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Journal of Promotion Management
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A Green Picture is Worth A Thousand
Words?: Effects of Visual and Textual
Environmental Appeals in Advertising
and the Moderating Role of Product
Involvement
Fei Xuea & Sidharth Muralidharanb
a University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, USA
b Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, USA
Published online: 27 Feb 2015.
To cite this article: Fei Xue & Sidharth Muralidharan (2015) A Green Picture is Worth A
Thousand Words?: Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals in Advertising and the
Moderating Role of Product Involvement, Journal of Promotion Management, 21:1, 82-106, DOI:
10.1080/10496491.2014.971209
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2014.971209
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Journal of Promotion Management, 21:82–106, 2015
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1049-6491 print / 1540-7594 online
DOI: 10.1080/10496491.2014.971209
A Green Picture is Worth A Thousand Words?:
Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental
Appeals in Advertising and the Moderating
Role of Product Involvement
FEI XUE
University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, USA
SIDHARTH MURALIDHARAN
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, USA
This study examined the main effects and interaction effects of tex-
tual environmental claims and green visuals on attitude-toward-
the-ad (Aad), attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab), purchase intention
(PI), and green brand associations. In general, the use of textual
environmental claims and green visuals lead to more positive ad-
vertising responses and more favorable perception of the brand’s
environmental effort. Textual environmental claims had stronger
impact, but if no textual information was available, the use of green
visuals could also generate positive perception of the brand’s envi-
ronmental effort. In addition, when textual claims or green visuals
are present, participants perceived high involvement products as
more environmentally friendly than low involvement products.
KEYWORDS green visuals, textual environmental claims, green
brand associations, advertising attitudes, product involvement
INTRODUCTION
Facing the challenges posed by emerging environmental problems such as
air pollution, climate change, and increasing transportation costs, public con-
cern for the environment is higher than ever (Bush, 2008; Chitra, 2007). This
concern is affecting not only consumers’ lifestyles, but also their buying
habits. In a consumer survey conducted by BuzzBack Market Research, 72%
Address correspondence to Fei Xue, University of Southern Mississippi, School of Mass
Communication and Journalism, 118 College Drive, #5121, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA.
E-mail: fei.xue@usm.edu
82
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 83
of the respondents in the United States said they used energy efficient light
bulbs and 57% said they purchased recycled products (Buzzback Market Re-
search, 2008). Another survey found most electric car buyers were motivated
by environmental concerns (Reuters, 2010). In response, more and more
companies are modifying existing products or developing new ones to be
less harmful to the environment (Chen, 2008; Schuhwerk & Hagius, 1995).
Additionally, research in Corporate social responsibility (CSR) indicated that
people found companies involved in cause-related marketing to be more
attractive, leading to brand switching and positive purchase intentions (Ross,
Patterson, & Stutts, 1992; Smith & Alcorn, 1991). Furthermore, researchers
have found companies to be evaluated favorably when their CSR initiatives
were effectively communicated to their stakeholders (Brown & Dacin, 1997;
Murray & Vogel, 1997). Therefore, environmental appeals, textually and visu-
ally, have been used by companies frequently in advertising to demonstrate
their environmental sensitivity (e.g., Ottman, 1998; Stafford, Stafford, and
Chowdhary, 1996).
Several studies have been done to examine the effects of environmental
advertising appeals, especially textual claims. For example, Schuhwerk
and Hagius (1995) looked at green and non-green appeals in advertising
and found that green-appeals had more of an impact on audiences.
Pickett-Baker and Ozaki’s (2008) survey further indicated consumers with
high pro-environmental values would be more likely to choose environmen-
tally friendly brands. Textual claims are important in green advertising, but
corporations also use a lot of visual imagery in their advertising as evidenced
in a study by Banerjee, Gulas, and Iyer (1995). The authors conducted
a content analysis of print ads and TV commercials and reported that
corporations used green visuals, such as pictures of mountains, valleys, and
trees, to promote their position as an environmentally concerned corporate
citizen. Hem, Iverson, and Grønhaug (2003) studied the effectiveness of
photos used by advertisers for nature-based tourism attractions. Their
findings indicated that photos of nature in the context of tourism invoked
positive feelings like awe and wonder for scenic locales. In terms of green
visuals in advertising, virtual nature experience proved to be an important
catalyst to be considered for associating the message and the product
(Hartmann & Ib´
a˜
nez, 2008). Hartmann and Ib´
a˜
nez (2009) reported that both
environmental claims and green visuals in advertisements led to positive
effects on the consumer’s attitude toward the brand in Spain.
So, do green visuals have the same impact as textual claims? Which
is more effective in terms of audiences’ perception of the brand’s eco-
friendliness? Studies in the past have suggested that visuals help to enhance
the textual information in print ads, thus, indicating an interaction effect
(Lutz & Lutz, 1977; Jaeger & MacFie, 2001). Decrop (2007) notes that vi-
suals are important for attention and arousal while text helps to provide
informational value to the ad. Similarly, in green advertising, prior research
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84 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
indicated that both environmental claims and green visuals could lead to
positive advertising responses but more research is needed to better un-
derstand the interaction effects between these two variables under different
circumstances, especially the impact of green visuals. In which condition will
green visuals be more effective? What are the possible intervening variables?
In an effort to further explore the impact of textual and visual environmental
advertising appeals in relation to other variables, the current study examined
their main effects and interaction effects on consumers’ perception of the
advertisement and the brand for high and low involvement products. Using
elaboration likelihood model (ELM) as the theoretical framework, the mod-
erating effect of product involvement on visual and textual environmental
claims in advertising was investigated.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Green Advertising and Consumers
xMultiple definitions have been given to green advertising. For example,
according to Zinkhan and Carlson (1995), “green advertising are those ad-
vertisements with promotional messages that appeal to the desires of envi-
ronmental concerned consumers” (p. 1). Another definition by Banerjee et al.
