Overview on the Rule of Law and Sustainable Development for the Global Dialogue on Rule of Law and the Post‐2015 Development Agenda

Full text


1

BackgroundPaper:OverviewontheRuleofLawandSustainableDevelopmentfor
theGlobalDialogueonRuleofLawandthePost‐2015DevelopmentAgenda

Louis‐AlexandreBergandDevalDesai1
Draft,August2013
ExecutiveSummary
Thispaperlaysoutaframeworkfordiscussionsontheroleoftheruleoflawinthepost‐
2015agenda.Itsummarizestheevidencebasefortherelationshipbetweentheruleof
lawanddevelopment,highlightslessonsfromruleoflawdevelopmentprogramming
andtheexperienceoftheMDGs,andpointstooptionsforhowtheruleoflawmightbe
incorporatedintothepost‐2015developmentagenda.

Thepaperemphasizesthreethemes.First,itrecognizesthegeneralcommitmentamong
policymakerstotheimportanceoftheruleoflawtodevelopment.Thedeliberationsto
fleshoutthepost‐2015agendaprovideauniqueopportunitytotranslatethis
commitmenttotheruleoflawintoaction.Second,ithighlightstheimportanceof
contextandspecificity.Theruleoflawisaconceptthatresonatesacrossbordersand
boundarieswhilereflectingadiversesetofperspectivesrootedinsocieties’culture,
history,politics,institutionsandconceptionsofjustice.Third,itdescribesthemulti‐
faceted,cross‐disciplinary,andsometimescontestednatureoftheevidencebase,and
emphasizestheimportanceofunderstandingtheparticularpathwaysbetweentherule
oflawanddevelopment.Effortstodefinecommitments,targetsandindicatorsshould
clarifytheparticularpathwaystheyaretryingtopromotewhilebuildingonand
strengtheningtheexistingevidencebase.
Thestartingpointforincorporatingtheruleoflawintothepost‐2015agendashouldbe
anunderstandingofthenatureoftheruleoflawanditsrelationshiptodevelopment.
Wetakeaninclusiveviewoftheruleoflaw,whichincorporatesadiversityof
perspectiveswhilerecognizinginternationalnorms.Theruleoflawisasystemofrules
andnorms,asetofinstitutions,andanoutcomeofdevelopment,andafeatureofthe
processesthatcutacrosssectorstoenabledevelopmenttoadvance.Atthesametime,
specificfunctionsoftheruleoflawanditsrelationshiptodevelopmentareincreasingly
recognized.Drawingonawiderangeofempiricalliteratureandpracticalexperience,
thepaperlaysoutcoredevelopmentfunctionsoftheruleoflaw,including:
 Enablingeconomicdevelopment,
 Citizenshipandsocialandeconomicjustice.
 Preventing,mitigatinganddeterringconflict,crimeandviolence
 Strengtheningaccountabilityandchecksonpower,andreducingcorruption
 Enhancingthefairallocationofservices
1GeorgetownandHarvardLawSchoolrespectively.Correspondencewelcomeatlb262@georgetown.edu.
anddeval.desai@trinity.oxon.org.Thisoverviewrepresentsamoredetailedversionofthefindingsofthe
PolicyBriefforpolicymakersshapingthePost‐2015developmentagenda,availableat
http://issuu.com/undp/docs/issue_brief_‐_rule_of_law_and_the_post‐2015_develo.Itisintendedto
complementthePolicyBrief,providingamoredetailedbasisfordiscussionsandconsultationsontherule
oflawanddevelopmentinthecontextofthedevelopmentofthepost‐2015developmentgoals.Weare
gratefultoShelleyInglis,AparnaBasnyat,RosieWagner,andthepaper’sinternalandexternalpeer
reviewersfortheirassistance,commentsandguidance.


2

 Protectingtheenvironmentandnaturalresources
Understandingtheserelationships,thespecificpathwaysbetweentheruleoflawand
developmentthateachimplies,andtheevidencebaseforeach,isessentialtocrafting
effectivegoalsandtargets.Developmentpolicyshouldalsoconsiderthetrade‐offsand
tensionsamongthesevariousfunctions.

Thepost‐2015agendashouldalsotakeintoconsiderationthehistoryofruleoflaw
developmenteffortsaswellastheexperienceoftheMDGs.Whiledevelopmentactors
havesoughttopromotetheruleoflawforatleastfivedecades,evidenceofimpacthas
beenmixed.Severalcritiqueshavearisentopointoutspecificlimitationsandsuggest
alternativeapproaches.First,programshavetendedtopresumelineartrajectoriesof
change.Second,theyhavenotincorporatedsufficientlylongtimehorizons.Third,they
havetendedtotransplantmodelsorgoalsfromelsewherewithoutconsideringthe
contextualbasisofchange.Fourth,theyhavenotsufficientlysupportedin‐country
politicalcoalitionstounderpinthedevelopmentoftheruleoflaw.

Inresponsetotheseconcerns,developmentactorshavemovedtowardevidence‐based
“problem‐solvingapproaches”.Theseapproachesfocusontheproblemsexperiencedby
“end‐users”ofruleoflawsystems,andexamineruleoflawchallengesthatcutacross
developmentsectorsandoutcomes.Buildingontheseadvancesintheruleoflawfield,
wesuggestthatretainingsomeflexibilityindefininggoals,targetsandindicatorsto
reflecttheuniquechallengesofparticularsocietieswithinbroadlyunderstood
conceptionsoftheruleoflaw.

Asabasisforgoalsandindicatorsfortheruleoflawinthepost‐2015agenda,thepaper
reviewspriorandongoingeffortstomeasuretheruleoflaw.Acrucialstepinsetting
targetsisdefiningclearandmeasurableconcepts,rootedintheevidenceforparticular
pathwaysbetweentheruleoflawanddevelopment.Therangeofmeasurement
approacheshaveemphasizedvaryingconceptionsandmethodologies,rangingfrom
measuresofinstitutionalperformanceandcompliancewithinternationalnorms,to
surveysofuserexperienceandperception,tobroadindicesand“baskets”ofindicators
thataimtoaggregatevariousconcepts.Giventhemulti‐dimensionalnatureoftherule
oflaw,eachoftheseapproachescarriesparticulartrade‐offs,includingbetween
specificityandbreadthofcontext;universalapplicationandcontextspecificity;
sensitivityofmeasurementandcomprehensiveness;aswellasinregardsto
considerationslikecost,reliability,andmeasurement.Thedesignoftargetsand
indicatorsshouldalsoconsidertheparticularincentivestheycreateandtheriskof
unintendedconsequencesoffocusingonaparticularconceptorindicator.

Withtheselessonsinmind,thepost‐2015agendaprovidesauniqueopportunityto
builduponglobalpoliticalcommitmentstotheruleoflaw.Thewiderangeof
commitments‐reflectedininternationalpolicydocuments,conventionsandresolutions
ofmultilateralandregionalorganizationsaroundtheworld‐displaysboththebroad
resonanceacrosscountriesoftheimportanceoftheruleoflawtodevelopmentandthe
variedconceptionsofandapproachestomeasuringcountries’adherencetotheruleof
law.TheexperienceoftheMDGprocessalsohighlightedtheimportanceoftheruleof
law,asseveralcountryreportsemphasizedtheimportanceofelementsoftheruleof
lawtoachievingobjectives.Duringthepost‐2015process,civilsocietyactorshave
advocatedforruleoflawgoalsandindicators,andrecentconsultationshave
emphasizeditsimportanceonissuesrangingfrompersonalsecuritytogovernance.

Threegeneralapproachestoincorporatingtheruleoflawintothepost‐2015
developmentagendacouldbeconsidered.Theseapproachesarenotmutuallyexclusive
andcouldbeadoptedinconcert:


3


 Defineacommonruleoflawgoalwithaflexiblebasketofindicatorsthat
canbetailoredtocountrycontexts.Aruleoflawgoalwouldsignalthe
importanceoftheruleoflawasanoutcomeofdevelopmentonparwithother
outcomessuchaspovertyreductionandhealth,thoughitwouldrequire
consensusonaparticularfunctionoftheruleoflawfordevelopment.

 Adopttheruleoflawasahighlevel“enabling”goal,whichwouldcommit
countriestomakenational‐levelpolicychangesthatenableprogressonother
developmentgoals.Thisapproachrecognizesthattheruleoflawisnotjustan
endinitself,butthatitalsoenablesabroaderrangeofdevelopmentoutcomes.
 Incorporatetheruleoflawacrossdevelopmentgoals,throughruleoflaw
specifictargetsandindicatorsinsupportofothergoals.Thisapproach
highlightstheimportanceoftheruleoflawacrossdevelopment,without
definingitasadesirableendinitself.




4

Introduction

Thispaperlaysoutaframeworkfordiscussionsabouttheruleoflawinthepost‐2015
agenda.Itisstructuredaroundthreethemes.Thefirstistheincreasingrecognition
amongpolicymakersoftheimportanceoftheruleoflawtodevelopment.Thisis
particularlytrueinthecontextofthepost‐2015world.Theruleoflawhasshaped
developmentprocessesthroughtheoperationoflaws,regulationandenforcement;
enabledconditionsandcapacitiesnecessarytodevelopmentoutcomes;andremaineda
coredevelopmentendinitself.Althoughitwasnotaddressedexplicitlyaspartofthe
MillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs),theimportanceoftheruleoflawtoachieving
theGoalsismentionedacrossseveralMDGcountryreports.UNMemberStateshave
recentlyrenewedtheircommitmenttothestrengtheningtheruleoflawasabasisfor
development,notablyinthe2012UNGeneralAssemblyHighLevelMeetingontheRule
ofLawandtheRio+20Conference.Commitmentstotheruleoflawandprotectionof
rightsalsoemergedfromtherecentPanamaandJohannesburgconsultationson
personalsecurityanddemocraticgovernanceinthepost‐2015agenda;2andglobalcivil
societyactorshavecalledforruleoflawgoalsand/orindicators.3Theforthcoming
deliberationstofleshoutthepost‐2015agendaprovideauniqueopportunityto
translatethiscommitmenttotheruleoflawintoaction.

Thesecondthemeistheimportanceofcontextandspecificity.Theconceptoftheruleof
lawresonatesacrossbordersandboundaries,andsocietieshavedevelopedshared
understandingsofthevalueoftheruleoflawtodevelopment.Atthesametime,
developinganddevelopedcountrieshaveadoptedadiversesetofperspectivesand
approachestotheruleoflawthatreflecttheirculture,history,politics,institutionsand
conceptionsofjustice.Itisunderstoodbothasanoutcomeandafeatureof
developmentprocesses,abroadprincipleaswellasasetofinstitutions,anditisladen
withvaryingsocialandpoliticalvalues.Thebalancebetweenuniversalityofgoalsand
specificitytocontextshouldbereflectedinapproachestopromotingtheruleoflaw
throughthepost‐2015agenda.

