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Effects of Growing Conditions of Marigold in Ilam District, Nepal

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Bikash Khanal at Tribhuvan University
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Different growing conditions with temperature and sunlight variation could vary in flower growth and quality of marigold. Plant growth and flowering characteristics are compared in three different conditions viz. plastic house, shade house and open field. Three varieties of marigold viz. Marvel Yellow, Marvel Orange and Marvel Garland with similar cultural practices were grown and observed. Each variety with 6 replications was grown in three different growing conditions. Plant height, leaves formation, length of leaves, number of days to flower, number of flowers per plant and post harvest analysis were recorded. Plant growth characteristics followed by flowering behavior were found significantly better in plants grown under plastic house. During post harvest experiment Marvel Garland variety grown under plastic house with wet post harvest treatment was found significantly better compared to other conditions.
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American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2014, 5, 3389-3395
Published Online November 2014 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2014.522354
How to cite this paper: Khanal, B. (2014) Effects of Growing Conditions of Marigold in Ilam District, Nepal. American Jour-
nal of Plant Sciences, 5, 3389-3395. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2014.522354
Effects of Growing Conditions of Marigold in
Ilam District, Nepal
Bikash Khanal
Faculty, Department of Horticulture and Floriculture Management, Mahendra Ratna Multiple Campus,
Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
Email: bikaskhanal@gmail.com
Received 2 September 2014; revised 8 October 2014; accepted 2 November 2014
Academic Editor: Kalyani Mishra Tripathi, Department of Horticulture, Agriculture and Forestry
University, Chitwan, Nepal
Copyright © 2014 by author and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Abstract
Different growing conditions with temperature and sunlight variation could vary in flower growth
and quality of marigold. Plant growth and flowering characteristics are compared in three differ-
ent conditions viz. plastic house, shade house and open field. Three varieties of marigold viz. Mar-
vel Yellow, Marvel Orange and Marvel Garland with similar cultural practices were grown and ob-
served. Each variety with 6 replications was grown in three different growing conditions. Plant
height, leaves formation, length of leaves, number of days to flower, number of flowers per plant
and post harvest analysis were recorded. Plant growth characteristics followed by flowering be-
havior were found significantly better in plants grown under plastic house. During post harvest
experiment Marvel Garland variety grown under plastic house with wet post harvest treatment
was found significantly better compared to other conditions.
Keywords
Marigold, Plastic House, Shade House, Open Field, Ilam, Plant Growth, Leaf Length, Flowering Time,
Dry and Wet Post Harvest
1. Introduction
Different growing conditions result in varied climatic attributes in flower cultivation. The growing conditions
followed by the commercial flower producers depend upon various factors including temperature and daylight.
Flower development of many ornamental annual flowering plants is harmonized according to the season by us-
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3390
ing changes in day and night length, which indicates that the flowering response is related to photoperiodic re-
sponse to these plants [1]. Temperature also has a significant role in plant’s development which linearly in-
creases from its base temperature to the optimum [2]. Change in pattern of rainfall in hilly regions of Nepal is
also the main reason of changing in flowering, fruiting and harvesting time of major flowers. Different types of
plant species which will affect agricultural crops are shifting from lower altitudes to higher altitudes [3]. Grow-
ing of flowers in this cool climate is much better if growing condition could be managed better to maintain tem-
perature and moisture. The vegetative as well as generative or productive phases of the crops have positive ef-
fect in the crops grown under the plastic tunnel compared to the open field [4].
In some flowers increase in day temperature has also resulted in decrease in the quality of flower [5]. Moreo-
ver with increased growing day temperature higher leaf area along with earlier rate of flowering was observed in
some earlier research [6]. Reduction of daylight duration is also found to increase the flowering days of some
species of ornamental plants [7]. Higher temperature and daylight up to optimum level favor in the process of
photosynthesis. Only 8% to 10% of the energy in sunlight is converted to assimilate in the form of reduced su-
gars [8]. Increase in photosynthesis optimizes the process of plant growth and development [9].
