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Marine archaeological research in India
Abstract
Marine archaeology is otherwise known as maritime, nautical or underwater archaeology. These terms include all aspects of marine archaeology in which water plays a dominant role. It deals with the study of past seafaring from material remains of this activity. All the developed countries have made tremendous progress in this field and substantial progress has been made in India in marine archaeology. Over the years the National Institute of Oceanography in collaboration with other Government agencies has undertaken the exploration and excavation of submerged ports and shipwrecks in Indian waters. The paper highlight the objectives, methodology, tools, findings and the progress made in India in the field of marine archaeology during the 50 years of India's independence.
... The above-mentioned examples reflect that the natural resources have been distorted by climate change, thereby increasing the risk of several disasters. This kind of natural calamities forced people to escape from their houses and made them environmental migrant, for example, submerged Dwarka, 120 ft underwater in the Bay of Cambay (ARAI 2011) was discovered by marine scientists in early 2002 (Tripati et al. 2002).The city is 5 miles long and 2 miles wide; carbon dating estimates the site to be a whopping 9500 years old, as shown in Fig. 7f. ...
Compressed natural gas is an alternative green fuel for automobile industry. Recently, the Indian government is targeting to replace all the conventional fuel vehicles by compressed natural gas (CNG) automobiles due to its several merits. Still, the presence of a significant amount of CO, CH4, and NOx gases in the CNG vehicle exhaust are quiet a matter of concern. Thus, to control the emissions from CNG engines, the major advances are under development of and oxidation is one of them in catalytic converter. In literature, the catalysts such as noble and non-noble metals have been reported for separate oxidation of CO and CH4.. Experimentally, it was found that non-noble metal catalysts are preferred due to its low cost, good thermal stability, and molding tractability. In literature, several articles have been published for CO and CH4 oxidation but no review paper is still available. Thus, the present review provides a comprehensive overview of separate as well as simultaneous CO and CH4 oxidation reactions for CNG vehicular emission control.
... Offshore and submarine surveys along the western seaboard of India have yet to produce any e vidence of the prehistoric past. To date, only artifacts of Holocene antiquity-ceramic sherds and Historic Era shipwrecks -are known from the shelf of the Gulf of Khambat (e.g., Tripati et al., 2002). Although Paleolithic finds are known from Gujarat's littoral zone (adjacent to the Makran coast of Pakistan), they are associated with regressive phases of the sea (Baskaran et al., 1986). ...
This chapter summarizes the archaeological evidence from South Asia that has yielded absolute dates relevant to the question of the timing of the first African exodus and new evidence for the migration of modern humans into South Asia, with an emphasis on how this evidence relates to possible migration routes from Africa to East Asia. Hominins first entered South Asia 2 million years ago. There is copious evidence for the Lower Paleolithic colonization of South Asia in the form of Mode I and II assemblages. The Mode I assemblages in South Asia are commonly referred to as Soan tools. Another wave of hominins entered South Asia approximately 1.6 mya, bringing knowledge of manufacturing techniques from the Mode II Acheulean tradition. Presumably, anatomically modern Homo sapiens (AmHs) first began to leave Africa in the time bracket between 130 and 75 kya, a time coinciding with Late Pleistocene climatic amelioration.
... The vessel lies tilted towards the star board side and a small portion of the deck covered by coral is visible. The cabin is visible during low tide (Sila Tripati et al., 2002; Thakkar, 1991). The mast and ladder are lying on the seabed. ...
Since the beginning of maritime archaeological research in Indian waters exploration of shipwrecks and submerged ports has been carried out on the east and west coasts of India. The marine records housed in various archives of India and abroad state the details of the shipwrecks, loss of Indian ships in foreign waters and vice versa, etc. Over a period of time information on more than 200 shipwrecks has been collected from Indian waters and attempts were made to explore them in Goa, Lakshadweep and Tamil Nadu waters and they are datable to the post 16th century AD.
