitats. A growing interest in perennial
crops can be envisioned as farmers and researchers in humid and sub-humid
tropical regions search for environmentally and economically sustainable
multi-canopy production systems.
Recent
developments
affecting
plant
genetic
resources
A number
of
developments -scientific advances, policy and priority shifts,
and accomplishments -have brought about changes that prompt us to
reconsider the role
of
plant genetic resource activities within the inter-
national development area. First, it must be noted that for some
of
the major
food crops, a significant portion
of
the genetic diversity in primitive cultivars
and land races has been collected. As a result, increased emphasis now
is
being placed on efforts toward their characterization and use which are often
time consuming, labor intensive, and costly. The ability
is
desired to divide
these responsibilities among national and international genetic resource
systems efficiently and effectively.
A second factor increasing the use and exchange
of
plant genetic
resources
is
biotechnology. These technologies presently consist primarily
of
in
vitro
tissue culture procedures designed for germplasm activities. Only
now
is
the potential for transferring genes and chromosomes through recom-
binant
DNA
technologies being realized. These technologies
will
make more
possible the selective use
of
wild relatives to crop species
or
even completely
alien genes without the rigorous backcrossing required
by
conventional
selection techniques. Other potential applications
of
biotechnology to germ-
plasm research are presented
in
Table
4.
The need to integrate these and
other applications
of
biotechnology with conventional plant breeding has
been established [14].
In
some developing countries, especially those in Asia, remarkable gains
have been made in the production
of
rice and other staple foods - a major
accomplishment
in
a region only
20
years ago thought by many to have
insurmountable food shortage problems. This progress has engendered
interest in and demand for diversification
in
agricultural production. High
471
Table
4.
Potential applications of biotechnology for integration with genetic resource
activities.
Components
of
conventional
germplasm-based technologies
Acquisition/Exchange
Conservation
Evaluation
Germplasm Enhancement
Wide Hybridization
Conventional Potential biotechnology contributions
Timespan
I year In
vitro
culture, disease indexing, and
eradication
Ongoing
2 seasons
3-5
seasons
2 years
In
vitro
conservation
Molecular diagnostics
Embryo rescue, molecular diagnostics,
selection in tissue culture, somaclonal
variation
Embryo rescue, somaclonal variation,
anther culture, protoplast fusion
value horticultural crops are taking on new importance, including some that
may have had little improvement, especially at the local level. Scientists in
developing countries increasingly may become interested in considering a
broader variety
of
crops, some
of
which may have needs that require support
from or interaction with an accessible germplasm collection.
In 1986, Congress enacted legislation that annually earmarks a certain
portion
of
foreign assistance dollars for conservation
of
biological diversity.
While specifically targeting tropical nations as priority areas for conserva-
tion activities, this legislation moreover has enhanced the connection
between conservation, biological diversity, and plant genetic resources. The
AID has responded to this congressional request by soliciting funding
proposals from appropriate missions, bureaus, and offices.
This legislation has proved
to
be a valuable impetus in looking beyond
genebanks for effective conservation
of
plant genetic resources, possibly
through
in
situ reserves, although
few
working examples
of
such systems
remain. New efforts are needed linking the need for conservation and
quantification
of
genetic resources with conservation biology [15].
For
example, documentation
is
urgently needed
of
areas in greatest need
of
conservation and which contain primitive, wild,
or
weedy species suited for
in
situ preserves.
Genetic resource programs and international crop improvement
Despite a lack
of
support for the reasons described above, activity in this
area has been considerable.
In
the case
of
the AID, such activity has been
472
undertaken mainly through central funding channels with support provided
to
institutions directly associated with plant genetic resources. Ongoing
support has been provided
to
the
IBPGR
since its founding.
In
fact, for
most
of
its history, the
AID
has been the largest contributor. The
IBPGR
not
only has helped to ensure that genetic diversity
is
collected, catalogued,
and
conserved,
but
also actively promotes unrestricted international exchange
of
plant germplasm in these collections. In many cases the
IBPGR
provided
direct assistance
to
national programs in genetic resources, through training,
provision
of
equipment,
or
critically needed funding associated with col-
lecting
or
conserving important germplasm.
In recent years, the
IBPGR
has sought more actively
to
encourage the
use
of
scientific techniques to minimize the loss
or
destabilization
of
genetic
diversity represented in collections.
To
this end,
IBPGR
is sponsoring
research programs in collaboration with a variety
of
institutions regarding
strategic areas relevant to plant genetic resource programs. Current research
thrusts include seed physiology,
in
vitro
conservation, pathology and germ-
plasm exchange, analysis
of
genetic variation patterns
on
an
ecogeographical
basis,
and
preservation
of
genetic integrity during regeneration
of
accessions
[16]. The overall contribution
ofIBPGR
in all
of
these areas
has
been far
out
of
proportion
to
its size [17].
Through its contribution
to
the
IARCs,
the
AID
has
supported varying
degrees
of
germplasm activities
on
an array
of
important food crops.