(1995) stated that for an ad to be considered “green,” it should meet any one
or more of the following criteria: (a) explicitly or implicitly addresses the re-
lationship between a product/service and the biophysical environment; (b)
promotes a green lifestyle with or without highlighting a product/service;
and (c) presents a corporate image of environmental responsibility.
Green advertising is a result of one of the most important social move-
ments in recent history called the “green movement” (Banerjee et al., 1995,
p. 21). Research by Zinkhan and Carlson (1995) explained the relationship
between the green movement and green marketing: when people became
concerned about the planet’s future, they became green consumers. Once
this attitude shift occurred, companies started to equate the green social
movement with profit and marketed themselves as caring and environmen-
tally responsible. With a large body of research showing that consumers
prefer products that are environmental friendly, Gussow (1989) coined the
term “green consumerism” which revolved around the idea of preserving
the environment from a consumer’s purchase intention of the product to its
disposal. Thus, the rise of green marketing further solidified the green move-
ment by choosing to bring further attention to the matter and producing more
green consumers.
In order to gain a better understanding and make marketing messages
more effective, industry and academic approaches have been used to seg-
ment green consumers. For example, the Roper study of 1990 classified green
consumers into five distinct segments and among them, True-Blue Greens
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 85
and Greenback Greens, were considered as the greenest and also the most
desirable for marketers, mainly because they were educated, working pro-
fessionals who earned higher incomes (Ginsberg & Bloom, 2004). Based on
past academic studies, Chan (2000) summarized the profiles of green con-
sumers from North America, Europe, and Asia and the consensus was that
they were better educated, had higher income and occupation status, and
higher socioeconomic status (e.g., Jolibert & Baumgartner, 1981). In terms
of psychographics, green consumers were found to be self-controlled, strict,
well-organized, goal-oriented, and estranged (e.g. Chan, 2000; Pettus & Giles,
1987). Studies based on purchasing decisions (Burch, Lyons, & Lawrence,
2006) divided green consumers into two types: true green consumers and
economical green consumers. True green consumers are individuals who
make purchasing decisions that have limited impact on the earth in order to
seek improvement to personal, family, community and environmental health.
The economic green consumers are individuals who make eco-conscious
buying decisions based largely on price. Due to the growing concern for
the environment and rise in energy cost, an exponential increase in both
categories has been observed. Research by Phillips (1999) indicated 87% of
U.S. adults were concerned about the condition of the natural environment.
Osterhus (1997) reported 75% of Americans whom were surveyed consid-
ered themselves environmentalists. In another study, 80% of respondents
agreed that protecting the environment would require major changes in cur-
rent lifestyles (Ottman, 1996). In a more recent Gallup survey (Jones, 2008),
83% of the respondents stated they had made either major or minor changes
to their shopping and living habits over the last five years to help protect the
environment.
Green marketing is also in the best interest of companies’ financial
stability. DiRamio (2008) reported that companies currently spend up to 10%
of their budgets on energy, and that the outlook on the price for electricity
would likely increase in the near future. With the increase in energy costs,
both manufacturers and consumers will be seeking more energy-efficient
options; therefore, the increase in green marketing will continue to rise.
In fact, in a recent survey, 82% of the more than 370 surveyed companies
said that their companies intend to increase spending on green marketing,
including advertising (Environmental Leader, 2010).
Environmental Claims and Green Visuals
On comparing the effectiveness between visuals and text in print advertise-
ments, mixed results have been found. The importance of visuals has been
highlighted in past studies where they exert a strong effect on attitudes than
ads with text alone (Mitchell & Olson, 1981), solicit better ad recall when
text is supported by pictures (Edell & Staelin, 1983; Unnava & Burnkrant,
1991), and help trigger both cognitive (product attribute beliefs) and affective
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86 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
(attitude-toward-the-ad) responses (Mitchell, 1986). In terms of product in-
volvement, Kroeber-Riel (1993) found that visuals helped increase a reader’s
attention toward the ads for high involvement products even when extended
reading of the text was accounted for.
The combination of visuals and text has also received considerable atten-
tion from researchers. When advertisements contain text that are supported
by pictures, it would lead to stronger memory (Morelli, 1970), stronger recall
when pictures are interactive and unique (Edell & Staelin, 1983; Lutz & Lutz,
1977), and they have a greater influence on consumers who have a high
need-for-cognition (Jaeger & MacFie, 2001). In studying visual and text in
tourism advertising, Decrop (2007) found that using a combination was the
most effective but each satisfied a different function. Visuals are important
in attracting the attention of consumers and helping to arouse buying inten-
tions. Furthermore, they help to build a brand image in a consumer’s mind by
creating new beliefs and modifying existing ones. Text, on the other hand, is
more informational but have a weak impact on buying intention. The author
suggests that advertisers have to give importance to each one based on the
type of campaigns, for example, visuals for persuasive campaigns and text
for informational campaigns.
Banerjee et al. (1995) mentioned that even though green advertising has
been around for quite some time, environmental claims were a recent devel-
opment. Carlson, Grove, and Kangun (1993) formed a classification system
for the various types of environmental advertising claims based on five cate-
gories: product orientation; process orientation; image orientation; environ-
mental fact; and combination. Product orientation advertisements were those
ads focusing on environmentally friendly attributes. Process orientation ad-
vertises focused on the environmentally friendly method of production. Im-
age orientation claimed to support causes that are popular with the public.
Environmental fact made statements about a reality of an issue in the environ-
ment. Among these claims the study reported that the most effective method
in advertising is by stating environmental facts. Polonsky, Grove and Kan-
gun (1997) have further classified product and process as substantive claims
while image and environmental as posturing claims. Schuhwerk and Hag-
ius (1995) looked at the impact of appeal type: green or non-green. Green
appeals emphasized on the product’s environmental attributes while non-
green appeals emphasized on the product’s cost-saving attributes. Findings
showed that respondents who were less environmentally-conscious were
greatly influenced by the green appeals than non-green appeals. In another
study, R. Y. K. Chan, Leung, and Wong (2006) tested the effectiveness of
substantive and associative environmental claims in advertising in China.