Shipwrecks have been explored off Sunchi Reef, St George’s Reef and Amee Shoals in Goa waters. Sunchi Reef and St George’s Reef were wooden hulled sailing ships whereas Amee Shoals was steel hulled steam engine shipwreck. Sunchi Reef exploration led to the recovery of storage jars, barrel of handgun, Chinese ceramic, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, guns, iron anchor, gun shot, bases of glass bottles, lead pipe and sheets, copper strap, stone and terracotta bricks and a number of dressed granite blocks. Sunchi Reef shipwreck is evident of Indo-Portuguese trade and commerce of the 17th century.
Exploration off St George’s Reef has uncovered various types of terracotta artefacts such as column capital, drum, ridge tiles, roof and floor tiles and chimney bricks intended for house construction. The bricks and tiles have distinct inscription as Basel Mission Tile works 1865. The findings evince that St George’s Reef wreck is assignable to the 19th century AD. Amee shoals exploration brought to light the remains of a steel hulled steam engine shipwreck in which boilers, boiler bricks, flanges and engine parts were found. The stamps on the flanges and the name on the firebricks of the Amee shoals wreck suggest a British origin, dating from the 1880s or later.
Even, steam engine shipwrecks have been explored in Minicoy waters. Flywheel, propeller and anchor chain were observed in one wreck. The anchor chain of the ship is running more than 50 m in length with the anchor lying in deeper water. The possibility could be that the ship was anchored in deeper waters which probably drifted to the shore and was wrecked. The other wreck is lying perpendicular to the shore, about 200 m north of the previous one. Boilers and engine parts of the ship are well preserved. The aft side of the ship has fallen into deeper water and the ship is tilted towards the starboard side. The propeller shaft is broken into two parts.
An 18th century shipwreck has been explored in 18 to 19 m deep water off Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu. A number of lead ingots, copper rudder gudgeon with pins, various sizes of copper nails, timber from the ship and an iron gun were recorded at the shipwreck site. The recovered lead ingots have been divided into four groups on the basis of their size, shape and marks; among them a few have a distinct inscription W: BLACKETT, VECI and merchant marks with 1791 and 1792. The records of the W: Blackett Company shows that this company was a well-known lead exporting company of England from AD 1694. Lead isotopic analysis revealed the source of the lead ingots to be the North Pennine lead mines of England. The wreck off Poompuhar may be a local cargo ship carrying the traded lead ingots of different manufacturers. In recent past shipwreck explorations have been carried out in Odisha waters.
The seed-borne mycoflora of sorghum and foxtail millet collected from different growing areas in South Korea were isolated and taxonomically identified using dry inspection, standard blotter and the agar plate method. We investigated the in vitro and in vivo germination rates of disinfected and non-disinfected seeds of sorghum and foxtail millet using sterilized and unsterilized soil. The percent recovery of seed-borne mycoflora from the seed components of sorghum and foxtail millet seeds was determined and an infection experiment using the dominant species was evaluated for seedling emergence and mortality. A higher number of seed-borne fungi was observed in sorghum compared to that of foxtail millet. Eighteen fungal genera with 34 fungal species were identified from the seeds of sorghum and 13 genera with 22 species were identified from the seeds of foxtail millet. Five dominant species such as Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium moniliforme and Phoma sp. were recorded as seed-borne mycoflora in sorghum and 4 dominant species (Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium moniliforme) were observed in foxtail millet. The in vitro and in vivo germination rates were higher using disinfected seeds and sterilized soil. More seed-borne fungi were recovered from the pericarp compared to the endosperm and seed embryo. The percent recovery of seed-borne fungi ranged from 2.22% to 60.0%, and Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata and 4 species of Fusarium were isolated from the endosperm and embryo of sorghum and foxtail millet. Inoculation of the dominant seed-borne fungi showed considerable mortality of seedlings. All the transmitted seed-borne fungi might well be a primary source of infection of sorghum and foxtail millet crops.
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