Thethirdthemeisthemulti‐facetednatureoftheevidencebase.Theevidencebasecuts
acrossdisciplines–fromlawtoeconomicstoanthropology–revealingthecross‐cutting
importanceoftheruleoflawtoawiderangeofdevelopmentoutcomes.Theruleoflaw
hasbeenlinkedtobroadeconomicgrowth,tosocialjustice,toenhancingsafetyand
security,topublicandprivateaccountability,andtoenhancingthefairallocationof
servicesbygovernments.Eachoftheselinkagesisbasedonaparticularsetofcausal
pathwaysthatpointtovaryingpolicyoptionsforpromotingtheruleoflawasabasisfor
development.Theevidencebaseforsomeoftheserelationshipsisalsocontested,in
partduetothemulti‐facetednatureoftheevidence,thevarieddisciplinesinwhichitis
rooted,andpaucityofreliabledataoncoreelementsoftheruleoflaw.Emphasizingthe
lessonsfrompracticalexperiencesalongsideempiricalresearch,weaimtopresentthe
mostrobustevidenceavailable,pointingoutareasinwhichtheevidenceisstrong,and
otherswherefurtheranalysisandbetterdataareneeded.

Asabasisfordiscussionsabouthowtheruleoflawmightbeincorporatedintothepost‐
2015developmentframework,thisoverviewscanstheliteratureonlawand
development;justicereformandruleoflawpromotion;aswellaseconomic,political
scienceandanthropologyliteratureonthelinkagesbetweentheruleoflawand
development,drawingoutthemesandpossibledirections.Whilewerefertorelevant
2http://www.worldwewant2015.org/conflictandhttp://www.worldwewant2015.org/governance
3http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/pub/policy_brief._looking_beyond_2015_a_role_for_governance
andhttp://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/projects/justice‐and‐development


5

alliedfields,suchassecuritysectorreform,transitionaljustice,humanrights,and
sustainabledevelopment,wedonotclaimtotreatthemcomprehensively.Furthermore,
wefocusonnational,ratherthaninternational“ruleoflaw”(suchastheoperationof
treatybodies),althoughweengagewithlinkswhereappropriate.4

Basedonthisliterature,wefindanemergingbodyofevidencethatpointstospecific
linkagesbetweentheruleoflawanddevelopmentthatcanprovideafoundationfor
incorporatingtheruleoflawintothepost‐2015developmentframework.Wehighlight
therangeofprinciples,conceptsandcommitmentsthatcomprisetheruleoflaw,along
withthevarietyofpathwaysthatlinktheruleoflawtodevelopment.Effortstodefine
commitments,targetsandindicatorsshouldsortthroughthisrangeofpathwayswhile
buildingonandstrengtheningtheexistingevidencebase.Wedonotrecommendany
particularconceptortargetinthisoverview,nordowedeveloponesinglenarrative.
Rather,weaimtoclarifytherangeofdifferentoptionsandapproaches.Wealso
emphasizetheimportanceofembeddingtargetsandindicatorsdeeplyinlocalcontexts,
andprioritizingnationalandlocalperspectivesthroughaproblem‐solvingapproach.

Wearemindfulindraftingthisoverviewoftheneedforhumilityandcare,andwedoso
basedonlessonslearnedfromtheMDGprocess.AstheUNTaskTeamonthepost‐2015
agendastates:“Severalofthegoalsandtargetsrelatedtotheglobalpartnershipfor
developmentweredefinedratherimprecisely,therebyweakeningaccountabilityforthe
promisedinternationalsupportfortheimplementationoftheMDGframework.Manyof
thecommitmentsmadebytheinternationalcommunityhaveremainedunfulfilled.”5
Ourapproachistoavoidprescriptivismandrathertotryandframecurrentdiscussions
andoffersomeguidanceonpotentialwaysforwardafter2015.

Thisoverviewthusaimstohelpstructurediscussionsby(1)clarifyingtherelationship
betweentheruleoflawanddevelopment;(2)summarizingthelessonsofruleoflaw
developmenteffortsandtheexperienceoftheMDGs;and(3)pointingtooptionsfor
howtheruleoflawmightbeincorporatedintothepost‐2015developmentagenda.
WhatIstheRuleofLaw?

Atitscore,theruleoflawisameansoforderingsociety–includingthestate‐citizen
relationship.Itincludessystemsofrulesandregulations,thenormsthatinfusethem,
andthemeansofadjudicatingandenforcingthem.Whileolderpolicyconceptionsofthe
ruleoflawindevelopmentemphasizedsecurityandpropertyrights,abroader
understandingopensupspacefornewthinkingabouttheruleoflawinthecontextof
thepost‐2015agenda. 

Thesubstanceofvalues,rulesandtheirapplicationvarydeeplyacrossculturesand
contexts,andevolveinresponsetopoliticalandsocialforcesincludingdevelopmentand
globalization.Someoftheelementsthatinfusetheconceptinclude:
 Conceptsfrompoliticalphilosophywithamultiplicityofdefinitionsincluding:a
systemofrules(sometimes“rulebylaw”);normssuchasequalitybeforethe
law;justprocess,justoutcomes;andequalaccess.

 Internationalhumanrightsnorms.Theruleoflawcanbeinfusedwithhuman
rightsnorms;fortheU.N.andmanydevelopmentagencies,theruleoflawis
inherentlyconsistentwithinternationalhumanrightsstandards.
4AsindicatedintheSecretaryGeneral’srecentreportontheruleoflaw:A/66/749atpara35etseq
5UNSystemTaskTeamonthePost‐2015UNDevelopmentAgenda,2012.“RealizingtheFutureWeWant
forAll:ReporttotheSecretary‐General”,at7.


6


 Complexrelationshipwith“justice”:“justice”isoftenusedinrelationtotherule
oflaw.Withinthesamephilosophicaltraditionofthe“ruleoflaw”asdiscussed
inthisoverview(i.e.onedominatedbyphilosophyfromtheGlobalNorth),ithas
beentaken–fromallsidesofthepoliticalspectrum‐tomeanthenormsthat
infusearuleoflawsystem;6theoutcomeofthewayinwhichsociety,economy
and/orapoliticalsystemisordered;7and/oraseriesofinstitutionsthat
maintainthe“ruleoflaw”.8Atthesametime,inenforcingparticularnormsof
justiceinagivensociety,theruleoflawdeterminesvaryingformsofrecognition
amonggroupsandindividuals,publicparticipation,individualandgroupagency,
humanandphysicalsecurity,andthedistributionofresourcesandpublic
services.9

 Geographicalandculturalvarianceindefinitions.Avarietyofinstitutionsand
normativecommitmentsarerelevant.Forexample,whilekastomorcustomary
lawareimportantinpartsofMelanesia;inSaudiArabia,“[t]helegalsystem
rejectsqanun[‘code’or‘statute’]entirely,refusingtocodifyevenitsbasiccivil
laws.Itusestheterm‘nizam’,orregulation,forthelimitednumberofman‐made
lawsitdoeshave.”10

Deductively,theruleoflawisoffundamentalimportancetodevelopmentoutcomes:the
ruleoflawexpressesandenablesasociety’sconceptionofsocialandeconomicjustice,
andmorespecificallyattitudestoextremepovertyanddeprivation.Itframeswealth,
resourceandpower(re)distribution.

Yetnoruleiswithoutsubstance.Manywritersontheruleoflawdistinguishbetween
“thin”(i.e.concernedwiththeformoflawandequalapplication),and“thick”(i.e.fairor
justsubstantivecontent)ruleoflaw.11However,allconceptionsexpresssomeformof
6Aristotle(2012),NichomacheanEthics(trans.Bartlett,R.andCollins,S.).Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press;Rawls,J.(1999),ATheoryofJustice(revisededn.).Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress
7Rousseau,J‐J.(ed.Gourevitch,V.)(1997),TheSocialContractandotherlaterpoliticalwritings.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress;Posner,E.(2002),LawandSocialNorms.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversity
Press;Posner,R.(1983),TheEconomicsofJustice.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress;Sen,A.2009.
TheIdeaofJustice.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress;Sandel,M(1998),LiberalismandtheLimitsof
Justice.Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress;Dworkin,R.(1986),Law’sEmpire.Cambridge,MA:Harvard
UniversityPress;Nozick,R.(1974),Anarchy,State,andUtopia.NewYork:BasicBooks.
8Montesquieu,C.(2011),TheSpiritofLaws(trans.Nugent,T.).NewYork:Cosimo
9See,forexample,Fraser,N.(1995),“FromRedistributiontoRecognition?DilemmasofJusticeina‘Post‐
Socialist’Age”,212(July‐August)NewLeftReviewI68.
10Vogel,F.E.,2000.“TheRuleofLawinSaudiArabia,”inCotran,E.,andYamani,M.(eds.)TheRuleofLawin
theMiddleEastandtheIslamicWorld:HumanRightsandtheJudicialProcess.LondonandNewYork:I.B.
TaurisandCo.,at129.
11See,forasummary,Trebilcock,M.J.andDaniels,R.J.,2008.Ruleoflawreformanddevelopment:charting
thefragilepathofprogress.Northampton:EdwardElgar.
Theruleoflawvariesdeeplyacrossculturesandcontexts

“Soactuallylookingatthe[state]court,theyonlyfocusonthenatureofyourcomplaintandcare
lesstoknowwhattranspiredinthepast.Soinshort,thecourtdoesnotsatisfythebothparties
whencasesareresolvedbythem.Butforourtraditionalpeopletheylookatthenatureofthecase
andalsodigoutthepasttoknowwhathappened,andbaseduponthattheypeacefullyresolved
thematter.Andattheclimaxthebothpartiesleavewithsmile.”‐MaleadultinNimba,Liberia.
Source:DeborahIsser,StevenLubkemannandSaahN’Tow(2009),“LookingforJustice:Liberian
ExperienceswithandPerceptionsofLocalJusticeOptions,”PeaceworksNo.63,UnitedStates
Instituteo
f
Peace.


7

allocationofgoodsorsocialvalues.12Principlesoflegalcertainty,forexample,might
prioritizetheexistingdistributionoflandoverredistributionefforts,ormightimpact
communityusufructrights.13

Asaresult,howROLisdefinedisahighlypoliticalchoice,asthedifferentvaluesand
normsitespousesresultindifferentinterpretationsofwhatisandisnotthelegitimate
exerciseofpowerbypublicandprivateactors.Thus,unlikeafacetofdevelopment
definedbyaseriesofindividual‐leveloutcomes,likematernalorchildhealth,theruleof
lawisamulti‐dimensionalsocialandpoliticalrealitythatvariessignificantlybycontext.