Substantive claims explain the product attributes–how the consumer and
the environment would be benefitted from using the product and projects
the company’s environmental concern. Associative claims rely more on
green-related visuals and strives to associate the imagery with the company’s
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 87
environmental concern. Findings showed that, for high-involvement services,
substantive claims were superior to associative and generated favorable at-
titudes toward the ad and brand leading to favorable purchase intentions.
In Pickett-Baker and Ozaki’s (2008) survey, it was reported that respondents
were more likely to choose brands which they knew were manufactured
by companies whose products and processes were more environmentally
friendly, especially among consumers with high pro-environmental values.
Kronrod, Grinstein, and Wathieu (2012) further examined assertive environ-
mental messages in media and reported that the persuasiveness of assertive
language depends on the perceived importance of the issue.
However, visual content in advertisements could be just as important
(Coomber, 2008). According to Rametsteiner, Pajari, and Peck (1999), green
logos, colors, and icons could bring the idea of environmentalism and draw
attention to the green products, such as scenes of nature, labels that draw
the connotation of conservation, clear descriptions on the products environ-
mental effects, renewing of raw materials, and the opportunity to recycle
some form of the product, etc. Hartmann and Ib´
a˜
nez (2010) observed the
effectiveness of different types of green visuals in environmental advertis-
ing and reported that visuals of nature elicited more positive emotional
responses that further enhanced ad and brand attitudes than urban or desert
scenes. Using a panel of judges, Polonsky, Carlson, Prothero, and Kapelianis
(2002) conducted a cross-cultural analysis of environmental information on
packing, including environmental product information, information points
of differentiation, ingredient related information, and general product infor-
mation. Even though the majority of the environment-related information is
presented through texts on the packing, natural images of products, such
as pictures of fruit, were also perceived by the judges as environmental in-
formation sources. In a recent study, Spack, Board, Crighton, Kostka, and
Ivory (2012) examined the effects of argument strength and imagery used
in environmental claims on product packaging on consumers’ perception
of the product and purchase intention. Results indicated that the presence
of green seal image on product packaging alone could influence purchase
intention, regardless of argument strength. To explore the effects of both tex-
tual and visual environmental appeals, Hartmann and Ib´
a˜
nez (2009) tested
three groups of ads: control ads, textual environmental claims only ads, and
visual/textual combination ads. It was found that a combination of both na-
ture visuals and informative were found to be superior in its effectiveness
on brand attitude. However, they did not include a group that contained
visual environmental appeals only, which left readers wondering how green
visuals might have affected consumers differently when compared to tex-
tual environmental appeal and textual/visual combination appeal. To an-
swer this question, the current study examined the main effects and the
interaction effects of environmental claims and green visuals on consumers’
brand green associations, attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand,
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88 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
and purchase intention. Based on literature review, the following hypotheses
were developed:
H1: The use of textual environmental claims in advertising leads to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
H2: The use of green visuals in advertising leads to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
H3: The impact of textual environmental advertising claims is stronger
when green visuals are present leading to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
Green Advertising and Product Involvement
Another important variable when studying advertising message strategies
is product-consumer relationship. According to the Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM), one of the most important factors affecting enduring persuasion
is whether an individual is motivated to elaborate on, or think about, a po-
tentially persuasive message. Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann (1983) posited
two routes to persuasion that would lead to attitude change: the central route
and the peripheral route. When an individual is exposed to an ad and if the
information, e.g. product attributes, is relevant to the person’s current value
system then the central route is taken where an increase in motivation to
engage in deeper cognitive processing of the ad message is seen. The central
route is more predictive of behavior and the effect of attitude change lasts
longer (Petty & Cacioppo, 1980). If a message is irrelevant to an individual,
then that individual is typically not motivated to devote a great deal of atten-
tion or consideration to the message. The peripheral route is activated and
the individual instead focuses on peripheral cues like the source, imagery,
music, etc. The peripheral route is not predictive of behavior and its effects
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 89
are temporary. One of the greatest determinants of elaboration motivation is
product involvement. Product involvement is generally understood as refer-
ring to the personal relevance of the object based on inherent needs, values
and interests (Zaichkowsky, 1994). The current study will focus on product
involvement, not personal involvement with environmental issues. Product
involvement gives a better understanding of the difference in attributes, an
idea of which product is important, and a stronger loyalty to brand choice
(Howard & Sheth, 1969). Involvement with purchase intentions would lead
the individual to search for enough information to assist him or her to make
the right selection (Clarke & Belk, 1978).
Product involvement has been studied in relation to green marketing.
Ling-yee (1997) examined the moderating role of consumer demographic
characteristics and product involvement on the value-attitude-behavior
relationship in the context of health food consumption. Results showed
that an individual’s perceived relevance with the product category (natural
health food) moderated their values and attitudes on green consumption
behavior. Essentially, those who were highly involved engaged in more
extensive green-product-related information search, and purchased green
products more frequently. Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) studied involvement
towards sustainability (among other variables), specifically, sustainable food
consumption. Findings with respect to involvement showed that consumers
who were highly involved had more positive attitudes and higher intentions
to purchase sustainable products. The authors advised marketers to expose
consumers to the benefits of sustainable consumption which would in turn
increase their involvement towards sustainability. In another study con-
ducted in Spain (Montoro-Rios, Luque-Mart´
Inez, & Rodr´
Iguez-Molina, 2008),
it was found that the participants’ knowledge of about environmental bene-
fits of the brand could improve their attitude toward the brand, but only for
high-involvement product categories. However, research mentioned above
did not differentiate the effects of textual versus visual elements in the ads.
