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Self-esteem within cognitive behavioural coaching: a theoretical framework to integrate theory with practice

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Abstract

The usefulness of the cognitive behavioural model in dealing with low self-esteem has been documented in many studies. Research suggests that individuals gather information about themselves by engaging in self-evaluation processes, which in turn are significantly related to global feeling of self-worth. Domains or attributes that individuals evaluate themselves on and find as more personally important have a more profound impact on global self-esteem than less important ones. Using a cognitive behavioural framework, the present paper discusses the variety of self-evaluation processes that individuals engage in and the importance attached to the evaluated domains in regulating global self-esteem. The paper links theory with practice by identifying specific strategies and tools for use in coaching in order to help a coachee to identify, examine, challenge and modify unhelpful self-evaluative thinking with balanced and relative thinking.

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... Even though schemas assist us to organise as well as make sense of how we view the world, they also are impactful on our behavioural and affective responses. Thus, schemas influence how we see ourselves, others, and the world, as well as how perceived data is organised and processed so as to develop a meaning fitting our beliefs (Dinos & Palmer, 2015). ...
... Secondly, it is assumed that it is possible to access, monitor and change thoughts (Dias, Palmer & Nardi, 2017;Minzlaf, 2019;Palmer & Szymanska, 2007). Those coachees with the ability to identify their thinking errors and negative thoughts have a greater ability to understand the mechanisms that underpin their challenges, such as low self-esteem (Dinos & Palmer, 2015). It is through being aware of their thinking style, together with limitations and strengths associated with this thinking as well as being aware of different ways of thinking and behaving, that the coachee engages in more effective and adaptive ways of dealing with workplace challenges (Minzlaf, ...
... One of the main purposes of Cognitive Behavioural Coaching is the identification of unhelpful core beliefs (irrational) and thinking errors that interfere with performance (Dinos & Palmer, 2015). Core beliefs are absolute, global and rigid beliefs which people have about self, others, the world as well as the future (Neenan & Dryden, 2014). ...
Thesis
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Due to the executives’ key role in the business sphere, organisations have shown great interest and investment in developing their executives to understand their work context and the people they work with so that a constructive, productive and healthy environment can be created in the workplace. One way in which executives can be assisted to learn as well as develop themselves is executive coaching. However, executive coaching is still a young research field, with the practice in this field ahead of the relevant theory. It is necessary for executive leadership coaching theory, frameworks, and models to be critically reviewed, and a focus on Positive Psychology Coaching as well as Cognitive Behavioural Coaching will offer greater insight. This study used an exploratory qualitative constructivist research approach, to gain insight into executive leadership coaching, allowing the researcher to focus on greater understanding of this complex social phenomenon. The researcher adopted a critical analysis strategy of existing secondary sources, followed by a deductive content analysis to retest the existing knowledge in a new setting, through the analysis of models, concepts, and categories. The research was limited to testing existing exploratory models or theories about executive leadership coaching against the data, moving from a more general and abstract focus to a more specific and concrete one. However, the study does not seek to operationalise the findings. The critical content analysis in the study discovered various elements necessary for effective executive leadership coaching and these are: coaching process aspects; personal development; leader and leadership competencies; personality traits and behaviour; business environment and context; relational and team leadership; diversity and culture; and leadership style and influence. The main contribution of the study was the development of an executive leadership coaching framework that describes all the steps in a full coaching intervention.
... Several of the participants recognised that gaining industry specific qualifications has given them a boost to their career, but also earned them respect from colleagues in the industry (irrelevant of gender). Dinos and Palmer (2015) referred to the concept of academic achievements to self-esteem. They also recognised that networking and being seen in the industry as an expert has helped to move their careers forward. ...
... The facilities management leaders interviewed for international women's day in 2019 evidenced their view that the industry is still male dominated but changes are happening, and the key messages were to remain true to yourself (authenticity), be empathic, be kind and try to reduce the tendency to be self-critical (Facilities News, 2019). Gaining academic or professional qualifications also helped to boost the self-esteem of the participants as this gained further respect of their ability within the industry (Dinos and Palmer, 2015). There is ownership to be taken on both sides of the argument, yes the industry may need to move into the 21 st century in some instances and remove the 'old boys club' but women also have to stand up and take the opportunities that are out there, and be prepared to not accept a 'no' and keep pushing at the glass ceiling (Chisholm-Burns, 2017). ...