Marigold is one of the most important flowers in the context of Nepal. It has religious as well as cultural im-
portance. This flower is packed with the leaves of fern and mango leaves to welcome the people in different ce-
remonies as well as to offer the flowers to the god in different offerings [10]. Ilam is one of the subtropical and
hilly regions of Nepal with a huge amount of rainfall during the months from June to September. Marigolds are
the flowers which could be grown in a wide variety of soils. Marigold requires mild climate for luxuriant growth
and profuse flowering. During severe winter including frost plants and flowers are killed and blackened. Gener-
ally marigold flowers are grown almost throughout the year but the main usable time of this flower is Tihar fes-
tival [11]. The local varieties of Ilam could not produce the quality flowers as in market demand, so Floriculture
Association Nepal (FAN) wants to find out the production and quality criteria for other varieties in context of
Ilam. So to promote the growth of the marigold cultivation and production in Ilam, this research is conducted to
find out the growing condition of marigold varieties which are commercially grown in Nepal.
2. Methodology
The research was conducted in Department of Horticulture and Floriculture Management, Mahendra Ratna Mul-
tiple Campus, Ilam. The experiment was conducted from July to November 2013. Seeds of the three varieties of
marigold (viz. Marvel Yellow, Marvel Orange and Marvel Garland) were sown in the solarized (the bed were
covered with plastic for 21 days for solarization) nursery bed. Nursery bed of size 3 × 1 cm and 15 cm raised
beds is prepared by adding 10 kg FYM per meter square. The seeds were sown in line by line with row to row
spacing of 10 cm. Then the nursery bed was covered with semi open plastic tunnel. Watering was done in each
day until plant germinates. After germination watering was done thrice a week.
After four weeks, the seedlings were transferred in three different growing conditions (viz. shade house, semi-
open plastic house and open field). Shade house was a place which was covered with thatch and partial sunlight
(5 - 6 hours) will enter in the house in the sunny day. Semi-open plastic house was the house covered with white
plastic in the top and sides of the plastic house were partially open (with 15 cm all sides in the bottom for the
purpose of aeration). In each growing condition there were 6 replications of marigold plants of three different
varieties. The manuring of soil was done by nitrogen:phosphorus:potash in the ratio of 2:1:1 and 15 kg of com-
post manure/m2. The spacing of plant in different growing conditions was 30 × 30 cm. Watering was done thrice
a week and weeding was also conducted once a week.
The data recording was done after one week of transplanting of the seedlings from nursery to the different
growing conditions. One extra row of plant of each variety of plants was planted as boarder plant and also be-
tween different varieties to prevent the varietal and human interactions. Increment in plant height was recorded
in weekly interval until the formation of flower bud with the measuring scale. Previous week data is subtracted
from the recorded week and height increment data was recorded and the data were filled in the tabulated format.
In case of the longest leaf measurement, 2 to 3 longest leaves were measured every week to identify the longest
one and the value is recorded in the tabulated form which was also conducted until the formation of flower bud.
In case of recording the number of leaves formation in the plant, the leaves which were fully open and except
the germinating leaves were counted every week. Previous week data was subtracted from the recorded week
and number of leaves formation data was recorded and the data were filled in the tabulated format. The data
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were also recorded until the plant formed the flower bud. In case of number of days to flower the days were rec-
orded after the appearance of the fully open flower (the outward petals fully turn outward and downward). Then
the plants were kept for four weeks in the field. Only the fully open flowers were recorded as the number of
flowers in the plant until the time frame of four weeks.
Post harvest experiment was conducted in the horticulture laboratory of the department of horticulture and
floriculture management. Fully open three flowers from each plant were harvested for the purpose of post harv-
est experiment. Among each growing conditions 18 flowers were taken from which 9 flowers were selected for
dry experiment with random selection. In this dry experiment the flowers were kept over the dry plastic and kept
in spacing of 8 × 8 cm. In case of wet experiment also the same procedure was followed but the flowers were
sprayed with distilled water every day in the evening time (5 - 6 pm). The days of post harvest life were record-
ed by observing the dehiscence and damage of the outermost petals of the flowers.
3. Data Analysis
The collected data were entered in excel program. Then the collected data were set in software named Minitab.
Minitab (version 16) was used to conduct analysis of variance (GLM procedure). Comparisons of means have
been performed with Tukey’s pair wise comparison test at p ≤ 0.05. For graphical presentation sigma plot was
used.