ThecomplexityofROLmeanspolicyunderstandingsoftheruleoflawarealsovaried.
Dependingontheactororinstitution,theruleoflawhasbeenviewedas:

 Anoutcomeofdevelopment.Forinstance,theWorldBankwritesthat“‘alackof
accesstojusticeisitselfacentraldimensionofpoverty.”14Inthissense,itisa
normativelydescribedlegalandpoliticalorder,astateofhumansecurity,andan
outcomeofjustice.15Itisalsoanenablingconditionfordevelopment,for
instanceinestablishingthebasicsocialorderandsecurityrequiredforother
developmentactivitiestoproceed.Itisalsoaprocessthroughwhichother
developmentoutcomesareachieved,thatdetermineswhichdecisionsaremade,
rulesareadoptedandenforced,andgrievancesanddisputesareresolved.16

 Principleofgovernance,orpoliticalorder,regulatingandframingtheuseof
publicandprivatepower.TheUNSecretaryGeneral(UNSG)definesitasa
“principleofgovernanceinwhichallpersons,institutionsandentities,public
andprivate,includingtheStateitself,areaccountabletolawsthatarepublicly
promulgated,equallyenforcedandindependentlyadjudicated,andwhichare
consistentwithinternationalhumanrightsnormsandstandards.Itrequires,as
well,measurestoensureadherencetotheprinciplesofsupremacyoflaw,
equalitybeforethelaw,accountabilitytothelaw,fairnessintheapplicationof
thelaw,separationofpowers,participationindecision‐making,legalcertainty,
avoidanceofarbitrarinessandproceduralandlegaltransparency.”17UNDP
incorporatesasimilarviewofruleoflawandaccesstojusticeinitsDemocratic
Governancepillar.Inthiscontext,theruleoflawcontributestosustainable
humandevelopmentasasystemofregulationandjustice.Itgovernstheuseof
powerthroughthefairandequalupholdingofrulesandlaws;italsofocuseson
theabilityofthepoorandmarginalizedtoseekredressofgrievancesand
vindicationofrightsandclaimsthroughasystemoflegalandsocial
institutions.18
12Kennedy,D.1991.“TheStakesofLaw,orHaleandFoucault!”15LegalStudiesForum327.
13WorldBank(2010),WanLis,FulapStori:LeasingonEpiIsland,Vanuatu.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank
14WorldBank(2012),NewDirectionsinJusticeReform,http://www‐
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/09/06/000386194_201209060
24506/Rendered/PDF/706400REPLACEM0Justice0Reform0Final.pdf,at1.
15Sen,A.,2000.‘WhatistheRoleofLegalandJudicialReformintheDevelopmentProcess?’In:WorldBank
LegalReviewVol2.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank
16Santos,A.,2006.‘TheWorldBank’suseofthe‘RuleofLaw’promiseineconomicdevelopment’.In:D.M.
TrubekandA.Santos,eds.,2006.Thenewlawandeconomicdevelopment:acriticalappraisal.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
17S/2004/616atpara6.
18See,e.g.,
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/democraticgovernance/focus_areas/focus_justic
e_law.html,http://www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/publications/democratic‐
governance/dg‐publications‐for‐website/access‐to‐justice‐practice‐note/Justice_PN_En.pdfand
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/results/english/Results‐RuleOfLaw_9‐25‐
12_E.pdf


8


 Asetofinstitutions.WhiletheUNSGarticulatesadefinitionofROLasaprinciple,
Arbour19mentionsaprevailinginstitutionalviewoftheruleoflawand
development:itconcernsstatebodiesthatdealwithsecurity,lawandorderand
theresolutionofdisputes‐thepolice,ministriesofjustice,prisons,courts,
prosecutors,etc.Others20takeasomewhatbroaderinstitutionalview:thetask
ofdevelopmentistogetrightthestateandnon‐stateinstitutionsandrulesthat
regulateeconomicandsocialactivity.Clark21adoptsaprincipledinstitutionalist
view,beginningwiththeprinciplesunderpinningUNDP’sapproachthenshifting
focusdowntothenationalinstitutionswhichexpressorimpedethese
principles,discussingthejudiciary,thepolice,securityforces,andparliaments

 Internationalnormsandstandards:stateshavecommittedtointernational
normsandstandards,includingtotheprinciplesoftheruleoflawitself(see
sectiononinternationalcommitmentsbelow).Duringthe2012UNGeneral
AssemblyHighLevelMeetingontheRuleofLaw,MemberStatesrecognizedthat
“therearecommonfeaturesfoundedoninternationalnormsandstandards
whicharereflectedinabroaddiversityofnationalexperiencesintheareaofthe
ruleoflaw.”22

19LouiseArbour,“TheRuleofLaw”,NewYorkTimes,September26,2012,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/27/opinion/UN‐general‐assembly‐on‐the‐rule‐of‐law.html;Louise
Arbour,StatementtotheHigh‐levelmeetingofthe67thSessionoftheGeneralAssemblyontheRuleofLaw,
24September2012,athttp://unrol.org/files/Statement_President_CEO‐and‐ICG.pdf
20North,D.,(1990)Institutions,InstitutionalChangeandPerformance.CambridgeUniversityPress;North,
D.,Wallis,J.andWeingast,B.(2009)ViolenceandSocialOrders:AConceptualFrameworkforInterpreting
RecordedHumanHistory.CambridgeUniversityPress.
21HelenClark,‘RuleofLawandDevelopment:TimesofChallengeandOpportunity’,Inaugural
DistinguishedVisitorProgrammeSpeech,CollegeofLaw,QatarUniversity,6December2012,at
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/speeches/2012/12/06/helen‐clark‐rule‐of‐
law‐and‐development‐times‐of‐challenge‐and‐opportunity‐/;HelenClark,SpeechattheHigh‐levelmeeting
ofthe67thSessionoftheGeneralAssemblyontheRuleofLaw,24September2012,at
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/speeches/2012/09/24/helen‐clark‐67th‐
session‐of‐the‐un‐general‐assembly/;HelenClark,“DevelopmentinPractice:RuleofLaw,Transitional
Justice,andHumanRights”,2013HandsLecture,1May2013,at
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/speeches/2013/05/01/helen‐clark‐2013‐
hands‐lecture/.
22A/RES/67/1atpara9etseq
Internationalcommitmentstotheruleoflawasabasisfordevelopment

“Theadvancementoftheruleoflawatthenationalandinternationallevelsisessentialfor
sustainedandinclusiveeconomicgrowth,sustainabledevelopment,theeradicationofpovertyand
hungerandthefullrealizationofallhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms,includingtheright
todevelopment,allofwhichinturnreinforcetheruleoflaw”‐DeclarationoftheHigh‐Level
MeetingoftheGeneralAssemblyontheRuleofLawattheNationalandInternationalLevels,2012

“Democracy,goodgovernanceandtheruleoflaw,atthenationalandinternationallevels,aswell
asanenablingenvironment,areessentialforsustainabledevelopment,includingsustainedand
inclusiveeconomicgrowth,socialdevelopment,environmentalprotectionandtheeradicationof
povertyandhunger.”‐TheRio+20ConferenceonSustainableDevelopmentOutcomeDocument,
2012

“Theruleoflawisnotamereadornmenttodevelopment;itisavitalsourceofprogress.Itcreates
anenvironmentinwhichthefullspectrumofhumancreativitycanflourish,andprosperitycanbe
built.”–UNCommissiononLegalEmpowermentofthePoorFinalReport,2008.


9



Theruleoflawremainsamulti‐facetedconcept.Drawingfromalloftheabove,wecan
saythatinthecontextofthepost‐2015agenda,theruleoflawis(1)asystemofrules
andnormsthatisafeatureofsocialandpoliticallife;(2)asocialandpoliticalreality
thatexistsaccordingtodifferentvalues;and(3)aprocessandoutcomethatoperatesat
multiplelevelsandcutsacrosssectorsofdevelopment.Manyhavehighlightedthe
plethoraofdefinitions.23Wetreatitasan“essentially‐contestedconcept”:thatis,
incapableofbeingpinneddownintheabstract.24

Asaresult,wesuggestthatourunderstandingoftheruleoflawwithrespecttothepost‐
2015agendaberootedinthefunctionsandrolesitplaysinrelationtodevelopment,as
wellasthelessonslearnedfromthehistoryandevolutionofruleoflawreform.We
addresseachoftheseinthefollowingsections.

TheRelationshipbetweentheRuleofLawandDevelopment
Theliteraturepresentsvaryingviewsandevidenceofthedevelopmentfunctions
performedbytheruleoflaw,orthepathwaysthroughwhichtheruleoflawcontributes
todevelopment.AsUNDPAdministratorHelenClarkehasstated,thefocusof
developmentactorshasbeen“lessonsourcesofthelaw”and“moreonwhytheruleof
lawisessentialforachievinginclusiveandsustainabledevelopment.”25Inthissection
wedrawonpolicyunderstandingsofthesepathways–fromUNDPandelsewhere–and
outlinethevaryingstrandsoftheory,empiricalevidenceandlessonsfromexperience
thatunderpinthem.Wediscusswhatruleoflawisinrelationtoeconomicandsocial
developmentandgrowth,ratherthanasanindependentprinciple.Wenotethatideas
aboutthisrelationshiphaveevolvedandchangedovertime;severalarestillcontested
whileevidenceforothersisincreasinglyrobust.

Enablingeconomicdevelopment,througharangeoffactorssuchastheprotectionof
individualpropertyrights;guaranteeingfairandcrediblecontractenforcement;26
settingandenforcinglabourlaws;facilitatingmarketcreationandaccess,includingfor
thepoorandmarginalized27(forexample,protectingwomen’sinheritancerightsor
theirlegalcapabilitytoenterintocontracts).28

 Ingeneral,policyontheruleoflawaffectstherulesofthegamethatallow
peopletotransact.29Thereisstrongevidenceofacorrelationbetweenrobust
propertyrightsprotectionandlong‐runeconomicgrowth.30Ontheotherhand,
itisnotclearifpropertyrightsprotectionisanoutcomeofgrowthratherthan
23NotablyTamanaha,B.Z.,2004.Ontheruleoflaw:history,politics,theory.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
24GallieW.B.,1956.‘Essentiallycontestedconcepts’.ProceedingsoftheAristotelianSociety,56,pp.167‐98.;
Waldron,J.,2008.‘Theconceptandtheruleoflaw’.GeorgiaLawReview,43(1),pp.1‐61.
25HelenClark,‘RuleofLawandDevelopment:TimesofChallengeandOpportunity’,Inaugural
DistinguishedVisitorProgrammeSpeech,CollegeofLaw,QatarUniversity,6December2012,at
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/speeches/2012/12/06/helen‐clark‐rule‐of‐
law‐and‐development‐times‐of‐challenge‐and‐opportunity‐/;
26SeeHaggard,S.andTiede,L.(2011),“TheRuleofLawandEconomicGrowth:WhereareWe?”,39World
Development673foranoverviewoftheliterature.
27See,forexample,“businessrights”inCommissiononLegalEmpowermentofthePoor(2008).Makingthe
LawWorkForEveryone:Volume1.NewYork:UNDP.
28MaryHallward‐DriemeyerandTazeenHasan(2012).EmpoweringWomen:LegalRightsandEconomic
OpportunitiesinAfrica.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank.
29North1990;WorldBankJusticeAnnextoGovernanceandAnti‐CorruptionUpdate(2012)
30Seeforexample,KnackandKeefer1995,Scully1988,Acemogluetal2001,Acemogly


10

itscause.31Moreover,whilepropertyrightsareimportant,enforcementisa
criticalvariablethatisoftenoverlooked.32Debatesalsoclusteraroundthe
contentoftheregulation,thelevelofenforcementanditseffectsonpro‐poor
growth.33Asregardslaborlaws,theirframetherelationshipbetweenlaborand
economicdevelopment.Finally,theimpactoftheroleofmarketcreationand
accesshasconvincinglybeenasserted,buttheevidencebaseislimited.34

 Thereisconsiderableevidencefortherelationshipbetweenruleoflawand
economicdevelopment.Butelementsofthisrelationshipneedtobefurther
researched.Itisnotclear,forinstance,exactlywhyandhowmuchtheruleof
lawinfluenceseconomicgrowth.Forexample,somecountriesandsectorshave
grownasaresultofanindustrialpolicyoffavorabletreatmentforcertain
companies,whileothershavebenefitedfromequaltreatmentunderthelaw.35In
addition,whileliberalunderstandingsofpropertyrights,contractenforcement
andsoonhavetendedtobeassociatedwithgrowth,theyhavesignificant
distributionaleffects.Insomecases,effortstostrengthentheruleoflawcanbe
inequitableiftheyfocusonloweringtransactioncostsforelitesratherthan
facilitatingredistributiveactionorbroaderaccesstoopportunities.36

Citizenshipandsocialandeconomicjustice.Theelementsoftheruleoflawrelatedto
identity,legalrecognition,enablingparticipationandagency,andtheallocationand
enforcementofclaimsandrights–includingeconomicandsocialclaimsandrights–
havebeenlinkedtoequitablegrowth,equitabledeliveryofpublicservices,andthe
possibilityofmoreeffectiveredistribution.