Only limited research has been conducted to specifically focus on
the moderating effects of product involvement on textual and visual
environmental appeals in advertising. Textual arguments contained in the
copy of advertisements have been one of the most-studied variables within
the ELM framework (e.g., Areni, 2003; Boller, Swasy, & Munch, 1990).
Previous research suggested that textual argument influences persuasion
via the central route, when message recipients are high in motivation to
process relevant information (Petty, Unnava, & Strathman, 1991). Miniard,
Bhatla, Lord, Dickson, and Unnava (1991) conducted a study to observe
the moderating effect of involvement on pictures and its effect on brand
attitudes and purchase decisions. The findings from the first experiment
revealed that when the print ad contained an unattractive/inappropriate
picture, product evaluations reduced activating the peripheral route. In the
second experiment, when the ad contained a product-relevant picture it
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90 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
activated product-related thoughts and strengthened beliefs of the product
attributes. Therefore, the moderating role of involvement was observed for
pictures that communicated product relevant information. These findings
can be related to prior research in green consumers, although product
involvement is still considered a relatively new concept in green advertising
research. Substantive claims (complex) were found more effective than
posturing claims (simple) in green consumers who were highly-involved and
knowledgeable than uninformed consumers (Polonsky et al., 1997). When
looking at environmental claims and visual imagery in advertising messages,
R. Y. K. Chan et al. (2006) observed the effect of claim type (substantive and
associative) in high and low involved services in China. The authors found
that substantive claims were more effective in generating favorable ad and
brand attitudes and purchase intentions than associative claims, for both high
and low involvement services. Hartmann and Ib´
a˜
nez (2009) used the ELM
model and observed the role of involvement on attitude change, but they
chose to look at consumers’ involvement regarding environmental issues, not
product involvement. Findings showed that direct arguments or information
on the environmental product’s attributes were effective for environmentally
conscious consumers but peripheral cues like emotional images were more
effective on consumers who had low environmental consciousness.
Only few studies in green advertising included product involvement,
but their findings demonstrated the importance of this variable and more
research is needed to help us better understand its moderating role. In
addition, previous studies did not differentiate visuals from textual messages
when it comes to the moderating effects of product involvement. Therefore,
the current study was designed to examine interactions between textual
claims and green visuals under the context of the Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM). Based on the literature review, the following hypotheses were
developed:
H4: The effects of textual environmental claims are stronger when the
level of product involvement is high leading to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
H5: The effects of green visuals are stronger when the level of product
involvement is low leading to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 91
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
H6: The impact of textual environmental advertising claims is stronger
when green visuals are present when the level of product involvement
is either high or low leading to:
a. Higher level of green brand associations;
b. More positive attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad);
c. More positive attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab); and
d. Higher level of purchase intention (PI).
METHOD
Design and Stimuli Creation
The experiment was conducted based on a 2 (with textual environmental
claims vs. without textual environmental claims) ×2 (with green visuals vs.
without green visuals) ×2 (high product involvement vs. low product in-
volvement) mixed design with textual and visual environmental information
as two between-group variables and product involvement as a within-group
variable.
The stimulus advertisements and questionnaire were created by
researchers and tested in a pretest. Forty-one college students participated
in the pretest. They were divided into four groups and were exposed to
a slide show of high and low involvement print advertisements designed
by the researchers. The high involvement products included car and
high-definition television, while napkins and dishwashing liquid satisfied
the low involvement product category. These product categories were
chosen based on a previous focus group and fictitious brands were
created by the researchers. Group 1, which was the control group, was
exposed to prints ads of the products without any green visuals or textual
environmental claims. The ads consisted of the product, a neutral logo and
abstract visuals in the background. Ads in Group 2 contained additional
textual environmental information describing the benefits of using the
product and how it could help protect the environment. Group 3 was
exposed to print ads that had the products with green visuals in the
background but no copy. Group 4 was exposed to print ads that consisted
of both green visuals and green claims. Textual claims in Group 2 and
Group 4 indicated that companies used environmental-friendly materials
and processes to produce the advertised products. Green visuals in Group
3 and Group 4 consisted of rich natural scenery with trees, grass and
blue skies, because a study by Stafford et al. (1996) suggested that, for
college students, concerns for health, waste, and wildlife would be the most
effective appeals in green advertising. The order of the advertisements was
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92 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
randomized in such a way that the sequence of advertisements does not
make the students think that there was a connection between them. To
prevent this type of cognition, advertisements for different types of products
were shown wherein the motivation to make connections between the
advertisements were minimized. After viewing each ad, participants were
asked to complete a short questionnaire measuring their attitude-toward-the-
ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, purchase intention, and perception of green
brand associations. They were also asked to evaluate the ads in terms of
text/visual combination, overall creativity and likability. Product involvement
was also measured for each product for manipulation check purpose. After
finishing the pretest, there was a brief discussion about the ads and the prod-
ucts they just saw. Based on pretest results, revisions were made to the ques-
tionnaire, textual and visual information in the stimulus ads, and the research
procedure.
Sample and Procedure
In the main study, the experiment used a sample of 144 undergraduate
students (87 females and 57 males) of various majors enrolled at a public
university in the U.S. Students were randomly assigned to one of four groups:
Group 1 (no green visual or textual claims) consisted of 33 students; Group
2 (textual claims only) had 38 students; Group 3 (green visuals only) had 33
students; and Group 4 (both green visuals and textual claims) had 40 stu-
dents. Levene’s test suggested the error variance of the dependent variables
was equal across groups.
Recruiting students for the study was done during class hours with the
professor’s permission. Announcements were made including a brief de-
scription of the experiment, the need for participation in the study, benefits
and assurance of confidentiality. All students had an equal chance to par-
ticipate and they were awarded extra credits in their respective courses.