4. Results and Discussion
The increment in plant height per week was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in the plants growing inside the plas-
tic house compared to the plants grown in shade house and open field (Figure 1). Number of leaves formation
per week was found significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in plants grown in plastic house and shade house compared
to the open field in case of Marvel Yellow and Marvel Orange. But in case of Marvel Garland number of leaves
formation per week is significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in plastic house compared to other growing conditions
(Figure 2). Higher temperature might have positive impact in case of Marvel Garland in leaves formation proc-
ess. Length of the longest leaf was found to be significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in shade house compared to other
two growing conditions (Figure 3). In this context lower light might have the positive impact in elongation of
the leaves in the plants. Plastic house and open field plants flower were flowering significantly (p ≤ 0.05) earlier
compared to the plants grown under shade house in all the three varieties under study (Figure 4). The number of
flowers per plant was found significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in the plants growing inside the plastic house com-
pared to the plants grown in shade house and open field (Figure 5).
Figure 1. Effect of growing conditions in increment of plant height/week (in cms)
in different varieties of marigold, text represents the significant difference values.
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3392
Figure 2. Effect of growing conditions in number of leaves formation per week
in different varieties of marigold, text represents the significant difference values.
Figure 3. Effect of growing conditions in length of the longest leaf (in cms) in
different varieties of marigold, text represents the significant difference values.
Increased temperature up to optimum level along with photosynthetic light inside plastic house might be the
reason of higher increment of plant height and flower number along with earlier flowering time [12] [13]. Opti-
mum temperature and light required by flowering plants in plastic house might have resulted in decrease in
number of leaves and leaf length. This shows that it might be the result of dry matter partitioning in generative
phase of plant rather than vegetative phase [14]. Increasing temperature promoted plant height and flowering in
the species in the present study. This is in accordance with previous results in studies with ornamental annual
plants [15]. Some earlier research also revealed that with the higher growing temperatures marigold plants
flower earlier compared to lower temperature growing conditions [16]. This result could also be explained by
the reason that plant growth is comparatively slower in lower temperature condition than in higher growing
temperature conditions due to lower carbon use efficiency which is shown in earlier research [17]. In open field
there might be only ample light but in case of plastic house there is ample light along with higher temperature.
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3393
Figure 4. Effect of growing conditions in number of days to flower in different
varieties of marigold, text represents the significant difference values.
Figure 5. Effect of growing conditions in number of flowers per plant in differ-
ent varieties of marigold, text represents the significant difference values.
So, with the higher temperature and light photosynthetic activities increases with the production of food materi-
als in ample amount this results in better growth of plant. This also shows that during this time period of year
optimum temperature could be obtained only under plastic house rather than shade house or open field.
Post harvest life was found to be significantly higher in the flowers grown under plastic house compared to
shade house and open field. Comparison of varieties shows that Marvel Garland has significantly higher days of
post harvest life than Marvel Yellow and Marvel Orange. In case of dry and wet experiment, wet storage condi-
tions flowers sample have significantly longer days of post harvest life compared to dry storage conditions (Ta-
ble 1). Higher temperature and light might be favorable for photosynthesis resulting in formation of higher
amount of starch granule. This might be the reason of higher days of post harvest life inside plastic house com-
pared to other growing conditions which is in support of earlier research conducted in petunia plant which shows
lower vase life in flowers grown at lower temperature [18]. Different genetic factors are the results of longer
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Table 1. The results showing mean values of post harvest life along with sig-
nificance level; text represents the significant difference values.
Treatments Post harvest life
Growing conditions
Shade house 4.30 ± 0.32 b
Plastic house 6.44 ± 0.45 a
Open field 4.63 ± 0.35 b
Varieties
Marvel Yellow 4.36 ± 0.25 b
Marvel Orange 4.13 ± 0.33 b
Marvel Garland 6.90 ± 0.36 a
Storage conditions Wet 6.64 ± 0.41 a
Dry 4.64 ± 0.36 b
post harvest life of Marvel Garland compared to other two varieties. Maintenance of cell turgidity and higher
water absorbance in case of wet conditions might be the reason of longer post harvest life in wet experiment
compared to dry experiment which is similar to the earlier research conducted [19] which shows that wet storage
of Narcissus flowers have improved post harvest life including maintenance of membrane integrity and soluble
proteins followed by reduction in alpha amino acids.
5. Conclusion
It could be concluded that plants growing under lower light and lower temperature condition reduce the growth
as well as flowering characteristics of marigold. The overall conclusion was that Marvel Garland variety grown
under plastic house grows better followed by wet post harvest treatments in context of Ilam district, Nepal.