 Senseestheruleoflawasbeginningwiththecapabilitiesofindividualsand
communitiestoparticipateindefiningwhatisjust.Developmentinterventions
havesoughttobuildthesecapabilities–oracitizen’sagencyandvoice–across
sectors.Thiscutsacrossalllevelsofalegalsystem,forexamplefromhigh‐level
31Haggard,S.,MacIntyre,A.andTiede,L.(2008),“TheRuleofLawandEconomicDevelopment”,11Annual
ReviewofPoliticalScience205;Haggard,S.andTiede,L.(2011),“TheRuleofLawandEconomicGrowth:
WhereareWe?”,39WorldDevelopment673
32Dam,K.W.,2006.Thelaw‐growthnexus:theruleoflawandeconomicdevelopment.Washington,DC:
BrookingsInstitutePress.
33SeeforexampleBotero,Juan,SimeonDjankov,RafaelLaPorta,FlorencioLopez‐de‐Silanes,andAndrei
Shleifer,2004.“TheRegulationofLabor”,QuarterlyJournalofEconomics119(4):1339‐82;Alvaro
Santos,LaborFlexibility,LegalReform,andEconomicDevelopment,50VirginiaJournalofInternationalLaw
43‐106(2009);Kennedy,David,2006.‘The‘RuleofLaw’,politicalchoicesanddevelopmentcommon
sense’.In:D.M.TrubekandA.Santos,eds.,2006.Thenewlawandeconomicdevelopment:acritical
appraisal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress;Faundez,Julio(2009).“EmpoweringWorkersinthe
InformalEconomy”,HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw,1:156–172;Maiti,D.,2009.‘Institutions,networks
andindustrialisation:fieldlevelevidenceoffragmentationandflexibilityfromIndia’,IPPGDiscussion
Paper,No.26.Manchester:IPPG.
34Stephens,M.(2009).“TheCommissiononLegalEmpowermentofthePoor:AnOpportunityMissed”,
HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw,1,132‐157;Mahdi,S.,2010.‘Theimpactofregulatoryandinstitutional
arrangementsonagriculturalmarketsandpoverty:acasestudyofTanzania’scoffeemarket’,IPPG
DiscussionPaper,No.40.Manchester:IPPG
35Amsden,A.H.,2001.Theriseoftherest:challengestotheWestfromlate‐industrializing
economies.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress;Pistor,K.andWellons,P.(1999),TheRoleofLawandLegal
InstitutionsinAsianEconomicDevelopment,1960‐1995.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;Trubek,D.M.,
2008.‘Developmentalstatesandthelegalorder:towardsanewpoliticaleconomyofdevelopmentandlaw’,
UniversityofWisconsinLegalStudiesResearchPaper,No.1075;Trubek,D.M.,2009.‘Thepoliticaleconomy
oftheruleoflaw:thechallengeofthenewdevelopmentalstate’.HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw,1(1),
pp.28‐32.
36Son,HyunandKakwani,Nanak(2007)‘Globalestimatesofpro‐poorgrowth’WorldDevelopment36(6):
1048‐1066;Holston,J.,1991.‘Themisruleoflaw:landandusurpationinBrazil.’ComparativeStudiesin
SocietyandHistory,33(4),pp.695‐725;Scott,J.C.,2009.TheArtofNotBeingGoverned:AnAnarchistHistory
ofUplandSoutheastAsia.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress.


11

rules(suchasconstitutions)thatcanfacilitaterecognitionandparticipation,to
nationalandlocaladministrativelawregulatingthedeliveryofbasicservices,to
customarylawgoverningtheallocationofnaturalresourcerights.



 Accesstojusticeandlegalempowermentinitiativeshaveproventobevaluable
waystodothis.Legalempowermentblendscommunityempowermentand
mobilizationwithlegalcapacitybuildingandadvocacytobuildthevoiceand
politicalimpactofthepoorandmarginalized.Accesstolegalinformationandto
institutionsoftheruleoflaw(looselydefined)mayenablethepoortotake
advantageofeconomicopportunitiesandresistexploitation,particularlyby
makinglocalinstitutions(suchascustomarycourtsorlocalmagistratescourts)
accessible.37

 Theevidencethatexistsbetweenspecificlegalempowermentinitiativesand
broadersocialandeconomicoutcomes–predominantlyaseriesofdetailedcase
studiesbutlittlecomparativework‐ismixed.Wherelegalempowerment
approacheshavebeencorrelatedwithmoreequitabledevelopmentoutcomes,it
isclearthatsocialmobilizationisanimportantfactorifthisapproachisto
work.38AcontrolledstudyinBangladeshfoundthattheincidenceofillegal
dowrypaymentsdroppedincomparisontothecontrolgroupfollowingNGO‐led
legaleducationandmobilizationinterventions.39Yetastudyofprimary
educationinIndiafoundthatinformingthecommunityoftheirrightstopushfor
changespurredlittlecommunityactivityandnoimprovementineducation
outcomes.40Bycontrast,thepreliminaryresultsfromalandtitlingrandomized
controltrialindicatethatanempowermentapproachwasmoreeffectivethan
theprovisionofcourtadvocacyservicesatpromotingeffectiveconversations
amongcommunitiesaboutlandrights,spurringpeacefulintra‐community
conflictresolutionoverlandandincreasingcommunityownershipofland
reforms.41

 Studiesemphasizethelong,historicalsociopoliticalprocessesthathavecometo
definecitizenshipandidentity;theirimpactondistributionofrights,resources
37Golub,S.,2010.‘Whatislegalempowerment?:anintroduction’,inGolub,S.(ed.),Legalempowerment:
practitioners'perspectives.Rome:InternationalDevelopmentLawOrganisation.
38Gauri,V.andBrinks,D.eds.,2008.Courtingsocialjustice:judicialenforcementofsocialandeconomic
rightsinthedevelopingworld.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress;
39AsianDevelopmentBank,(2001),“LegalEmpowerment:AdvancingGoodGovernanceandPoverty
Reduction”,Appendix2,at135‐49.
40Banerjee,A.,R.Banerji,E.Duflo,R.GlennersterandS.Khemani(2010)"PitfallsofParticipatoryPrograms:
EvidencefromaRandomizedEvaluationinEducationinIndia."AmericanEconomicJournal:Economic
Policy,2(1):1‐30
41Knight,R.etal(2012),ProtectingCommunityLandsandResources:EvidencefromLiberia,Mozambique
andUganda.RomeandWashington,D.C.:IDLOandNamati.
Theruleo
f
law,equityandinclusion

Legalinstitutionssuchascourtscanplayanimportantroleindefiningidentityandthereby
guaranteeingequitableaccesstoeconomicandsocialopportunities.InKaranjav.Karanja
(1976),theHighCourtofKenyasetaprecedentbyrejectingtheargumentthatunderKikuyu
customarylaw,marriedwomendonotownpropertybecausetheyhavenoindependentlegal
identity.Thecourtawardedthewomanathirdofthecouple’spropertyindivorceproceedings.
Source:MaryHallward‐DriemeyerandTazeenHasan(2012).EmpoweringWomen:LegalRights
andEconomicOpportunitiesinAfrica.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank.


12

andservices;andthesignificantvariationinthepossibilitiesofmobilizationand
collectiveactionthataresoimportanttothisapproach.42

Preventing,mitigatingandpunishingconflict,crimeandviolence(includinglawand
order).Thelinkbetweensecurity,stabilityanddevelopmenthasbeenclearly
established,ashasthenegativeimpactoftheabsenceofruleoflawongrowth.43Civil
warsareparticularlydevastatingtodevelopment,andotherformsofwidespreadcrime
andviolencediverttheprovisionofpublicgoods,destroyprivatepropertyand
infrastructure,andleadtoextortion,monopolyandotherharmfulpractices.44

 Inadditiontopreventingeconomicdevelopment,violenceandcrimehavea
directimpactonsocialdevelopmentandwellbeingofcitizens.45Thisisoften
contrastedintheliteraturewiththeaspectsoftheruleoflawwidelyassociated
withtheabilityofstatestoensurethehumansecurityoftheircitizens,including
bothphysicalsafetyandfulfillmentofbasicneeds.Recentanalysissuggeststhat
ofthevariousdimensionsoftheruleoflaw,thebasiccontrolofviolencehasthe
strongestcorrelationtoeconomicgrowthindevelopingcountries.46

 Strengtheningcriminaljusticeinstitutionstendstobeseenasanimportantstep
towardimprovingsecurityandenablingvariousformsofdevelopment,
especiallyintheaftermathofviolenceconflict.Nevertheless,studieshave
cautionedagainstanoveremphasisonsecurity(“securitization”)tothe
detrimentofotherdimensionsoftheruleoflaw.47