Students were allowed to withdraw at any time during the course of the
experiment without penalty and were still awarded the extra credit. Vol-
unteers were provided with an informed consent letter covering all issues
disclosed in the IRB General Guidelines. They were asked to read the con-
sent form and on agreement of the terms the consent forms were signed. The
students were asked not to start writing on the questionnaire until further
instructions were provided. The researcher then explained to the students
how the questionnaire should be answered and what were the compo-
nents found in the questionnaire. The experiment ensued and the respec-
tive groups were exposed to the selected stimuli. Each group was shown
four ads, including two high involvement products—car and high-definition
television, and two low involvement products—napkins and dishwashing
liquid. There were differences between ads for each group in terms of
levels of textual and visual information. The picture of the four products
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 93
remained the same in all groups but background visuals and presence (or
absence) of environmental claims differed. Participants in each group viewed
four ads featuring different products (two high-involvement and two low-
involvement) in one of the following conditions: Group 1 (no text +abstract
backgrounds); Group 2 (environmental claims +abstract backgrounds);
Group 3 (no text +backgrounds of nature); and Group 4 (environmen-
tal claims +backgrounds of nature). After viewing each ad, participants
were given several minutes to complete two pages of dependent measures
including attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, purchase inten-
tion, perception of green brand associations, as well as several filler ques-
tions. At the end of the experiment, the respondents were asked to answer
demographic questions. When participants finished, they were debriefed and
dismissed.
Variables and Measures
The independent variables were the green visuals and environmental claims
in the advertisements and the level of product involvement. The dependent
variables were attitude-toward-the-ad (Aad), attitude-toward-the-brand (Ab),
purchase intention of the brand (PI) and green brand associations, which
basically looked at how eco-friendly the advertiser was. The following mea-
sures were used to measure those variables.
GREEN BRAND ASSOCIATIONS
Subjects were given three statements that assessed their green brand asso-
ciations and were asked to chose from a 7-point Likert scale (1-strongly
disagree to 7- strongly agree). The scale was adopted from a study by Hart-
mann and Ib´
a˜
nez (2009) but was modified to suit the current experimental
design. Subjects were asked to report if they thought the brand respected
the environment, tried to help protect the environment, and if the ad made
them feel close to nature. Two filler questions were also included to help
hide the intention of the study. Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this scale was
.85.
ATTITUDE-TOWARD-THE-AD(AAD)
The measurement for attitude toward the advertisement (Aad) was adopted
from a scale developed by previous studies (e.g., Mitchell & Olsen, 1981;
Muehling & McCann, 1993). Four 7-point bipolar adjective items were
summed and averaged to indicate feelings toward the ad, including good-
bad, unpleasant-pleasant, favorable-unfavorable, negative-positive. Cron-
bach’s alpha reliability for this scale was .92.
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94 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
ATTITUDE-TOWARD-THE-BRAND (AB)
Attitude toward the brand (Ab) was measured using a 7-point, semantic-
differential scale and included the items: bad/good, likable/not likable, de-
sired/not desired, and positive/negative. The scale was first introduced by
MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch (1986) and was later adopted by researchers
such as Simons and Carey (1998) and Cauberghe and Pelsmacker (2010).
Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this scale was .89.
PURCHASE INTENTION (PI)
Purchase intention was measured with a 7-point, semantic-differential scale
consisting of three items: probable/improbable, likely/unlikely, and possi-
ble/impossible. This scale has been used in a study by MacKenzie et al.
(1986). Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this scale was .92.
PRODUCT INVOLVEMENT
For manipulation check purpose, the revised version of the Personal In-
volvement Index (PII) created by Zaichkowsky (1994) was used to measure
product involvement. The PII was a seven-point semantic differential scale
that included the following items: important/unimportant, boring/interesting,
relevant/irrelevant, exciting/unexciting, means nothing/means a lot, un-
appealing/appealing, fascinating/mundane, worthless/valuable, uninvolv-
ing/involving, and not needed/needed. Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this
scale was .88.
RESULTS
The goal of the study was to find out whether the presence of visual and
textual environmental information affects consumers’ attitude-toward-the-ad,
attitude-toward-the-brand, purchase intention and their perception of the
brand’s eco-friendliness. In addition, the effect of product involvement was
investigated as a potential moderating variable. The data were analyzed using
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with textual and visual environ-
mental appeals as two between-group variables and product involvement as
a within-group variable. The dependent variables were attitude-toward-the-
ad, attitude-toward- the-brand, purchase intention and green brand associa-
tions (i.e., consumers’ perception of the brand’s environmental effort).
Manipulation Check
Based on pretest results, two products, car and high-definition television,
were used as high-involvement products and two products, dishwashing
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 95
liquid and napkins, were used as low-involvement products in the stimulus
ads. Participants’ involvement with these products was also measured in the
main study with the Personal Involvement Inventory (Zaichkowsky, 1994).
Results indicated difference in mean scores between high-involvement
products and low-involvement products – car (M=5.43, SD =1.14), HDTV
(M=5.10, SD =1.07), dishwashing liquid (M=3.96, SD =1.02), and
napkins (M=3.54, SD =1.06). With regard to gender, no differences were
observed between male participants and female participants in terms of
their attitude-toward-the-ad, brand attitude, purchase intention, and green
brand associations.
Environmental Appeals and Advertising Responses
The first set of hypotheses (H1) concerned the relationships between textual
environmental claims and consumers’ responses toward the ad. This hypoth-
esis was supported in this study. Results showed that there was a significant
main effect for the use of textual environmental claims on perception of
environmental effort, attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, and
purchase intention. Ads with textual environmental claims generated more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort (M=4.76, SD =.10)
than those without any textual environmental claims (M=3.57, SD =.11),
F(1, 137) =64.12, p<.01. Ads with textual environmental claims produced
higher attitude-toward-the-ad (M=5.42, SD =.09) than those without any
textual claims (M=4.69, SD =.11), F(1, 137) =25.94, p<.01. Ads with
textual environmental claims produced higher brand attitudes (M=5.41,
SD =.09) than those without any textual claims (M=4.73, SD =.10), F(1,
137) =27.01, p<.01. Ads with textual environmental claims also generated
higher level of purchase intention (M=4.51, SD =.12) than those without
any textual claims (M=3.79, SD =.13), F(1, 137) =16.56, p<.01. In
general, the use of textual environmental claims in advertising led to more
favorable perception of the brand’s environmental effort and more positive
advertising responses (see Table 1).