Acknowledgements
This project was financed by the Research Unit of MRMC, TU. I would like to thank Punya Prasad Bhattarai for
proof reading of article and would like to thank Kushma Ghimire, Bishal Adhikari, Chadani Chaudhary, Kanchi
Maya Waiba and Umesh Dhakal for their technical assistance.
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  • Nov 2020
Marigold (Tagetes patula) is one of the popular annual, herbaceous, attractive flowers. Salicylic acid (SA) is a phenolic phytohor�mone and is found in plants with roles in plant growth and development, photosynthesis, transpiration, ion uptake and transport. This research was conducted to assess the effects of foliar application of salicylic acid on growth and yield of marigold from July 2019 to November 2019. The research was conducted in the horticulture field of IAAS, Lamjung Campus, Nepal under Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications and six treatments viz. (0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500) ppm of salicylic acid. The marigold flowers were harvested when the outer petals unfold nearly perpendicular to the stem. Parameters like plant height, plant width, days to flowering, number of flower diameter and total yield were observed and analyzed using SPSS. Greater plant height was found on treatment 500 ppm which is statistically on par with 400 ppm and 300 ppm and lowest at 0 ppm. Similarly, plant width is greater in 500 ppm while the lowest in 0ppm. Days to flowering were lower in 500 ppm which is statistically similar with 400 ppm, 300 ppm and 200 ppm and higher in 0 ppm. Best results were found in 500 ppm with the number of flowers, the diameter of the flower, and flower yield. Thus, results revealed that increasing the concentration of salicylic acid increases the production of marigold.
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... It is no wonder that the productivity of marigold in Nepal is far lower than in other countries such as Mexico and even India. In fact, there are no released varieties of Marigold in Nepal, and most farmers cultivate the local marigold germplasm which has very low productivity (Khanal, 2014). Horticulture Research Division, Khumaltar has published a package of practice for marigold cultivation during offseason (Dhakal, 2016). ...
INFLUENCE OF SPACING AND PINCHING ON GROWTH PARAMETERS OF AFRICAN MARIGOLD CV. INCA ORANGE-1KS
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Dec 2017
An experiment was conducted to study the effect of spacing and pinching on growth parameters of African marigold var. Inca Orange-1KS at Horticulture Research Station, Malepatan, Pokhara. The experiment consisted of 2 spacing (40 cm × 60 cm and 40 cm × 45 cm) and 3 pinching (no pinching, single pinching and double pinching) and laid out in factorial randomized block design with 4 replications. The closer spacing 40 cm × 45 cm produced taller plants (132.61 cm) then wider spacing. Pinching reduced the plant height, flower size, weight of flower and delayed flowering. Pinched plant yield more number of flowers than unpinched one. It was found that closer spacing and pinching gave higher number of appropriate size of loose flowers and economically best than wider spacing with unpinched plants Moreover, early harvest was found with unpinched plant whereas pinched plant resulted in late flowering.
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... kg ha -1 and high above 56.33 kg ha -1 [44]. Phosphorus uptake by the African marigold plant is more than 50.00 kg ha -1 [45] if its use of 100 kg ha -1 can increase production [46,47] after further increase plant quality falling again. The maximum phosphorous uptake 54.75 kg ha -1 with gibberellic acid [45].There is a village of our study area where maximum P content is 315.77 ...
Impact of soil chemical properties on marigold production in Ranaghat-II, Nadia, India
Article
  • Jul 2020
Soil chemical properties are globally affecting marigold production. Marigold production triggers the farmers’ economy and food security. Nonetheless, the direct link between soil chemical properties and marigold production at the village level spatial distribution is poorly understood in Ranaghat-II of Nadia in India. Here we stimulated the impact of soil chemical properties on marigold production using 105 soil samples measuring the amount of soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (OC), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K); and the questionnaire survey from 420 florist farmers for flower production are collecting from every village during 2018. Our results of multiple linear regression exhibit that N and OC have a paramount effect on flower production and a comfortable range of pH and EC also helpful to the performance of marigold. However, increasing P and K decrease yield at some point. Although the nutrients are auto-correlated, the Residual statistics prove overall soil chemical properties have a strong linear positive correlation to marigold production. Interpolation method shows the high and low marigold producing villages place south and north sides of Ranaghat-II. To preserve sustainable soil-marigold production and society, and the relevant policies and future research topics are suggested.