42See,forasummary,Marc,A.etal(2012)SocietalDynamicsandFragility:EngagingSocietiesinResponding
toFragileSituations.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank;Gauri,V.,Woolcock,M.andDesai,D.(2013)
‘IntersubjectiveMeaningandCollectiveActioninDevelopingSocieties:Theory,EvidenceandPolicy
Implications',48JournalofDevelopmentStudies(forthcoming).
43Forasummaryoftheevidence,seeTheWorldBank(2011)WorldDevelopmentReport:Conflict,Security
andDevelopment.Washington,DC:TheWorldBank.
44CollierP.(1999).‘Ontheeconomicconsequencesofcivilwar’,OxfordEconomicPapers51:168–83;Buvinc,
M.,&Morrison,A.(1999).Violenceasanobstacleindevelopment.Washington,DC:InterAmerican
DevelopmentBank;Ayres,R.(1998).CrimeandviolenceasdevelopmentissuesinLatinAmericaandthe
Caribbean.Washington,DC:WorldBank.
45NarayanD,PatelR,SchafftK,RademacherA,Koch‐SchulteS.2000.VoicesofthePoor.New
York:OxfordUniversityPress
46Haggard,S.andTiede,L.(2011),“TheRuleofLawandEconomicGrowth:WhereareWe?”,39World
Development673
47See,forasummary,Harborne,B.andSage,C.,(2010),“SecurityandJusticeOverview”,BackgroundPaper
preparedfortheWorldDevelopmentReport2011,at
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTJUSFORPOOR/Resources/WDR_Background_Paper_Harborne_Sage
.pdf.See,foratrenchantexampleofthiscritique,Duffield,M.(2002)“Socialreconstructionandthe
radicalizationofdevelopment:aidasarelationofgloballiberalgovernance”,33DevelopmentandChange
1049


13



 Inthecontextofcivilconflict,TransitionalJusticemechanisms–whichdealwith
thelegacyofwarcrimesandabusesofauthoritybythepriorregime–canaffect
thetransitiontogreaterstabilityanddevelopment.48Somedevelopment‐
relevantfunctionsoftransitionaljusticeare(1)recognizingtherightsofvictims,
(2)buildingconfidencethatauthoritiesintendtobreakwiththepast,and(3)re‐
establishingstate‐societyrelationships.49Howevertheevidencefortheimpact
oftransitionaljusticeandothereffortstostrengthencriminaljusticeinstitutions
intheaftermathofwarishighlylimitedandverymixed.50Someeffortshave
beencriticizedforfocusingtoomuchonhigh‐levelperpetratorsandignoringthe
needsofvictimsorofthemajorityofcitizens(suchassocio‐economic
grievances).51Othershavefocusedonre‐buildingcommunityleveltrust,and
addressingthesocialandeconomicneedsofcitizenswhoseliveshavebeen
disruptedbyconflict.

Strengtheningaccountabilityandchecksonpower,andreducingcorruption.Theruleof
lawentailspublicandprivateaccountabilityintheexerciseofpower,andconsistent
andfairregulationanddisputeresolution,innationalandlocalcontexts.52

 Dependingonacountry’sconstitutionalandinstitutionalsetting,institutions
thatenforceandadjudicatethelaw,suchasjudiciariesandregulatoryagencies,
maybeinapositiontocheckthearbitraryactionofgovernmenttovarying
degrees.Thisfunctionoftheruleoflawshapesthemeaningofandpossibilities
forcorruption,nepotismandrent‐seeking,affectingcostsforeconomicactors53
andthenatureoflongrungrowth.Thepresenceofinstitutionalchecksalso
affectsthedistributionofrentsandshapestheprovisionofpublicservicesand
48VinjamuriL,SnyderJ.2004.‘Advocacyandscholarshipinthestudyofinternationalwarcrimestribunals
andtransitionaljustice.’AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience7:345–62;
49Teitel,Ruti.2002.TransitionalJustice.OxfordUniversityPress;Mani,Rama.2002.BeyondRetribution:
SeekingJusticeintheShadowofWar.Cambridge:PolityPress;WorldBank(2011),WorldDevelopment
Report2011:Conflict,SecurityandDevelopment.Washington,DC:WorldBank;UNDP(2011),
StrengtheningtheRuleofLawinCrisis‐affectedandFragileSituations.NewYork:UNDP,at18
50Tiede,LydiaandStephenHaggard.2012.“TheRevivaloftheRuleofLawintheWakeofCivilWar,”4
HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw120.Call,C(2007),“Conclusion”inCall,C.(ed.)ConstructingJusticeand
SecurityAfterWar.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesInstituteofPeacePress.
51Miller,Z.(2008),“EffectsofInvisibility:InSearchofthe‘Economic’inTransitionalJustice”,2
InternationalJournalofTransitionalJustice266.
52O’Donnell,GuillermoA.2004.“WhytheRuleofLawMatters,”JournalofDemocracy15(4);WeingastB.
1997.;Thepoliticalfoundationsofdemocracyandtheruleoflaw’.Am.Polit.Sci.Rev.91(2):245–63;UNDP
(2011),StrengtheningtheRuleofLawinCrisis‐affectedandFragileSituations.NewYork:UNDP,at8,11.
53Hallward‐Driemeier,M.,Khun‐Jush,G.andPritchett,L.,2010.“DealsversusRules:PolicyImplementation
UncertaintyandWhyFirmsHateIt”,NBERWorkingPaperNo.16001
Theruleoflawandconflict,crimeandviolence

Inperceptionsurveysofsixconflict‐affectedcountriesandterritories,injustice,
inequalityandcorruptionwerecitedastheleadingdriversofviolence.InCentral
America,crimeandviolencewereconsistentlycitedasthetopfiveconstraintsto
productivityandgrowth.Accordingtolocalbusinessowners,thehighcostofcrime
actsasadragoncompetitiveness,reducesprofitmargins,andcanmakethe
differenceinwhetheracompanysurvivesorfails.Ina2008surveyofallCentral
Americancountries,71%oftheadultpopulationsaidtheyviewcrimeasamajor
threattofuturewell‐being,andmorethan50%believedhighcrimerateswould
justifyamilitarycoup.Source:WorldBank(2011),WorldDevelopmentReport2011:
Conflict,SecurityandDevelopment.Washington,DC:WorldBank


14

thequalityofpublicinfrastructure.54Thepresenceofsuchinstitutionshasbeen
correlatedwithinvestmentandeconomicgrowth,55andmoregenerallywith
morerobusteconomicactivityandhighertaxrevenues.56

 Howeversomestudieshavedistinguishedbetweendefactoanddejurechecks
onexecutivepower.57Moreover,thedirectionofcausationiscontested:while
rulesandinstitutionsmatter,wheretheycomefromandthereasonsforwhich
peoplefollowthemmayberootedinotherfactorsthatneedtobebetter
understood,suchasthenatureofpoliticalcoalitionsandsourcesofauthority.In
otherwords,legalinstitutionsmaybetheresult,ratherthanthecause,ofagreed
checksonpower.58

Enhancingthefairallocationofservicesbyprovidingcrediblemechanismsforholding
publicandprivateactorsaccountableandredressinggrievances.

 Assuch,theruleoflawcutsacrossdevelopmentendeavours:roadbuildingor
theprovisionofprimaryhealthcareraisesissuesofthereallocationofrights,
privileges,dutiesandpowers.Alegalsystemframesthesereallocations,
adjudgestheirlegitimacy,enforcesthem,anddealswiththegrievancesofthose
wholoseout.59ItseemsclearfromtheevidencethatROLisimportanttoservice
delivery.



 Furthermore,arangeofactorsbeyondthecourtssupportservicedelivery
throughlegalorquasi‐legalmeans.InIndia,aWorldBankhealthproject
developedacomplaintshandlingmechanismsensitivetotheneedsofa
54Bhagwati,J.(1982).‘Directlyunproductiveprofit‐seeking(DUP)activities’.JournalofPoliticalEconomy,
90(51),988;PoliMauroP.1998.‘Corruptionandthecompositionofgovernment’.J.PublicEcon.
68(88):263;TanziV,andDavoodiH.1997.‘Corruption,publicinvestmentandgrowth’.IMFWorkingPaper
SeriesWP/97/139.
55Henisz,W.J.(2000).;Theinstitutionalenvironmentforeconomicgrowth’.EconomicPolitics,12(1),1;
Helmke,G.,&Rosenbluth,R.(2009).“Regimesandtheruleoflaw:Judicialindependenceincomparative
perspective”.AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience,12,345
56Olson,M.(1993).‘Dictatorship,democracyanddevelopment’,AmericanPoliticalScienceReview,87,567;
McGuire,M.,&Olson,M.(1996).‘Theeconomicsofautocracyandmajorityrule:Theinvisiblehandandthe
useofforce’.JournalofEconomicLiterature,34,72;Weingast,B.(1997),‘Thepoliticalfoundationsof
democracyandtheruleoflaw’,AmericanPoliticalScienceReview,91(2),245.
57Feld,L.,&Voigt,S.(2003).‘Economicgrowthandjudicialindependence:Cross‐countryevidenceusinga
newsetofindicators’,EuropeanJournalofPoliticalEconomy,19(3),497
58Upham,F.(2006).‘Mythmakingintherule‐of‐laworthodoxy’,inCarothers,T.(ed.),Promotingtheruleof
lawabroad:insearchofknowledge.Washington,DC.:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace;
Stasavage,D.(2002).Privateinvestmentandpoliticalinstitutions.EconomicsandPolitics,14,41
59Sage,C.,Menzies,N.andWoolcock,M.,2009.‘Takingtheruleofthegameseriously:mainstreamingjustice
indevelopmentTheWorldBank’sJusticeforthePoorProgram’.In:IDLOLegalEmpowermentworking
papers,No.5.Rome:InternationalDevelopmentLawOrganization;Sandel,M.,2007.Justice:AReader.
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Theruleoflawandequitableservicedeliver
y

InBraziltherehavebeenover100,000courtcasesinthelastdecadethathave
enforcedtherightsofindividualsandgroupstoreceivemedicaltreatment.
Source:VarunGauri(2011),“RedressingGrievancesandComplaintsRegardingBasic
ServiceDelivery”,WorldBankPolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeries5699


15

disadvantagedtribalcommunitybyplacingstaffmembersfromalocaltribal
NGOinhealthcenterstoassistinregisteringcomplaintsandsuggestions.60

Protectingtheenvironmentandnaturalresources.Theruleoflawisimportanttoany
notionofsustainabledevelopment:61itenablesthesustainableuseoftheenvironment
byprotectingenvironmentalrightsinconstitutionsandlegislation;enforcing
regulations;requiringadministrativeprotectionssuchasenvironmentalimpact
assessments;anddefiningrulesfornaturalresourceexploitationandgovernance.

 Therightsofindigenouspeoplestomanageandshareinthebenefitsoftheir
landandnaturalresourcesareafeatureoftheinternationallegalregimeandin
somecountriesareincorporatedintonationallawsandpolicieswiththe
establishmentofprotectedareas.62

 Theliteratureandevidenceonnaturalresourcesandruleoflawinstitutionsis
notveryextensive63:resourcesustainabilityhasmainlybeenunderstoodin
termsofeconomicpolicy.64

 Whiletheevidencebaseislimited,significanttheoreticalworkandseveralcase
studiesasserttheimportanceofthisrelationshipinlegalterms65:forexample,
since1962morethan90countrieshaveincludedarighttoahealthy
environmentintheirnationalconstitution.66Somecountrieshavedeveloped
thisfurther,movingfromconstitutionalprovisionstosubsidiarylegislationand
regulatoryorlocalgovernmentaction.Inthisview,theruleoflawbecomes
centraltoprotectingnaturalresources,tocurbingillegalextraction,andto
enforcingthefairallocationanddistributionofresourcesforsustainable
development.