At
some centers, the
GRU
primarily constitutes
an
active collection directly
supporting breeding programs. Other centers have developed a
full
world
collection for their
mandated
crops, including wild relatives. In most cases,
because
of
proximity, available resources,
and
the nature
of
the breeding
objectives, breeding programs at the centers have been able
to
tap
into a wide
variety
of
materials contained in their collection.
To
encourage the exchange
of
germplasm, the
Plant
and Seed Materials
project was initiated by the
AID
in 1973. This project operates under the
leadership
of
Dr. George White at the Plant Introduction Office at Beltsville,
Maryland. The project provides limited quantities
of
plant and seed mate-
rials for evaluation in developing countries. Since its initiation, more than
100,000 varieties
or
selections
of
virtually all economically important crops
have been sent to 100 + countries.
Through its Office
of
the Science Advisor, the
AID
supports small
research grants, both directly and through the National Academy
of
Science,
on
a wide array
of
topics related to development.
The
AID
program seeks
to
build research linkages
and
training opportunities with scientists from
developing countries and is complementary to the larger program thrusts
of
the Agency. Biological diversity is one
of
the program's disciplines, and a
number
of
these grants support plant genetic resource-related research. The
473
program includes characterization and systematic evaluation of wild rela-
tives
of
crop species. Examples
of
supported projects include assessment
of
potential sources
of
disease resistance, techniques to sample and charac-
terize germplasm
of
important palm species, and techniques to broaden
collections by use
of
remote sensing and ecological data.
The above activities have, in our view, been very effective. Each has been
evaluated for relevance and contribution to overall objectives
of
agricultural
development. We anticipate that these or similar activities
will
long be
needed. However, it is neither our contention nor the main objective
of
this
paper to argue that such activities continue to suffice
if
plant genetic resource
opportunities and needs are to be fully addressed. This
is
especially true as
the scope
of
plant genetic resource work expands from collection and
conservation to include characterization and use more prominently. Just as
in the developed countries, national systems responding to national
priorities, capabilities, and comparative advantages will need to be developed
in
developing countries in the vital work
of
germplasm conservation and use.
Policy implications
We have presented herein the rationale for how a national plant genetic
resource system could be appropriate for certain developing countries. There
are clearly policy-level impacts from this (Table
5).
Support for plant genetic
resource activities
will
hasten the development
of
national strategies for
germplasm conservation and use. The activity could garner new interest,
particularly from development practitioners. Such attention reflects the fact
that genetic resource initiatives can stand alone among activities in port-
folios of developing country and donor activities and will help to ensure that
a higher priority be accorded such activities in the future.
Regarding the scientific community
of
a single country, we have noted
that purposeful efforts to integrate genetic resource activities into national
agricultural research
will
help ensure broader support and interest (Fig.
5).
Table
5.
Policy implications of support provided to national germplasm systems
Policy considerations for donors to consider:
I.
Provide opportunity to develop and pursue national germplasm strategy
2.
Interdependence
of
collections provides rationale
for
free exchange
3.
Shared responsibility
of
collections minimizes ownership concerns
4.
Ability to link agricultural and natural resource researchers through common conservation
goals
474
Other
rARC
""'-
V
Other
GRU
NPGRS
./'
Scientific
Active
.
Active
Scientific
linkages
/'
Base Base "
~
Linkages
MUIt"~
/-.",
I Donor Support I
Figure
5.
Linkages provided to other scientific communities involving either national or
international genetic resource units.
Plant genetic resource programs are unusual in
that
they link diverse
disciplines -botany
and
ecology -with natural resource interests,
and
link
plant breeders with pathologists, entomologists,
and
other agricultural
scientists. Such linkages need
to
be fostered so
that
agricultural priorities are
no
longer viewed as being at
odds
with conservation priorities. Genetic
resource work is, after all, applied biodiversity conservation
and
can
help
underscore areas where conservation
and
agricultural priorities intersect.
Returning
to
the operations level
of
genetic resource initiatives, a decen-
tralized approach such as advocated in this
paper
has important implica-
tions for how germ plasm activities should
be
designed. A decentralized
system emphasizes the interdependence
of
all germplasm holders, users,
evaluators, and collectors.
An
extension
of
this concept is
that
of
free
exchange - a system in which all users are mutually dependent -hardly is
workable without a global commitment
to
the unrestricted distribution
of
materials
to
all
bona
fide workers, regardless
of
institutional
or
political
location
or
affiliation. Departure from the concept
of
interdependence also
means retreat from the doctrine
of
free exchange
and
advocating a doctrine
of
ownership. This is
most
frequently encountered in
the
case
of
tropical
cash crops,
but
even in those cases
it
represents a limited and unduly
protective viewpoint.
475
Increased involvement
of
developing countries in the international germ-
plasm system can only strengthen the mutual goodwill
of
this network [ 17].
The shared responsibility required to manage each national system
will
build
a constituency
to
ensure that the benefits and advantages of the global
network are broadly understood, whereas the shared responsibility required
to manage the international system will help alleviate concerns over
questions
of
ownership, accessibility, and benefit from germplasm activities.
Developing a clear role for national systems within the context
of
the global
network can help ensure that scientific cooperation and progress, not
politics, determine policy.