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Effect of Plant Growth Regulators in African Marigold: A Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2022
African marigold, being tall enough and producing large flowers suitable for preparing garlands, is the most cultivated cultivar of marigold in Nepal. Besides, pinching and other improved cultural techniques, a number of chemicals, hormones and phyto-hormones are being tested and found to impart a varying response in African marigold. This review has its importance for standardizing the type and concentration of plant growth regulators in African marigold. Online journals, scientific papers, proceedings, books, thesis and lecture notes are the key reference site for this review. Gibberellins or gibberellic acids (GA3), ethrel, paclobutrazol, salicylic acid, Indole 3 Acetic Acid, Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA), Chlormequat Chloride and sea weed extract are the most widely used and proven biochemical with pronounced effect on growth, development and differentiation in marigold. Among these, 300 ppm, 350 ppm and 450 ppm of GA3 results higher plant height, minimum days for flower initiation and higher basal diameter respectively. Similarly, 450 ppm for higher number of branches and leaves per plant and 400 ppm of GA3 or 600 ppm of CCC has been found to impart higher number and weight of flowers per plants. Besides, 1000 ppm of CCC has been found more effective to impart higher productivity (yield/ ha) in African marigold. Hence, plant growth regulators have been a valuable agent for optimizing yield and yield potential in African marigold.
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Evaluation of Pot Type Marigold (Tagetus Patula) Varieties for Commercial Value Traits at Three Different Locations of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2021
Marigold has special values in Nepal as elsewhere. Especially during light festival (Depawali) huge quantity of this flower is consumed for home decoration. Consumer' prefers higher longevity, contrasting colors and variation in size whereas producers prefer higher yielding and types preferred by the consumers. Local varieties are monotonous, not compact and low yielding. Looking at the market demand, field trials were conducted to evaluate contrasting pot type marigold genotypes for vegetative growth, floral quality and yield attributes at three different locations (Bhaktapur, Kathmandu and Lalitpur district) of Nepal in 2019. These trials were designed in Randomized Complete Block (RCBD) with 11 pot type marigold genotypes (Sun Orange, Sun Gold, Sun Yellow, M-45 Orange, M-45 Gold, M-45 Yellow, SO-1 Orange, SO-1 Gold, SO-1 Yellow, K-Yellow and FO9 Orange) replicated three times. Genotypes M-45 Orange and FO9 Orange were taller in plant height and well spreading canopy type. Genotypes SO-1 Orange, SO-1 Yellow, SO-1 Gold and K-Yellow were dwarf type and had less spreading canopy. Abstract-Marigold has special values in Nepal as elsewhere. Especially during light festival (Depawali) huge quantity of this flower is consumed for home decoration. Consumer' prefers higher longevity, contrasting colors and variation in size whereas producers prefer higher yielding and types preferred by the consumers. Local varieties are monotonous, not compact and low yielding. Looking at the market demand, field trials were conducted to evaluate contrasting pot type marigold genotypes for vegetative growth, floral quality and yield attributes at three different locations (Bhaktapur, Kathmandu and Lalitpur district) of Nepal in 2019. These trials were designed in Randomized Complete Block (RCBD) with 11 pot type marigold genotypes (Sun Orange, Sun Gold, Sun Yellow, M-45 Orange, M-45 Gold, M-45 Yellow, SO-1 Orange, SO-1 Gold, SO-1 Yellow, K-Yellow and FO9 Orange) replicated three times. Genotypes M-45 Orange and FO9 Orange were taller in plant height and well spreading canopy type. Genotypes SO-1 Orange, SO-1 Yellow, SO-1 Gold and K-Yellow were dwarf type and had less spreading canopy. These highly spreading and spread not being able to cover vase type marigold varieties are not suitable for pot plantation by nursery growers. We found that varieties such as M-45 Gold (among gold color), M-45 Yellow (among yellow color) and Sun Orange (among orange color) were suitable for pot plantation due to good plant height, proper spreading type, enough number of nodes and branches, good number of flowers per plant, suitable flower diameter, flower weight and pedicel length.