The second set of hypotheses (H2) concerned the relationships between
green visuals and consumers’ responses toward the ad. This hypothesis was
mostly supported in the current study. Results showed that there was a signif-
icant main effect for the use of green visuals on perception of environmental
effort, attitude-toward-the-ad, and attitude-toward-the-brand. However, no
significant main effect was found for purchase intention. Ads with green vi-
suals generated more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort
(M=4.47, SD =.10) than those without any green visuals (M=4.28, SD =
.13), F(1, 137) =16.66, p<.01. Ads with green visuals produced higher
attitude-toward-the-ad (M=5.30, SD =.10) than those without any green
visuals (M=4.82, SD =.10), F(1, 137) =11.20, p<.01. Ads with green
visuals also produced higher brand attitudes (M=5.32, SD =.10) than
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96 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
TABLE 1 Multivariate Repeated Measures for Advertising Responses
Factor Measures df F η2P
Between-Subjects (137)
Textual (T) Green brand associations 1 64.12 .32 .00∗∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 25.94 .16 .00∗∗
Brand attitude 1 27.01 .16 .00∗∗
Purchase intention 1 16.56 .11 .00∗∗
Visual (V) Green brand associations 1 16.66 .11 .00∗∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 11.20 .08 .01∗
Brand attitude 1 14.19 .09 .00∗∗
Purchase intention 1 2.43 .02 .12
T×V Green brand associations 1 7.69 .05 .01∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 .61 .01 .44
Brand attitude 1 .03 .00 .86
Purchase intention 1 .82 .01 .37
Within-Subjects (137)
Involvement (I) Green brand associations 1 14.56 .10 .00∗∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 57.89 .30 .00∗∗
Brand attitude 1 24.30 .15 .00∗∗
Purchase intention 1 .53 .00 .47
I×T Green brand associations 1 20.36 .13 .00∗∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 2.92 .02 .09
Brand attitude 1 .62 .01 .43
Purchase intention 1 .13 .00 .72
I×V Green brand associations 1 10.93 .07 .00∗∗
Attitude-toward-ad 1 .12 .00 .73
Brand attitude 1 .67 .01 .41
Purchase intention 1 .32 .00 .57
I×T×V Green brand associations 1 3.66 .03 .06
Attitude-toward-ad 1 .24 .00 .62
Brand attitude 1 3.70 .03 .06
Purchase intention 1 .04 .00 .84
Note. ∗p<.05. ∗∗p<.01.
those without any green visuals (M=4.82, SD =.09), F(1, 137) =14.19,
p<.01. There was no significant difference in purchase intention between
ads with green visuals (M=4.02, SD =.12) and those without (M=3.79,
SD =.13), F(1, 137) =2.43, p> .10. In general, the use of green visuals in
advertising led to more favorable perception of the brand’s environmental
effort, more positive attitude-toward-the-ad and the brand, but not higher
level of purchase intention (see Table 1).
The third hypothesis (H3) was to explore the interaction effects be-
tween textual environmental claims and green visuals. An interaction effect
was found in consumers’ perception of the brand’s environmental effort,
F(1, 137) =7.70, p<.05, but not in other areas (see Table 1). Therefore,
this hypothesis was partially supported. Results showed, when textual envi-
ronmental claims were not included, ads with green visuals generated more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort (M=4.08, SD =
.15) than those without any green visuals (M=3.06, SD =.15). However,
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 97
TABLE 2 Mean Scores of Participants’ Responses (N=141)
Control Textual Visual Both
Dependent Measures (n=33) (n=38) (n=30) (n=40)
Green brand association∗
Low-involvement M (SD) 3.36(.96) 4.32(.92) 3.86(.89) 4.37(.89)
High-involvement M (SD) 2.76(.77) 5.01(1.15) 4.31(1.35) 5.34(1.32)
Total M (SD) 3.06(.60) 4.66(.89) 4.10(.94) 4.86(.99)
Attitude toward the ad∗
Low-involvement M (SD) 4.00(.89) 4.95(1.19) 4.58(1.19) 5.39(1.01)
High-involvement M (SD) 4.79(.81) 5.53(.87) 5.40(.94) 5.83(.92)
Total M (SD) 4.39(.69) 5.24(.89) 5.00(.87) 5.61(.86)
Attitude toward the brand∗
Low-involvement M (SD) 4.37(.85) 4.94(1.08) 4.63(.99) 5.56(.94)
High-involvement M (SD) 4.61(.79) 5.37(1.00) 5.30(.68) 5.80(.88)
Total M (SD) 4.48(.61) 5.15(.82) 4.94(.71) 5.68(.86)
Purchase intention∗
Low-involvement M (SD) 3.70(1.42) 4.50(1.47) 4.03(1.63) 4.57(1.53)
High-involvement M (SD) 3.43(.87) 4.40(1.06) 3.98(1.11) 4.57(1.41)
Total M (SD) 3.56(.60) 4.66(.78) 4.08(.89) 4.86(.99)
Note. Green brand association: Both > visual, textual > visual, visual > control (both > control, textual >
control).
Attitude toward the ad: Both > visual, visual > control (both > control, textual > control).
Attitude toward the brand: Both > visual, both > textual (both > control, textual > control).
Purchase intention: (both > control, textual > control). ∗p<.05.
when textual environmental claims were present, there was no significant
difference in perception of the brand’s environmental effort between ads
with green visuals (M=4.86, SD =.14) and those without (M=4.66,
SD =.14). In summary, results of the study suggested that textual environ-
mental claims were the determining factor in consumers’ perception of the
brand’s environmental effort, but if no textual information was available, the
use of green visuals could generate more positive perception of the brand’s
environmental effort.