Conference Paper
Background and aim: Leadership and gender is often an emotive subject with each gender picking sides to support their view of what should be obtainable in their industry, and proffering reasons for perceived advancement or a lack thereof. The service industry and facilities management is not exempt from this practice; therefore the aim of this study is to understand the perception of women in leadership positions in facilities management and the enablers and barriers to their career progression; and also the potential impact of mentoring early career females in the industry. Methods /methodology: We adopted an interpretivist and inductive approach through qualitative emailed survey questions to 12 participants. The participants were all mid to senior level female professionals from the facilities management sector. Results: The results evidenced the need for a more focused recruitment and development pathway for women starting in FM and also in terms of career progression. There was a need to be resilient as a woman in the industry, but to remain empathic, and authentic in their leadership. The use of mentoring for early career women new into the industry was seen as important but also to continue that mentoring through mid-career to help break the glass ceiling in organisations, and to ensure the mentoring taken was positive, and provided ongoing support for development. Finally, the other way women built their own self-esteem and earned respect within the industry was through gaining academic and professional qualifications. Originality/value: While there are several studies on gender and leadership, this study focuses on the service industry with an emphasis on Facilities Management and the use of mentoring to support women in overcoming the issues that arise as a result of their gender. Practical or social implications: The reality of where women are in the service industry, especially facilities management is different from the perception of stakeholders; both external and internal. Emphasis should be made to celebrate the achievements that could attract and retain qualified experts regardless of gender.
... An adequate level of self-esteem is required for the coachee to be open to feedback and selfreflection. Individuals with low self-esteem employ dysfunctional and destructive thinking patterns as a default reaction and, if not resolved, these could sabotage the coaching process (Dimotakis, Mitchell & Maurer, 2017;Dinos & Palmer, 2015). The ability of an individual to reflect is a basic requirement for coaching to succeed (Black, Soto & Spurlin, 2016). ...
Article
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Abstract Lack of coachee readiness impacts negatively on the effectiveness of coaching. Despite the general awareness of the phenomena that influence coachee readiness, this concept needs better description in the coaching literature. This article reports on a Critical Interpretive Synthesis (CIS) study of the factors that influence coachee readiness and consider ways to overcome this. This article seeks to contribute to the formulation of a theory on the concept of coachee readiness by developing a theoretical framework with the aim of guiding stakeholders at the pre-contemplation, contemplation, and preparation phases of a coaching assignment. Keywords behavioural change process, coachee readiness, coachee commitment to change, Self�Determination Theory (SDT) Article history Accepted for publication: 11 January 2022 Published online: 01 February 2022 © the Author(s) Published by Oxford Brookes University
Chapter
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(1) Background: Self-esteem plays an important role in developing emotional resilience and wellbeing in children. Yet, there has been little related research on Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy on this topic. Our aims were to assess the effect of the Child Self-Esteem CBT (CSE-CBT) protocol on children’s self-esteem in grades five and six; to assess the effect of the CSE-CBT protocol on the therapeutic process; and to explore the feasibility of delivering the CSE-CBT protocol in a school setting. (2) Methods: Eighty elementary school children in grades five and six, divided into four intervention and four control groups, attended 12 structured sessions using the CSE-CBT protocol, led by specially trained teachers. The children completed questionnaires to assess their self-esteem at the beginning and at the end of the study, and answered weekly questionnaires that assessed therapeutic process. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze the data. (3) Results: The CSE-CBT protocol had a significant effect on improving children’s self-esteem over the course of the study, regardless of the children’s working alliance with the teacher leading the group. (4) Conclusions: The findings suggest that the CSE-CBT protocol has the potential to benefit children’s self-esteem and indicate that school teachers can be trained to administer the CBT-protocol.