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Article
Full-text available
Background The amount and structure of genetic diversity in dessert apple germplasm conserved at a European level is mostly unknown, since all diversity studies conducted in Europe until now have been performed on regional or national collections. Here, we applied a common set of 16 SSR markers to genotype more than 2,400 accessions across 14 collections representing three broad European geographic regions (North + East, West and South) with the aim to analyze the extent, distribution and structure of variation in the apple genetic resources in Europe. Results A Bayesian model-based clustering approach showed that diversity was organized in three groups, although these were only moderately differentiated (FST = 0.031). A nested Bayesian clustering approach allowed identification of subgroups which revealed internal patterns of substructure within the groups, allowing a finer delineation of the variation into eight subgroups (FST = 0.044). The first level of stratification revealed an asymmetric division of the germplasm among the three groups, and a clear association was found with the geographical regions of origin of the cultivars. The substructure revealed clear partitioning of genetic groups among countries, but also interesting associations between subgroups and breeding purposes of recent cultivars or particular usage such as cider production. Additional parentage analyses allowed us to identify both putative parents of more than 40 old and/or local cultivars giving interesting insights in the pedigree of some emblematic cultivars. Conclusions The variation found at group and subgroup levels may reflect a combination of historical processes of migration/selection and adaptive factors to diverse agricultural environments that, together with genetic drift, have resulted in extensive genetic variation but limited population structure. The European dessert apple germplasm represents an important source of genetic diversity with a strong historical and patrimonial value. The present work thus constitutes a decisive step in the field of conservation genetics. Moreover, the obtained data can be used for defining a European apple core collection useful for further identification of genomic regions associated with commercially important horticultural traits in apple through genome-wide association studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12870-016-0818-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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The paper develops a theoretical framework to explain changes in crop genetic resources. For this purpose the genetic diversity of crop plants is treated as a social/natural co-construct of human beings in particular historical settings. To illustrate the potential of such an approach, the history of rapeseed (Brassica rapa L. and Brassica napus L.) breeding in Canada from 1954 to 1991 is examined. Pedigree and cluster analyses are used to evaluate the genetic diversity of rapeseed cultivars as well as its change through time. Relationships between the genetic diversity of crop plants and the ecological sustainability of agriculture are discussed.
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Plant breeders have demonstrated the potential ability of ex-otic and alien germplasm to enhance particular qualitative ge-netic traits of maize, (Zea may$ L.). Results from such programs include the incorporation of genes that condition resistance to pathogens or insect pests. Fewer examples exist which provide information on how alien and exotic germplasm affect quanti-tative traits, although studies have shown it is possible to in-crease heterosis or to expand the level of genetic divergence between breeding populations by using such germplasm. How-ever, in either case, most breeders prefer current, elite inbreds with known combining ability as sources for inbred development and for improvement of hybrid performance. Alien germplasm was evaluated for its effects on quantitative traits by crossing seven substitution lines, each containing various segments of germplasm from teosinte (Zea mexicana), with three testers, and measuring the effects on maize hybrids. A performance trial was used for this evaluation from which data were collected for 12 traits on 23 hybrids. Significant differences in grain yield and heterosis were obtained between the means of the three testers and among the various substitution line hybrids. One tester, Havels-(20 ÷ 2Tr7), contained an extra disomic chromosome from Tripsacum dactyloides. Hybrids with this tester had a com-bining ability value 8% higher than the isogenic control. The highest yielding hybrids were the teosinte A158-substitution lines involving the Florida and Durango teosinte types crossed with the Havels testers. The two highest yields occurred from cross-ing the Havels tester containing the Tripsacum chromosome with the A158-Florida 4,9 and the A158-Florida 9 teosinte substitu-tion lines.
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Crop plants are the basis of our food supply. The demand for the highest possible productivity, as the human population increased in number, has in effect narrowed the gene base of our crop plants to only the most productive cultivars. Never before in human history have the rates of extinction for the ancestral forms of our basic agricultural plants been as high as they are now. Both the USDA through the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) at the national level and the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) at the international level have active programs to collect, store, and evaluate this germplasm for present and future use. The scope and status of these programs are reviewed in detail. Clearly the future of plant breeding, and, therefore agriculture and the world food supply, rest on the genetic potential of plant genetic resources now being stored in gene banks. The location and holdings of these gene banks are reviewed. For the future, both the nations which possess this genetic diversity and the plant breeders that enhance the genetic architecture of crop plants have an obligation to insure that these resources are used to improve the human condition for all people.
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Argues for the need to safeguard edible plant material, its cultivation in plant breeding and the conservation of genetic resources, (including prospects for the future).-C.Barrow(CDS)
Subcommission On Agriculture
  • I S Indo-U
I. Indo-U.S. Subcommission On Agriculture. 1988. Report ofthe Fifth Meeting, December 7-11, 1987. Government of India, New Delhi.
The availability of crop germplasm
  • T T Chang
Chang, T.T. 1987. The availability of crop germplasm. Pp. 225-231. In Crop Exploration and Utilization of Genetic Resources. Proceedings of International Symposium, Changhua, Taiwan. Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station. Taiwan. R.O.C.: 6-12.