Post-hoc tests (Tukey’s HSD) were then conducted to further identify the
differences between four experimental groups. In general, ads with textual
claims (text only and text/visual combination) generated more favorable
advertising response compared to ads in the control group, such as green
brand associations, p<.01; attitude toward the ad, p<.01; attitude toward
the brand, p<.01; and purchase intention, p<.01(see Table 2).
To examine interaction effects between textual and visual environmental
appeals, it was found that ads with green visuals only (M=4.10, SD =.94)
generated more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort than
those in the control group (M=3.06, SD =.60), p<.01. Ads in the visual
only group (M=5.00, SD =.87) also generated more positive attitude
toward the ad than those in the control group (M=4.39, SD =.69), p<.05.
However, ads with green visuals did not produce significantly higher brand
attitudes, p> .10; or higher purchase intention, p> .10.
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98 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
Ads with both textual environmental claims and green visuals (M=4.86,
SD =.99) generated more positive perception of the brand’s environmental
effort than those with green visuals only (M=4.10, SD =.94), p<.01.
The combination group (M=5.61, SD =.86) also generated more positive
attitude toward the ad than the visual only group (M=5.00, SD =.87), p
<.05. The combination group (M=5.68, SD =.86) was also rated higher in
brand attitude compared to the visual only group (M=4.94, SD =.71), p<
.01. However, ads with both textual environmental claims and green visuals
did not lead to higher purchase intention, p> .10.
Ads with textual environmental claims only (M=4.66, SD =.89) gener-
ated more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort than those
green visuals only (M=4.10, SD =.94), p<.05. However, there was no
significant difference in attitude toward the ad, brand attitude, or purchase
intention between two groups.
In addition, it was found that ads with both textual environmental claims
and green visuals (M=5.68, SD =.86) generated more positive brand
attitude than those with textual environmental claims only (M=5.15, SD =
.82), p<.05. However, there was no significant difference in green brand
associations, attitude toward the ad, or purchase intention between two
groups.
In summary, compared to ads without any environmental appeal, the
use of green visuals could generate more positive perception of the brand’s
environmental effort and more positive attitude toward the ad, but not more
positive brand attitude or higher purchase intention. Compared to ads with
green visuals only, the use of textual/visual combination could generate more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort and more positive
attitude toward the ad and the brand, but not higher purchase intention.
When used alone, ads in the textual only group generated more positive
perception of the brand’s environmental effort than those in the visual only
group, but not more positive advertising responses.
Effects of Product Involvement
The last two hypotheses (H4 and H5) were to test the moderating ef-
fects of product involvement in regards to textual environmental claims
and green visuals. H4 was partially supported. H5 was also partially sup-
ported but in the opposite position. An interaction effect was found between
product involvement and textual environmental claims in consumers’ per-
ception of the brand’s environmental effort, F(1, 137) =20.36, p<.01.
An interaction effect was also found between product involvement and
green visuals in consumers’ perception of the brand’s environmental ef-
fort, F(1, 137) =10.93, p<.01 (see Table 1). Results showed, for ads
with textual environmental claims, high involvement products generated
more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort (M=5.18,
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 99
SD =.13) than low involvement products (M=4.35, SD =.10). However, for
ads without textual environmental claims, there was no significant difference
in perception of the brand’s environmental effort between high involvement
products (M=3.54, SD =.15) and low involvement products (M=3.61,
SD =.12). For ads with green visuals, high involvement products generated
more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort (M=4.82,
SD =.14) than low involvement products (M=4.12, SD =.11). However,
for ads without green visuals, there was no significant difference in percep-
tion of the brand’s environmental effort between high involvement products
(M=3.89, SD =.14) and low involvement products (M=3.84, SD =.11).
This is to say, both textual environmental claims and green visuals were more
effective in a high involvement situation than in a low involvement situation,
in terms of perception of the brand’s environmental effort (see Table 2). In
general, the scores are higher for high-involvement in almost all groups,
except that, in the control group, low involvement products generated more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort (M=3.36, SD =.96)
than high involvement products (M=2.76, SD =.77). No interaction effects
were found between product involvement and textual/visual environmental
appeals. Therefore, H6 was not supported.
DISCUSSIONS
The current study was designed to explore the effects of visual and textual en-
vironmental appeals on consumers’ perception of the brand’s environmental
effort, their attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, and purchase
intention. Both main effects and interactions effects were found for textual
environmental claims and green visuals. Moderating effects were also found
for product involvement.
In general, the use of textual environmental claims and green visuals in
advertising could lead to more favorable perception of the brand’s environ-
mental effort and more positive advertising responses. The effects of textual
environmental claims seemed to be stronger. However, an interaction effect
between textual environmental claims and green visuals suggested that, if
no textual information was available, the use of green visuals could generate
more positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort. Even though
the only significant result was in green brand association, it is still important
because post-hoc regression analyses indicated that positive perception of
the brand’s environmental effort could lead to more favorable advertising
responses (see Table 3). Green brand association was a significant predictor
of attitude-toward-the-ad (β=.69, t=11.42, p<.01), attitude-toward-the-
brand (β=.71, t=11.84, p<.01), as well as purchase intention (β=.62,
t=9.40, p<.01). The effects are stronger when a combination of green
visuals and textual environmental claims are used in the ads. Another point
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100 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
TABLE 3 Regression Analysis for Advertising Responses
Dependent variables B SE(B) βtSig. (p)
Attitude-toward-ad .59 .05 .69 11.42 .00∗∗
Brand attitude .56 .05 .71 11.84 .00∗∗
Purchase intention .63 .07 .62 9.40 .00∗∗
Note. B, unstandardized; β, standardized. IV: Green Brand Association.