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The theory of downward comparison posits that persons experiencing negative affect can enhance their subjective well-being through comparison with a less fortunate other, the process occurring on either a passive or active basis. The present author discusses the basic principle of downward comparison and its corollaries and suggests that these represent the motivational process for phenomena observed in several areas of social psychology. Evidence is considered from studies of the fear-affiliation effect, choice of others for social comparison, scapegoating, projection, aversive environmental events and attraction toward others, social prejudice, hostile aggression, and humor. It is shown that downward comparison principles encompass empirical evidence from these areas, account for nonreplications as well as confirmatory findings, and provide a theoretical basis for the relation among the various phenomena. (111 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Beat Low Self-Esteem with CBT will give you the skills you need to overcome a lack of self-esteem, making it easier for you to deal with tough times and leaving you a happier and more confident person. A complete program for changing your self-image, it takes you step-by-step through every aspect of confidence, with exercises to accompany each stage and short-term 'personal assignments' that will give you long-term benefits and lasting results. Citation: Wilding, C. and Palmer, S. (2010). Beat self-esteem with CBT. London: Teach Yourself, Hodder Education.
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This book will enable anyone to assess their own level of stress and reconsider their behaviour and health, with valuable tips on time management, exercise, nutrition and relaxation. CONTENTS: Introduction -- What is stress? -- A working model of stress -- Changing your thinking -- Changing your imagery -- Changing your behaviour -- Improving your physical health to help you conquer stress -- Dealing with work-related stress -- Stress self-audit -- Developing your own action plan.
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Work related stress has remained a serious problem and concern for the past five decades. This chapter provides information regarding work-related stress and performance, presents a cognitive behavioural model for understanding stress, and discusses a number of cognitive techniques. It also briefly presents a number of behavioural and physiological techniques and finally present a summary of the relevant research. The World Health Organisation defines work-related stress as Work-related stress is the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope. Work-related stress is a major cause of ill health and can lead to high staff turnover, poor productivity, human error, increased accidents and poor performances.
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We examine the importance of group membership in stigma and its role in the effectiveness of self-protective cognitions in three experiments. In Experiment I, men are asked to interact with an attractive female who will judge their value as a potential date, and either eat a mint or a clove of raw garlic prior to the interview. Although the stigmatized-by-garlic men discounted negative feedback and attributed it to their garlic breath, discounting and attributions were negatively correlated with self-esteem. In Experiment 2, White participants were evaluated positively or negatively by a bogus partner who the participants believed had been told that the participant was either White or Black. Although participants receiving negative feedback engaged in several self-protective cognitions, including attributing their negative feedback to racism, the strategies were uncorrelated with self-esteem. In experiment 3, women prepared to interact via computer with a partner who expressed sexist or non-sexist beliefs. In the absence of feedback, self-esteem increased when their partner was sexist. In contrast with the first two experiments, perceiving the partner as prejudiced was significantly and positively, correlated with self-esteem. Together, these experiments suggest that self-protective cognitions find their effectiveness when stigma has a basis in group membership. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley di Sons, Ltd.
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In this descriptive study we investigated the relationship of social psychological processes to older adults' self-esteem. A modified semistructured interview format that assessed social and temporal comparisons, serf-esteem, and self-rated adjustment to aging was administered to 70 male and female community residents of Southern California. The majority of participants reported downward social comparisons by describing themselves as being relatively advantaged compared with their age peers. Also, participants tended to report downward temporal comparisons that reflected growth or stable temporal comparisons that reflected continuity across time. Results are discussed in light of their implications for Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory, Albert's (1977) temporal comparison theory, and the use of social psychological processes as mechanisms for self-enhancement in healthy aging.
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Past research has treated self-esteem either as a social force or as a social product. However, this research has not given adequate attention to the reciprocal effects of the self-concept and various social and personal factors. A panel of 1886 adolescent boys is used to explore the reciprocal relationships between self-esteem and three problems of youth: juvenile delinquency; poor school performance; and psychological depression. We find that low self-esteem fosters delinquency and that delinquency may enhance self-esteem. These reciprocal effects differ among socioeconomic status groups. The relationship between self-esteem and school performance is primarily attributable to the effect of school performance on self-esteem. Finally, the causal relationship between self-esteem and depression is bidirectional. Substantive, methodological, and policy implications of these findings are discussed.