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Modeling the Effects of Temperature and Photosynthetic Daily Light Integral on Growth and Flowering of Salvia splendens and Tagetes patula
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2007
Photosynthetic daily light integral (DLI) and temperature are two environmental factors that profoundly influence plant growth and development. Two common ornamental annual crops, salvia (Salvia splendens F. Sello ex Roem & Schult.) and marigold (Tagetes patula L.), were grown in glass greenhouses under a mean DLI of 5 to 25 mol.m(-2).d(-1) at temperatures from 14 to 27 degrees C. Growth (e.g., plant dry weight at flowering) and flowering characteristics (e.g., time to flowering and flower number) were modeled in response to the mean daily temperature and DLI by using multiple regression analysis. The rate (if progress to flowering of salvia and marigold was primarily influenced by the mean air temperature. For example, time from seedling transplant to flowering of salvia decreased from 42 days to 24 days as temperature increased from 15 to 25 degrees C, With a mean DLI of 10 mol.m(-2).d(-1). Flower number and plant dry weight on the date of first flowering generally decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing DLI in both species. For example, marigold plants grown at 15 degrees C and a mean DLI of 25 mol.m(-2).d(-1) were 2.45 times greater in dry weight, had 2.12 more flowers, and had 49% larger flowers at flowering compared with plants grown at 25 degrees C and a mean DLI of 5 mol.m(-2).d(-1). The models can be used to predict the impact of changing light and temperature conditions on plant quality and flowering (if these two crops.
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The Influence of Day and Night Temperature Fluctuations on Growth and Flowering of Annual Bedding Plants and Greenhouse Heating Cost Predictions
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2011
Volatile energy costs and lower profit margins have motivated many greenhouse growers in temperate climates to improve the energy efficiency of crop production. We performed experiments with dahlia (Dahlia ×hybrida Cav. 'Figaro Mix'), French marigold (Tagetes patula L. 'Janie Flame'), and zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq. 'Magellan Pink') to quantify the effects of constant and fluctuating temperatures on growth and flowering during the finish stage. Plants were grown in glass-glazed greenhouses with a day/night (16 h/8 h) temperature of 20/14, 18/18, 16/22 (means of 18 °C), 24/18, 22/22, or 20/26 °C (means of 22 °C) with a 16-h photoperiod and under a photosynthetic daily light integral of 11 to 19 mol·m-2·d-1. Flowering times of dahlia, French marigold, and zinnia (Year 2 only) were similar among treatments with the same mean daily air temperature (MDT). All species grown at 20/14 °C were 10% to 41% taller than those grown at 16/22 °C. Crop timing data and computer software that estimates energy consumption for heating (Virtual Grower) were then used to estimate energy consumption for greenhouse heating on a per-crop basis. Energy costs to produce these crops in Charlotte, NC, Grand Rapids, MI, and Minneapolis, MN, for a finish date of 15 Apr. or 15 May and grown at the same MDT were estimated to be 3% to 42% lower at a +6 °C day/night temperature difference (DIF) compared with a 0 °C DIF and 2% to 90% higher at a -6 °C DIF versus a 0 °C DIF. This information could be used by greenhouse growers to reduce energy inputs for heating on a per-crop basis.
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Temperature Affects Growth and Flowering of the Balloon Flower [Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. cv. Astra Blue]
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1998
The effects of temperature from 14 to 29 °C on the growth and flowering of Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. cv. Astra Blue are described. Under greenhouse conditions, seedlings flowered earliest (after 45 days) when grown at 29 °C, vs. after 108 days when grown at 14 °C. Height at flowering was greatest at 19 °C and branch number was greatest (13 per plant) at 22 °C. Fresh and dry mass and leaf area at flowering increased with decreasing temperature. Imbibing seeds at 4 °C prior to germination had no significant affect on the time to flowering or the number of nodes below the flower. In a growth chamber experiment, apical dissections showed that flowers were initiated earlier at 20 °C than at 10 °C. These results show that the balloon flower is highly sensitive to temperature, but cool temperatures delay the time to flower initiation or flowering.
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Temperature Effects on Photosynthesis, Growth Respiration, and Maintenance Respiration of Marigold
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2015
Marigolds (Tagetes patula) were grown from seed to flowering at either 20 or 30 EC, and the CO2 exchange rate of the plants was measured throughout the 60-day growing period. Plants grew faster at 30 than at 20 EC, because of higher whole-plant photosynthesis (Pnet) from 5 to 40 days after seeding. The maintenance respiration coefficient (rm) was lower at 20 than at 30 EC (Q10 = 1.3), while the growth respiration coefficient was not affected by temperature (0.51 g@g-1). The ratio of maintenance respiration to total respiration increased throughout plant development and reached 43 and 55% at 20 and 30 EC, respectively. Carbon use efficiency (CUE) of the plants increased during germination, and then decreased throughout the remainder of the growing period. This decrease in CUE was the result of a decrease in relative growth rate (RGR). Plants grown at 20 EC had a higher CUE than those at 30 EC from 40 to 51 days after seeding, which was the result of a lower RGR and higher rm at 30 EC. Although plants grown at 20 EC had equal or higher CUE, a lower rm, and less dark respiration (Rdark), their growth was less than that of plants at 30 EC, suggesting that whole-plant Pnet is a more important determinant of growth than CUE, rm, or Rdark.