60DenaRingold,AlakaHolla,MargaretKoziol,SanthoshSrinivasan.2011.CitizensandServiceDelivery:
AssessingtheUseofSocialAccountabilityApproachesinHumanDevelopment.Washington,D.C.:World
Bank
61InternationalIDEAandIDLO(2012),“Informaldiscussiononlinkagesbetweentheruleoflaw,democracy
andsustainabledevelopment”,ConceptNote,athttp://www.idea.int/un/upload/Concept‐Note‐IDEA‐IDLO‐
Italy‐rev‐5‐0‐Final.pdf
62Anaya,S.andWilliamsJr.,R.2001.“TheProtectionofIndigenousPeoples’RightsoverLandsandNatural
ResourcesUnderTheInter‐AmericanHumanRightsSystem.”14HarvardHumanRightsJournal33;
Xanthaki,A.2003.“LandRightsofIndigenousPeoplesinSouth‐EastAsia.”4MelbourneJournalof
InternationalLaw467.
63Norman,C.,2009.“RuleofLawandtheResourceCurse:AbundanceVersusIntensity”,Environmentaland
ResourceEconomics,43(2),pp.183‐207.
64CollierP(2008),TheBottomBillion:WhythePoorestCountriesareFailingandWhatCanBeDoneAboutIt.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;WorldBank(2010),TheChangingWealthofNations:Measuring
SustainableDevelopmentintheNewMillennium.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank.Desai,D.andJarvis,M.
(2012),‘GovernanceandAccountabilityinExtractiveIndustries:TheoryandPracticeattheWorldBank’,30
JournalofEnergyandNaturalResourcesLaw,101attemptstotellaruleoflawandgovernancestory.
65Boyle,A.andFreestone,D(eds.)(2001),InternationalLawandSustainableDevelopment.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress;Dasgupta,S.,Mody,A.,Roy,S.andWheeler,D.(2001)
“EnvironmentalRegulationandDevelopment:ACross‐countryEmpiricalAnalysis”,29OxfordDevelopment
Studies173;Lehtonen,M.2004.“Theenvironmental–socialinterfaceofsustainabledevelopment:
capabilities,socialcapital,institutions”,49EcologicalEconomics,199.
66Law,DandVersteegM(2012),“TheDecliningInfluenceoftheUnitedStatesConstitution”,87NewYork
UniversityLawReview762,773‐5


16



TherelationshipsbetweenROLanddevelopmentaremorecomplexandmulti‐dimensional
thananyofthesefunctionsalonesuggest.ROLsitsincomplexterrainofpoliticaland
socialchangealliedtogovernancereform,67requiringsomerethinkingofwhattherule
oflawisandwhatitissupposedtodofordevelopment.

 Therelationshipbetweenruleoflawanddevelopmentiscomplex,comprises
multipledimensionsandfunctions,andlikelygoesthroughmultiplepathwaysover
longperiodsoftime.Asaresult,contextmattersimmensely.

 Traditionalwaysofbuildingtheruleoflaw(i.e.afocusonstrengtheningcertain
stateinstitutionswithexplicitlyjudicialorlegalfunctions)areofvarying
effectivenesswhenitcomestoaffectingROL’sdevelopmentfunctions.Effortsthat
focussolelyontheseinstitutionsmayonlyhavealimitedimpactonequityandpro‐
poorgrowth.AlthoughseveralstudieshavefoundstrongcorrelationbetweenROL
andoverallgrowth,oneanalysisfoundnoassociationbetweenROL(basedonthe
WorldBankgovernanceindicators)andmoreequitableincomedistribution.68This
suggestsmoreemphasisneedstobepaidtocitizenship,socialandeconomicjustice,
andthedeliveryofbasicserviceswhenpromotingtheruleoflaw.

 ROLmayhavebroadereffectsondevelopmentthanarecurrentlyunderstood,as
ROL‐relatedreformshavesignificantpoliticalandsocialconsequences.Forexample,
transforminglandrightsprotectionstoformalizeindividualtitlemightinvolvea
changeinsocialunderstandingsof“community”property,whichcouldeither
excludeorexpandwomen’sexistingusufructrights.69Ingeneral,“buy‐in”toreforms
willinpartrestontheruleoflawasaframeworkfortheexerciseofpower,politics
andthuscollectiveactionandcoalition‐building.70

 ROLreformsmustengagewiththewholerangeofpoliticalandsocialrulesand
normsthatconstituteasociety,includinginformallegalsystemsthatarerelevantto
billionsofcitizens.Astate‐centricmindsetoftenpromptsdonorstofocusonformal
67Pistor,K.andWellons,P.(1999),TheRoleofLawandLegalInstitutionsinAsianEconomicDevelopment,
1960‐1995.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;Jayasuriya,K.(ed.)(1999),Law,Capitalism,andPowerin
Asia:TheRuleofLawandLegalInstitutions.NewYork:Routledge;Khan,M.(2008)'Governanceand
Development:ThePerspectiveofGrowth‐EnhancingGovernance',inODI,DiversityandComplementarityin
DevelopmentAid:EastAsianLessonsforAfricanGrowth.Tokyo:GRIPSDevelopmentForum/National
GraduateInstituteforPolicyStudies,pp.107‐152.
68Son,HyunandKakwani,Nanak(2007)‘Globalestimatesofpro‐poorgrowth’WorldDevelopment36(6):
1048‐1066.
69WorldBank(2010),WanLis,FulapStori:LeasingonEpiIsland,Vanuatu.Washington,D.C.:WorldBank
70McGee,R.andJ.Gaventa(2011)ShiftingPower?AssessingtheImpactofTransparencyandAccountability,
IDSWorkingPaper383.Brighton:InstituteofDevelopmentStudies;Wild,L.andBergh,G.(2012)“The
relationshipbetweendemocraticgovernanceandMDGachievement”,OverseasDevelopmentInstitute(on
filewithauthors).
Theruleoflawandenvironmentalprotection

InthePhilippines,thelegislature–withUNDPsupport‐producedspecificrulesof
procedureforenvironmentalcases“withaviewtoprotectingandadvancingthe
constitutionalrightofthepeopletohealthandtoabalancedandhealthful
ecology,andprovidingasimplified,speedy,andinexpensiveprocedureforthe
enforcementofenvironmentalrightsunderPhilippineslaw.”Source:UNDP,at
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/democraticgovernance/pr
o
j
ects
_
and
_
initiatives/environmenta
l
-
j
ustice-
p
hili
pp
ines/


17

systems.71However,itisunhelpfultothinkoflegalsystemsaseither“state”or“non‐
state”.Differentsystemsoperatewiththebackingofarangeofactors:commercial
arbitrationmaybestate‐enforced,whilecustomaryorreligiousleadersmayalsobe
localgovernmentofficials.72Thesesystemsarenotinherentlydeficient:theydonot
alwaysneedtoberemediedorputunderdirectstatecontrol.Indeed,formalcourt
supervisionofcustomarydecisionsmayunderminethelegitimacyofcustomary
courts.73Somemayraisehumanrightsorpoliticallegitimacyconcerns,buttheymay
alsoprovideaformof‘goodenough’governanceandasafespacefordispute
resolution,74especiallywhenbolsteredbythemobilizationofexistingsocialgroups
toapplysocialpressureforthedesiredresults.75

Asaresultofthiscomplexity,theruleoflawentailsnumeroustrade‐offs,tensionsand
choicesforpolicymakers:Inorderforapolicymakertotakeacomprehensiveviewon
ROLinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment,heorshemustthinkaboutthespecific
aspectsofdevelopmenttobeachievedinthelightofseveralkeychoices,trade‐offsand
tensions.Inthecontextoflandtitling,forexample,theremaybecompromisesbetween
generalizedorcontext‐specificrulesandunderstandingsofproperty,ownershipand
inheritance,suchasindividualorcommunitytitle;betweenactors,suchaswhetherto
focusonproblemsasunderstoodbythestate,localcommunities,orindividuals;and
betweeninstitutions,suchashowtoengagewithnon‐stateorinformalinstitutionslike
customarytitletoland.Noonepolicyoptionisexantethebest:forexample,theentire
universeofstateandnon‐stateinstitutionscanberelevanttoordistantfrompeople’s
needs,trustedorillegitimate,costlyorcheap.

71Desai,D.,Isser,D.andWoolcock,M.(2012),‘RethinkingJusticeReforminFragileandConflict‐Affected
States:LessonsforEnhancingtheCapacityofDevelopmentAgencies’,4HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw54;
Baker,B.(2010).“Linkingstateandnon‐statesecurityandjustice.”DevelopmentPolicyReview,28(5),597;
Baker,B.&Scheye,E.(2009).“AccesstoJusticeinaPost‐conflictState:DonorsupportedMultidimensional
PeacekeepinginSouthernSudan.”InternationalPeacekeeping16(2),171.
72Humphreys,S.,2011.Theatreoftheruleoflaw:transnationallegalinterventionintheoryandpractice.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress;Tamanaha,B.Z.,2000.‘Anon‐essentialistversionoflegal
pluralism’.JournalofLawandSociety,27(2),pp.296‐321;Tamanaha,B.Z.,2008.‘Understandinglegal
pluralism:pasttopresent,localtoglobal’.SydneyLawReview,30,pp.375‐411.
73Isser,D.,2012.“Theproblemwithproblematizinglegalpluralism:lessonsfromthefield”,inTamanaha,
B.,Sage,C.andWoolcock,M.(eds.),LegalPluralismandDevelopment:ScholarsandPractitionersinDialogue.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress;Sage,C.andWoolcock,M.,2012.“Introduction:LegalPluralism
andDevelopmentPolicy‐ScholarsandPractitionersinDialogue”,inTamanaha,B.,Sage,C.andWoolcock,
M.(eds.),LegalPluralismandDevelopment:ScholarsandPractitionersinDialogue.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
74Adler,D.andWoolcock,M.,2010.‘Justicewithouttheruleoflaw?Thechallengeofrights‐basedindustrial
relationsincontemporaryCambodia’.In:C.FenwickandT.Novitz,Humanrightsatwork:perspectiveson
lawandregulation.Oxford:HartPublishing
75Khan,M(2009)'Is"GoodGovernance"anAppropriateModelforGovernanceReforms?TheRelevanceof
EastAsiaforDevelopingMuslimCountries’,in:Springborg,Robert,(ed.),DevelopmentModelsinMuslim
Contexts:Chinese,"Islamic"andNeo‐LiberalAlternatives.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress;Khan,
M.(2008)'GovernanceandDevelopment:ThePerspectiveofGrowth‐EnhancingGovernance',in
ODI,DiversityandComplementarityinDevelopmentAid:EastAsianLessonsforAfricanGrowth.Tokyo:GRIPS
DevelopmentForum/NationalGraduateInstituteforPolicyStudies,pp.107‐152.
Ruleoflawtrade‐off
s

“Thislandownershipistheworstpossiblethingforlivestockhusbandry.Croplandcanbe
privatizedandprotected,OK.Livestockhusbandrymustcertainlynotbesettled.Theclimactic
conditionsareextremelydifficultandchangeablehere.Therefore,pasturemustbeshared
amongherdersandusedincommon…itmustbeleftasitisandhasbeenforhundredsof
years.”‐Mongolianpastoralist.
Source:MariaFernandez‐GimenezandBatjavBatbuyan(2004),“LawandDisorder:Local
ImplementationofMongolia’sLandLaw”,35DevelopmentandChange141.