∗p<.05. ∗∗p<.01.
to consider is that due to the lack of interaction between textual and visual
elements in green ads shows that there is no reinforcement or distraction
effect. Even though this is inconsistent from past findings (Edell & Staelin,
1983; Jaeger & MacFie, 2001; Lutz & Lutz, 1977), it shows that textual and vi-
suals work independently of each other fulfilling separate functions (Decrop,
2007). But it was also found that green visuals in advertising could lead to
more favorable green brand associations and more positive attitude-toward-
the-ad, compared to ads that do not contain any environmental appeal. Some
of these findings are consistent with previous research but the current study
offered a more detailed look at the relationships between textual and visual
environmental appeals in advertising, especially the effects of green visuals.
Many researchers (e.g., Hartmann & Ib´
a˜
nez, 2009; Rametsteiner et al., 1990)
have argued that green logos and colors can draw attention to the green
products and also help generate more positive advertising responses. Ac-
cording to Hartmann, Ib´
a˜
nez, and Sainz (2005), green positioning strategies
help to build green brand associations that are either functional or emo-
tional. Functional aspect relates to product attributes and how they benefit
the environment which can be attributed to textual claims in advertising.
Consumers also acquire emotional benefits from the advertisement in the
form of visual cues like green imagery. Green imagery may have triggered
positive emotions that lead to associating the brand to eco-friendliness.
This is a suggestion where further analysis is beyond the scope of this
study. The findings are important for marketers who are planning to include
environment-related messages in their advertising campaign. Although
textual information is essential to educate the audiences and generate
positive brand attitude, green visuals could also be used when the company
wants to project an eco-friendly image. This is especially useful for certain
media outlet, such as television and billboard, even online advertisements,
where textual information is not the main focus in the creative design.
However, when using green visuals in advertising, companies should
be aware of the potential problem of “greenwashing”: environmental
advertising without environmental substance (K¨
arn¨
a, Juslin, Ahonen, &
Hansen, 2001). Scholars had warned that image-based environmental claims
could undermine the corporate credibility. For example, Carlson et al.
(1993) elaborated that image-based claims which linked their products,
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Effects of Visual and Textual Environmental Appeals 101
image and manufacturing process to environmental causes were found to
be the most ambiguous and deceptive by consumers. To gauge the amount
of greenwashing, a content analysis of green ads by Banerjee et al. (1995)
found that most of the ads were based on green corporate image and not
the environmental benefits of their products. The effects of greenwashing
is also seen in the international arena as a cross-country analysis found
that American firms had less of substantive claims and more of posturing
claims indicating a strong leaning towards greenwashing (Polonsky et al.,
1997). In the current study, textual environmental claims generated more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort than green visuals.
Compared to ads without any environmental appeal, textual environmental
claims generated higher purchase intention. Green visuals did lead to more
positive perception of the brand’s environmental effort and more favorable
attitude toward the ad, but not brand attitude, and more importantly, not
purchase intention, either. Therefore, green visuals may help the company
gain more green consumers initially because an individual could easily
assume a product portrayed in natural scenery as eco-friendly. However,
later, it may also be seen as misleading once consumers find out that the
advertisement is devoid of any substantial “green” evidence.
Product involvement was also found to play a role in participants’ per-
ception of the brand’s environmental effort. In general, both environmental
claims and green visuals were more effective for high involvement prod-
ucts than low involvement products, which was a little different from our
prediction that green visuals should work better in low involvement situ-
ation. One explanation could be that consumers might have viewed high
involvement products as having greater impact on the environment than
low involvement products, and that they believe it takes greater effort and
commitment for high involvement products (car and high-def television) to
be sustainable than low involvement products (napkins and dishwashing
liquid), thus rating them higher on the scale. This is evidenced by the fact
that, in the current study, in the control group (no visual or textual envi-
ronmental appeal in the ads), low involvement products were rated as more
eco-friendly than high involvement products. However, once green visuals
and/or environmental claims were included in the ads, high involvement
products were rated more eco-friendly than low-involvement products. For
advertisers and marketers, this means environmental claims and green vi-
suals should be used for high-involvement products, if one wants to be
perceived as environmentally friendly. Again, regression analyses indicated
that, once the brand was perceived as environmentally friendly, it should
also help generate positive brand attitude and purchase intention, which
makes this finding even more important (see Table 3). However, as men-
tioned earlier in the literature review, product involvement is still a relatively
new concept in green advertising research; therefore, there is not enough
evidence available to help the researchers form a definite conclusion. For a
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102 F. Xue and S. Muralidharan
more accurate explanation, more in-depth analyses need to be conducted to
examine potential influential factors.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Several limitations should be noted when evaluating the findings of this
research, such as participants, experimental stimulus, and independent vari-
ables. Undergraduate students were used as the sample of study. Although
a study by Stafford et al. (1996) suggested that green advertising related to
concerns for waste and wildlife was most effective among the young, ed-
ucated audiences, college students do not represent all consumers in the
green market. A more diverse group of participants would probably provide
more insight on the impact of personal variables. In terms of the stimuli, only
print ads were tested in the current study and it has to be noted is that the
products (car, high-definition television, dishwashing liquid, and napkins) in
the print ads remained the same but the background visuals varied for each
set of groups. Groups 1 (control) and 2 had non-environmental or abstract
backgrounds but Groups 3 and 4 had environmental or green backgrounds.
Even though the ads were created to satisfy the conditions of the design, it
is still a limitation that needs to be considered. Future research may examine
various types of media, such as television advertising and online advertising.
The study examined the effects of textual and visual environmental appeals,
in general. Future research could investigate how specific types of textual
and visual information interact with each other. Because the current study
was designed based on ELM, the only moderating variable included in the
research was product involvement. There might be other moderating and
mediating variables that could influence the effectiveness of textual and vi-
sual environmental content, such as media difference, pricing strategy, and
situational factors, among others. These could be further explored in future
studies.
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