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Container Size and Shape Influence Growth and Landscape Performance of Marigold Seedlings
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 1991
Seeds of marigold (Tagetes erects L. `Janie') were sown in flats of three cell sizes (inverted pyramids, Todd 080A, 100A, or 175; volume 7, 24, or 44 cm ³ , respectively) or in flats of different root cell configurations [Todd 100A, Grow-Tech (GT) 200, or Growing Systems (GS) 135; shaped as inverted pyramid, cylinder, or cylinder with a bottom lip, respectively]. During 2 consecutive years, plants grown in Todd 080A trays had 60% less leaf area and shoot and root dry weights than plants grown in Todd 175 trays. Plants grown in Todd 100A trays had 30% less leaf area and shoot and root dry weights than plants grown in the larger volume tray. Stem length was less affected by container size. The rate of shoot dry weight gain during the 3 weeks after transplanting in the field was greater in plants from the smaller containers (Todd 080A and Todd 100A) in 1987. Final height (7 weeks after planting) of plants from Todd 080A or Todd 100A flats was 12% and 7% less, respectively, than those of plants grown in Todd 175 flats, while final plant quality was reduced 34% and 21%, respectively, in plants from these flats in 1987. Similar, but smaller, effects were recorded in 1988. Container type had little effect on plant growth in the greenhouse and no effect on growth in the landscape. The maximum quality rating in the landscape, awarded to plants from Todd 100A flats, was 12% greater than that of plants from GT 200 flats in 1987 and 5% and 9% greater than plants from GT 200 and GS 135 flats, respectively, in 1988. Final plant performance of marigold seedlings was reduced more by root restriction or transplant size than previously reported with vegetable species.
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Photoperiod, Chilling, and Light Quality during Daylight Extension Affect Growth and Flowering of Tissue-cultured Easter Lily Plants
Article
  • Feb 2001
Easter lily plants (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.), derived from tissue culture and grown continuously, were subjected to various photoperiod and chilling treatments. Lilies grown with daylength extended either with high-intensity discharge (HID) or incandescent lights flowered in the same number of days, but had more flower buds with HID lamps. Flowering was delayed and plants produced more leaves as photoperiod was reduced from 16 to 12 hours. The numbers of leaves, primary, secondary, and tertiary flowers, and the time to flower were all significantly reduced as the duration of extended lighting was increased from 0 to 6 weeks. As the number of weeks of cooling at 5°C increased from 0 to 5, time to flower was significantly reduced.
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The Effect of Daily Light Integral on Floral Initiation of Pelargonium ×domesticum L.H. Bailey
Article
  • Jun 2004
Nine cultivars of Pelargonium xdomesticum L.H. Bailey were evaluated for the effect of daily light integral on floral initiation. Plants were grown at four daily light integrals: 5, 10, 15, or 20 mol·m -2·d-1 for a 16-hour photoperiod in environmental growth chambers at constant 15.5°C. Meristems were examined at 50 mol·m-2 intervals for morphological changes associated with floral initiation. Two phenotypes were identified, cultivars with an association between floral initiation and cumulative irradiance and those with association between floral initiation and chronological time. Genotypic variation was observed among the irradiance-associated phenotypes.
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Himalayan Subsistence Systems: Indigenous Agriculture in Rural Nepal
Article
  • Feb 1985
Agriculture in the hills and mountains of Nepal includes few of the high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, effective water control, and integration into major commodity markets which characterize agriculture in most areas of the world. Indigenous agriculture maintains a subsistence orientation in which a large proportion of the population is engaged in agricultural work and almost all production is for local use. Rapid population growth induces intensification of subsistence agriculture in which diminishing return on labour is traded for increased production. These processes have also affected cropping choices and land use strategies, resulting in major environmental and social changes. Although the specific agricultural changes taking place in rural Nepal are unique and conditioned by culture and history, the underlying logic of agricultural intensification and its effect on village communities may be similar in Himalayan Nepal and in the Andes.-Author
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