18


Understandingthevariouspathwaysthroughwhichtheruleoflawaffectsdevelopment
canenablemoreeffectiveruleoflawprogramming.Itcanbroadenconsensusaroundthe
functionswheretheevidenceisstronger;highlightthosewheremoreexplorationand
researchareneeded;andultimatelyhelptoclarifytrade‐offsandinformpolicychoices
thatcanimprovedevelopmentoutcomes.
TheEvolutionofRuleofLawReform
Welooktotheevolutionofpolicyandthelessonslearnedoverseveraldecadesof
developmentassistancetounderstandhoweffortstopromotetheruleoflawasabasis
fordevelopmenthavefaredinpractice.Themeaningoftheruleoflaw,itsrelationship
todevelopment,andwhatruleoflawreformlookslikehaveallbeenquestionsdebated
bypolicymakersandacademicsatleastsincethe1960s.Thisquickhistoricalsketch
situatesthediscussionsaboveinthecontextofruleoflawanddevelopmentpolicy.
Someideasfromeachoftheperiodsbelowremainrelevanttoday.

 Earlydevelopmentco‐operation(1960sto1974):drivenbyforeignaidagencies
andAmericanlegalacademics.AttemptedtorecreateAmericanlegaleducation
(andsomeinstitutionalreform)indevelopingcountriestotransmitliberal
valuestoanewgenerationoflegalelites,whowouldthengoontomakelawand
socialpolicy.Criticisedasbeingdecontextualizedandunawareofthepolitical
andinstitutionalrealityoftherecipientcountries.76

 Scepticism(1974–1990):Retreatfrommuchlawandlegalinstitutionalreform
workwiththeexceptionoftheUNagencies.Asderegulationandstructural
adjustmentbecameprimarydevelopmenttools,institutionsandgovernance
werenotprioritized(althoughformercolonialpowerscontinuedtoengagewith
thelegalsystemsofformercolonies,forexamplebybuildinglawschoolsand
strengtheninglegaleducation77).

 Revival(1990‐1999):
o Emergenceofinstitutionsasobjectsofreformandtheideathatthe
“rulesofthegame”bywhichpeopleledtheireconomicandsociallives
matteredtodevelopment.Incorporationoflegalreformintomarket‐
enablingpolicyprescriptions(forexample,regulationandproperty
rightsprotection):lawwasnolongersimplyatooltoconstrainstate
powerbutwasapolicytooltosupporteconomicexchange.Eventually
thistypeofruleoflawreformdistilledintostrengtheningcriminal
justice,judicialpredictability,enforceabilityofcontracts,andsecurityof
propertyasenablersofeconomicdevelopment.Ittendedtowardafocus
ontransplantingparticularbestpracticesregardinglawand
organizationsaspartofreformpackages.
o Simultaneously,theemergenceofformercommuniststatesresultedina
politicalconceptionoftheruleoflaw,closelylinkedtodemocratization.
Theruleoflawwasaframeworkfortheexerciseofstatepowerand
representedapoliticalculture;however,itwasgenerallyjudgedagainst
76Trubek,DavidM.andMarcGalanter.1974.“ScholarsinSelf‐Estrangements:SomeReflectionsonthe
CrisisinLawandDevelopmentStudiesintheUnitedStates,”4WisconsinLawReview1062;Gardner,J.
(1980),LegalImperialism:AmericanLawyersandForeignAidinLatinAmerica.Madison,WI:Universityof
WisconsinPress.
77McAuslan,Patrick(2004),"IntheBeginningwastheLaw…anIntellectualOdyssey",CornellLawSchool
EastAsianLawandCultureSeries.


19

aWesternliberalideal‐type.78Donorssupportedconstitutionalreform;
lawreform;judicialcapacity‐building;courtadministrationandcase
managementreform;andtheuseoflawtosupporttransition(for
exampleprivatizationandmarketliberalization).
o Theexpansionofpeacekeepingandpeacebuildingmissionsledtoa
distinctapproachinconflict‐affectedcountries,withanemphasison
establishingorderandsecurity,rebuildingandrestructuringjustice
systeminstitutions,mitigatingthesourcesofconflictthroughimproved
disputeresolution,andpromotingaccountabilityforpastatrocities
throughtransitionaljustice.79Workinconflict‐affectedcountries
focusedprimarilyoncriminaljustice,includingpolice,prosecutors,
courtsandcorrectionsasabasisforsecurityandpeacebuilding,and
“ruleoflaw”workbecamesynonymouswithrebuildingand
restructuringtheseinstitutions.Closelyrelatedto“ruleoflaw”work
wastheemergenceofsecuritysectorreform,whichaimedtoinfuse
assistancetomilitary,policeandothersecurityforceswithattentionto
principlesofgoodgovernanceandhumanrights.

 Governanceandinstitutions,rightsandjustice(1999‐):Lawhasbecome
understoodnotjustinstrumentaltomarketfunctioningortransition,butasan
endofdevelopmentitself.“Institutionsrule”80–ortheideathatifyougetthe
institutionsrightandeverythingelsewillfollow–meansthatgettingtheruleof
law“right”(peranundefinedexternalstandard)hasbecomeadonorgoal.
Simultaneously,Sen’sideaof“developmentasfreedom”81providedthisexternal
standard–ofhumanrightsnormsandclaims–againstwhichtogetthe
institutionsright.

 Context,complexityandpluralism(2002‐):atthesametime,workon
institutions(whichfromthestartemphasisedtheirhistoricalandsocial
contingency),plusexperiencefrompreviousphasesofruleoflawreform,has
highlightedtheimportanceofcontextandcomplexity.Legalanthropologistsand
otherswhohadengagedfordecadeswithnewornon‐Westernstatesused
lessonsabouttheimportanceofcontext,82thenatureofpoliticalandcultural
path‐dependencies83andthecomplexitiesofnon‐statesystemsofjusticeto
criticizeone‐size‐fits‐allapproaches.Civilsocietygroupsandothernon‐state
actorshaveemergedasgovernanceprovidersincertainareas.84Asaresult,
78Carothers,T.2006.“TheRuleofLawRevival”,inCarothers,T.ed.,Promotingtheruleoflawabroad:In
searchofknowledge.Washington,DC.:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.
79Mani,Rama.2002.BeyondRetribution:SeekingJusticeintheShadowofWar,Cambridge:PolityPress;
Stromseth,Jane,DavidWippmanandRosaBrooks.2006.CanMightMakeRights:BuildingtheRuleofLaw
AfterMilitaryInterventions.CambridgeUniversityPress;Call,CharlesT.(ed.)2007.ConstructingJusticeand
SecurityAfterWar.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesInstituteofPeacePress;Samuels,Kirsti.2006.“Ruleof
LawReforminPost‐ConflictCountries:OperationalInitiativesandLessonsLearnt.”SocialDevelopment
Papers:ConflictPreventionandReconstruction37.Washington,DC:TheWorldBank.
80Rodrik,Dani,ArvindSubramanian,andFrancescoTrebbi.2004.“InstitutionsRule:ThePrimacyof
InstitutionsoverGeographyandIntegrationinEconomicDevelopment.”JournalofEconomicGrowth9(2):
131–65.
81Sen,Amartya(1999)DevelopmentasFreedom,NewYork:Knopf
82Hatchard,John,andAmandaPerry‐Kessaris(eds.)2003.LawandDevelopment:FacingComplexityinthe
21stCentury.London:CavendishPublishing;McAuslan,Patrick(2004),"IntheBeginningwastheLaw…an
IntellectualOdyssey",CornellLawSchoolEastAsianLawandCultureSeries.
83Teitel,Ruti.2005.“TransitionalRuleofLaw”,inCzarnota,Adam,MartinKrygier,andWojciechSadurski,
(eds.)Rethinkingruleoflawaftercommunism.BudapestandNewYork:CentralEuropeanUniversityShare.
84Sikkink,K.,2002.“TransnationalAdvocacyNetworksandtheSocialConstructionofLegalRules”,in
Dezalay,Y.andGarth,B.,eds.GlobalPrescriptions:TheProduction,Exportation,andImportationofaNew
LegalOrthodoxy.Arbor:UniversityofMichiganPress.


20

donorsareturningtotargetedinterventions–including“legalempowerment”
initiativesfocusedonthepoor‐toconfrontspecificproblemsintheircontext.85
Theyhavealsoturnedincreasinglyto“non‐state”systems,andexaminedthe
pluralityoflegalanddisputeresolutionsystemsincountries.Thissitsin
contrastwithgovernanceandrightsapproaches,whichhaveastronger
normativecommitmentandoperateatagreaterlevelofgenerality.

 Security(2001‐):Thefirstdecadeofthe2000salsoincludedatrendtoward
“securitization”ofruleoflawinitiatives,especiallyintheaftermathof9/11and
incountriesaffectedbyviolentcrimeorconflict.Inparalleltofocusonlocal
initiatives,somedonorshaveprioritizedassistanceforstrengtheningthe
capacityofstatestoconfronttransnationalcrimeandterrorism,andon
enhancingcriminaljusticecooperationacrossborders.
RuleofLawProgrammingandEvidenceforDevelopmentEffectiveness
Whiletheevidenceinanyoneparticularareaisinsufficient,itisbecomingincreasingly
clearthattheruleoflawmattersacrosstheboard.Policymakersarestartingtopay
moreattentiontotypesofevidencebeyondquantitativedata,suchasanthropological
workorpoliticaleconomystudies.Takentogether,thesesourcesofinformationare
beginningtodoamuchbetterjobofdescribingROLasacomplexandcross‐cutting
phenomenon.Asaresult,theevidencebaseremainsinsufficient,butcleargapsand
potentialsolutionsareemerging.

WhilethereisincreasingevidencelinkingROLtodevelopment,theevidencelinkingROL
programmingtoruleoflawanddevelopmentoutcomesiscomplexandinsomecases
uncertain.Thisuncertaintyplaysoutatthreelevels:themacrocausalrelationships
betweentheruleoflawanddevelopment;themicrocausalrelationshipsbetweenrule
oflawprogramminganditsimpactonimmediatedevelopmentprogramgoals;andthe
intermediaterelationshipsbetweentheachievementofprogramgoalsoroutputsand
broaderruleoflawanddevelopmentoutcomes.Whileevidencehasaccumulatedfor
themacrorelationshipbetweenruleoflawanddevelopment,assummarizedabove
(albeitwithquestionsaroundcausation),evidencefortheimpactofdevelopment
programsonimmediateprogramgoalsoronbroadergoalsrelatedtotheruleoflaw
anddevelopmentisuncertainandcontested.