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Earlier experiments (see Wheeler et al., 1969) showed that when a person has a vague idea that he is somewhere in the middle of the group with respect to an ability, he will choose the person ranking highest in the ability as a comparison other when given the chance to gain more information about his position. These experiments utilized a private comparison situation where the outcome of the comparison would be known only by the subject. It was predicted that in a public situation, where comparison occurs through compettition with another member while others evaluate the outcome, there would be more defensive avoidance of the highest ranking person than in the private situation. It was also predicted that in the public situation a person with high self-esteem would be more likely to choose the highest in ability as a comparison other while those with low self-esteem would choose someone lower in ability. Further, it was expected that in the public situation, defensive avoidance of the highest ranking person, and the effect of self-esteem would be greater when a person was certain about his standing in the group. An experiment was designed to test these predictions. The predictions were supported for male subjects while females showed some deviations from the predictions.
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The present study examines the longitudinal relations between self-esteem and perceived affective self-regulatory efficacy (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs in managing negative emotions and in expressing positive emotions). Participants were a group of 206 late adolescents (47% males) aged 16, 18, 20 and 24 years at T1, T2, T3 and T4, respectively. Findings corroborated the posited paths of mutual relations, while pointing to a major contribution of self-esteem in predicting perceived affective self-regulatory efficacy across time. In particular, self-esteem consistently predicted subsequent levels of self-efficacy beliefs in managing negative emotions and in expressing positive emotions. Paths in the opposite direction were significant but small. Findings are discussed in light of the contributions of perceived affective self-regulatory efficacy to promote self-esteem from 16 to 24 years.
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In this descriptive study we investigated the relationship of social psychological processes to older adults' self-esteem. A modified semistructured interview format thatassessed social and temporal comparisons,self-esteem,andself-rated adjustment to aging was administered to 70 male and female community residents of Southern California. The majority of participants reported downward social comparisons by describing themselves as being relatively advantaged compared with their age peers. Also, participants tended to report downward temporal comparisons that reflected growth or stable temporal comparisons that reflected continuity across time. Results are discussed in light of their implications for Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory, Albert' s (1977) temporal comparison theory, and the use of social psycho- logical processes as mechanisms for self-enhancement in healthy aging.
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Some premises of Festinger's (1954) theory of social comparison were put to empirical test. Subjects were given false feedback from “university files” indicating they would score superior, average, or inferior on an ambiguous test of mental functioning; there was also a no-information control group. In attempting to evaluate their performance, subjects were to compare their score and test sheets with those of someone else. They could express a desire to see the protocols of someone who had scored superior, average, inferior, or similarly to themselves (with no other evaluative information being provided in the latter case). Furthermore, the comparison others were manipulated to be rather similar to or rather different from the subject in terms of such test-irrelevant traits as geographical location and activities. Others similar to the subject on test-irrelevant traits were, overall, most sought as comparison targets. In addition, superior and inferior subjects expressed comparatively strong desires to compare with someone whose performance was closest to that which they anticipated for themselves. Average subjects seemed to avoid the average-scoring comparison target and to prefer comparison with superior or inferior scorers. Subjects in the superior, average, and control conditions strongly avoided comparison with a nonevaluated similar scorer.
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Using the rank-order paradigm, the effects of comparison publicity, performance feedback, and self-esteem on ability-related social comparison choices were examined. Subjects chose the highest ranked score less frequently when comparison was expected to be public rather than private, when performance feedback suggested failure rather than success, and when subjects were low rather than high in self-esteem. In contrast to previous reports of a stable tendency for subjects to select first the highest ranked score when the range of scores is unknown, the combination of anticipated public social comparison, low score, and low self-esteem created a preference for this score that was descriptively less frequent than chance. It was argued that these results provide converging evidence for social comparison choices motivated by defensive concerns.
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In recent years, researchers have developed a variety of techniques to measure implicit self-esteem. Bosson, Swann, and Pennebaker (2000) examined the reliability and validity of these measures. Only some implicit measures were reliable, and even these measures failed to show convergent and predictive validity. In contrast, explicit self-esteem predicted subjective well-being (SWB). However, the predictive validity of explicit self-esteem measures may have been inflated because SWB was assessed by means of self-reports. The present article addresses this concern. We correlated self-reports and informant reports of subjective well-being with an explicit (Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale) and an implicit measure of self-esteem (preferences for initials). Explicit self-esteem was a significant predictor of all SWB measures. Preferences for initials were not significantly correlated with any of the SWB measures.
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We examine the importance of group membership in stigma and its role in the eÄectiveness of self-protective cognitions in three experiments. In Experiment 1, men are asked to interact with an attractive female who will judge their value as a potential date, and either eat a mint or a clove of raw garlic prior to the interview. Although the stigmatized-by-garlic men discounted negative feedback and attributed it to their garlic breath, discounting and attributions were negatively correlated with self-esteem. In Experiment 2, White participants were evaluated positively or negatively by a bogus partner who the participants believed had been told that the participant was either White or Black. Although participants receiving negative feedback engaged in several self-protective cognitions, including attributing their negative feedback to racism, the strategies were uncorrelated with self-esteem. In Experiment 3, women prepared to interact via computer with a partner who expressed sexist or non-sexist beliefs. In the absence of feedback, self-esteem increased when their partner was sexist. In contrast with the first two experiments, perceiving the partner as prejudiced was significantly and positively correlated with self-esteem. Together, these experiments suggest that self- protective cognitions find their eÄectiveness when stigma has a basis in group member- ship. Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Discusses the interpersonal motivations associated with different levels of self-esteem (SE). Although SE refers to an intrapsychic attitude, SE scales often measure self-presentational orientation. High SE scores are associated with a tendency to present one's self in a self-enhancing fashion characterized by willingness to accept risks, focus on outstandingly good qualities, strategic ploys, and calling attention to one's self. Low SE scores are associated with a tendency to present one's self in a self-protective fashion characterized by unwillingness to accept risks, focus on avoiding outstandingly bad qualities, avoidance of strategic ploys, and reluctance to draw attention to one's self. Evidence shows that most people rate themselves as above average on SE scales. Measures emphasizing social SE may be more sensitive to interpersonal and self-presentational issues than nonsocial SE measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Traces the development of the cognitive approach to psychopathology and psy hotherapy from common-sense observations and folk wisdom, to a more sophisticated understanding of the emotional disorders, and finally to the application of rational techniques to correct the misconceptions and conceptual distortions that form the matrix of the neuroses. The importance of engaging the patient in exploration of his inner world and of obtaining a sharp delineation of specific thoughts and underlying assumptions is emphasized. (91/4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
In this . . . book, William Swann dissects the mistaken assumptions that underlie current self-esteem programs. Swann proposes the concept of "self-traps" as a new way of understanding both the roots and manifestations of low self-esteem. He investigates behavior that has defied explanation by traditional psychological models, such as the regularity with which people suffering from low self-esteem gravitate to relationships in which they are denigrated or abused. Swann convincingly argues that such behavior is the result of our desire to maintain a stable identity by bringing others to see us as we see ourselves, even when we view ourselves negatively. "Self-Traps" [explores] how self-esteem conflicts develop and are played out in all our relationships, and how the authentic achievement of self-esteem is often undermined by American social norms that tell us how to approach our love relationships and work. Swann shows how these societal influences may compound the inner conflicts that people with low self-esteem have, making their thought patterns and behavior that much more difficult to change. Swann proposes solutions that take into account the multifaceted nature of self-esteem and allow us to perform a delicate balancing act, changing our notions of who we are without irreparably losing our fundamental sense of identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
focus . . . on the relation between global self-esteem and evaluations of self in specific domains / argue that self-esteem is rooted in affective processes / high self-esteem (HSE) involves a generic, global liking for oneself that is not dependent on the belief that one possesses specific attributes, but that is nevertheless accompanied by the general and fluid perception that one is good at a great many things / low self-esteem (LSE) is a muted version of this tendency or, in extreme cases, the reverse tendency / evidence is . . . presented to support these characterizations / conclude by considering the relevance of this perspective to self-esteem improvement programs (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The present experiment examined comparison choice under two conditions of threat in which the probable dissimilarity of the available Others from the subjects varied, according to the precomparison information. It was observed that the choices of the subjects in the High-Threat condition focused upon more dissimilar Others than did the choices of the subjects in the Low-Threat condition. Since the precomparison probability that the more dissimilar Others would prove to be worse off (i.e., more hostile) than the subjects was greater, this observation was interpreted as evidence of the occurrence of defensive social comparison. Such comparisons, it was suggested, primarily function to reduce the threat of unexpectedly negative information about oneself rather than providing a basis for an accurate self-assessment.