 Macro:causationbetweenruleoflawanddevelopment.Asdetailedinthesection
above,there’sageneralconsensusthatinstitutionsmattertogovernanceandto
development.OnestudyfindsacorrelationintheWorldBankGovernance
Indicatorsbetweena1‐pointincrease(outof6)ontheruleoflawscaleanda2.5‐to‐
4‐foldimprovementinpercapitaincomesandinfantmortality,anda15‐25percent
increaseinliteracyrates.86Anotherfindsasignificantandstrongcorrelation
betweeninstitutionalqualityandpercapitaincomes.87However,thesestudies
providenoclearevidenceastowhethertheruleoflawcausesdevelopmentorthe
otherwayround.88ExamplessuchasChinahadgrowthwithalimitedroleforthe
85GolubStephen.2006.“TheLegalEmpowermentAlternative”inCarothers,ed.PromotingtheRuleofLaw
Abroad.Washington,DC:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.
86Kaufmann,D.,Kraay,A.andZoido‐Lobaton,P.(1999).“GovernanceMatters.”WorldBankPolicyResearch
WorkingPaperSeries2196.
87Rodrik,Subramanian&Trebbi.(2004).“InstitutionsRule:theprimacyofinstitutionsovergeographyand
integrationineconomicdevelopment.”9JournalofEconomicGrowth131.
88Glaeser,E.,etal,2004.“DoInstitutionsCauseGrowth”,9JournalofEconomicGrowth,271.


21

legalsystem,andtherearefewstudiesofspecificreformeffortsthatquestion,
ratherthanassert,causation.89

 Micro:Programeffectiveness.Thereislessevidenceforwhetherinstitutionscanbe
influencedbyaid‐baseddevelopmentprograms,orwhetherruleoflawsystemsare
insteadtheresultofcomplexhistorical,economic,political,socialandcultural
dynamicsbeyondthereachofdevelopmentinterventions.90Changeinruleoflaw
systemsmightbesocomplexthatitishardtoattributetodevelopment
interventions,especiallygivendonortimehorizons,shiftinggoals,91high
expectations,untestedassumptionsandnormativecommitmentsnotsufficiently
borneoutbyevidence.92Furthermore,themeasuresusedfocusheavilyonformal
institutionssuchascourts,whichonlyrepresentasliceoftherelevantinstitutions
makinguparuleoflawsystem.93Theyalsotakelimitedaccountofcitizenand
communityvoice,includingperceptionsurveydataontheruleoflawanddetailed
qualitativeassessments(suchasethnographies).Emergingapproaches,from
randomizedcontroltrialstomixedmethodsstudies,areincreasingthe
sophisticationofourunderstandingofhowprogrameffectiveness.However,these
approacheshaveyettobecomemainstream.

 Intermediate:theimpactofROLprogramsonbroaderdevelopmentoutcomes.Even
wheredonorsfindevidencethattheyareachievingtheirimmediategoalsin
strengtheningelementsoftheruleoflaw,theimpactsonthebroaderruleoflawand
ondevelopmentoutcomesisrarelyestablished.Theproposedcausallinksbetween
programoutputsandbroaderoutcomesareoftenpoorlytheorized,andmeasuresof
outputsareconfusedformeasuresofruleoflaw.94Forexample,U.S.‐fundedruleof
lawprogramsinHaitihavefocusedonreducingthepercentageofdetaineesin
prolongedpre‐trialdetention.Whiletheseprogramsaddressadirehumanrights
issuethatmeritsattention,theresultsmayhavelittleimpactontheperceptionsand
experienceofthemajorityofcitizenswhonevercomeintocontactwiththecriminal
justicesystem.Meanwhile,broaderelementsofprogrameffectivenessareoftenleft
outofmeasurementframeworks.Forexample,aWorldBank‐supportedreform
projectinVenezuelaledtobetween20%and70%reductionsincaseprocessing
89Davis,K.andTrebilcock,M.(2008),“TheRelationshipBetweenLawandDevelopment:Optimistsversus
Skeptics”,56AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw895;Jensen,E.G.andHeller,T.C.(eds.)(2003).Beyond
commonknowledge:empiricalapproachestotheruleoflaw.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress;Samuels,
Kirsti.2006.“RuleofLawReforminPost‐ConflictCountries:OperationalInitiativesandLessonsLearnt.”
SocialDevelopmentPapers:ConflictPreventionandReconstruction37.Washington,DC:TheWorldBank.;
Bergling,P.,Ederlof,J.,andTaylor,V.(2009),RuleofLawPromotion:GlobalPerspectives,LocalApplications.
IustusForlag:Uppsala;Trebilcock,M.andPrado,M.(2012),WhatMakesPoorCountriesPoor?:Institutional
DeterminantsofDevelopment.Cheltenham:EdwardElgar;Messick,R.(1999),“TheInternationalBankfor
ReconstructionandDevelopmentJudicialReformandEconomicDevelopment:ASurveyoftheIssues”,The
WorldBankResearchObserver,14(1),117‐36.
90Davis,K.andTrebilcock,M.(2008),“TheRelationshipBetweenLawandDevelopment:Optimistsversus
Skeptics”,56AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw895
91Cohen,Elin,KevinJFandl,AmandaPerry‐Kessaris,andVeronicaTaylor.2011.“TruthandConsequences
inRuleofLaw:Inferences,AttributionandEvaluation”,3HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw106
92Wild,L.andBergh,G.(2012)“TherelationshipbetweendemocraticgovernanceandMDGachievement”,
OverseasDevelopmentInstitute(onfilewithauthors).
93Davis,Kevin.2004.“WhatcantheRuleofLawvariabletellusaboutRuleofLawreforms?”Michigan
JournalofInternationalLaw26:141‐161.
94See,forexample,Jensen,E.G.andHeller,T.C.(eds.)(2003).Beyondcommonknowledge:empirical
approachestotheruleoflaw.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress;Carothers,T.(ed.)(2006),Promotingthe
RuleofLawAbroad:InSearchofKnowledge.Washington,DC:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,;
Hammergren,L.(2007)EnvisioningReform:ImprovingJudicialPerformanceinLatinAmerica.StateCollege,
PA:PennStateUniversityPress;Trebilcock,M.andDaniels,R.(2006)RuleofLawReformandDevelopment:
ChartingtheFragilePathofProgress.Cheltenham:EdwardElgar.


22

times,95yetthesystemicimpactonuserexperience–oronbroadergovernance–
wasnotstudied.Thisagainpointstotheneedforalong‐termandrobust
engagementwithcitizenandcommunityvoicetounderstandimpact.Thereisalso
limiteddataontheeffectivenessofscalingupoftargetedruleoflaweffortssuchas
empowermentprograms(althoughanattemptistakingplaceinSierraLeoneto
evaluatethescaleupofparalegalprovision).96

Morecanbedonetomeasuredevelopmenteffectivenessthroughimproveddatacollection
andbettermonitoringandevaluation(M&E)frameworks.MuchM&Ehascounted
outputs(suchascaseprocessingtime)andnotimpactovertime.Especiallywhen
lookingbeyondformalinstitutions,outcomesbecomeevenhardertomeasure.For
example,theimpactofnon‐statesystemsisoftenpoorlycaptured.97Twoapproaches
haveemergedrecently:first,randomizedcontroltrialsdesignatetreatmentandcontrol
communitiestoreceivedifferentlevelsoflegalassistance(forexample,toundertake
landtitling)andthenmeasuretheimpact.98Thesearerobust,rareandexpensive.The
otherapproachistoconductathoroughbaselinestudyusinga“cluster”ofindicators
fromavarietyofsources,andthenmeasurewhatchangedovertimeafteraspecific
project.99Accumulatingthesestudiesfromseveralprojectsisacheaper“informed
processofmonitoredtrialanderror.”100Yetsuchapproachesrequiremoreattentionto
M&Efromthestartofprojects.Towardthisend,UNTPisdevelopinganewguideon
measuringeffectivenessofROLprogramming.

Akeycauseoftheevidencegapisthelackofemphasisplacedbydonorsonbuilding
domesticdatacollectioncapacity.Thiscapacityisimportantfordonorstoevaluate
programs,andalsoforcountriestoconductsustainedevaluationoftheirinstitutions.101
ThisisoneareathattheMDGexperienceclearlystimulatedandwhichhadspillover
effects:increasedcapacitytogatherdataandpursuearangeofdata‐gathering
methodologies.
CurrentTrendsinRuleofLawProgramming
Inresponsetoagrowingbodyofevidence,policymakershaveadoptednewandpromising
effortstopursuetheruleoflawthatreflectapragmaticproblem‐solvingapproachand
thatcutacrossdevelopment.Whiletheevidencefortraditionalruleoflawprogramming
ismixed,ithasalsopointedtowardsnewavenuesforstrengtheningthevarious
pathwaysbetweentheruleoflawanddevelopment.Moreworkisneededtoevaluate
thesenewapproaches.

Ontheonehand,thecritiquesoftraditionalapproachestoruleoflawprogrammingare
increasinglyclear.Abroadconsensushasemergedaroundcertaincriticismsofrecent
95PérezPerdomo,R.(2006)“UnaEvaluacióndelaReformaJudicialenVenezuela,”inJudicialReformin
LatinAmerica:AnAssessmentforPolicymakers,CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudiesandCentrode
EstudiosdeJusticiadelasAméricas.
96http://www.soros.org/sites/default/files/pretrial‐csae‐research‐overview‐20120710.pdf
97Haggard,S.,MacIntyre,A.andTiede,L.,2008.‘Theruleoflawandeconomicdevelopment.’AnnualReview
ofPoliticalScience,11,pp.205‐34.
98Knight,R.etal(2012),ProtectingCommunityLandsandResources:EvidencefromLiberia,Mozambique
andUganda.RomeandWashington,D.C.:IDLOandNamati.
99Parson,Jim(2011),“DevelopingClustersofIndicators:AnAlternativeApproachtoMeasuringthe
provisionofJustice,”3HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw170
100Braithwaite,John(2011)‘TheEssenceofResponsiveRegulation’UBCLawReview44(3),475‐520
101UNDP(2011),StrengtheningtheRuleofLawinCrisis‐affectedandFragileSituations.NewYork:UNDPat
48;Foglesong,T.andChristopherStone,2007.“MeasuringtheContributionofCriminalJusticeSystemsto
theControlofCrimeandViolence:LessonsfromJamaicaandtheDominicanRepublic”,CIDWorkingPaper
No.144


23

ruleoflaweffortsfromadevelopmentperspective,andacknowledgementofwhat
hasn’tworked:

 Apresumptionoflineartrajectoriesofchange102:ruleoflawreformsandtheir
impactaresocially,economicallyandpoliticallycomplexandoftendealwith
valuesdeeplyembeddedinsociety.Asaresult,changeiscomplexandwillnot
necessarilyhappeninalinearfashion.Thingsmaygetworsebeforetheyget
better,andthingsmaysimultaneouslygetworsebysomemeasures(e.g.
propertyrights)andbetterbyothers(e.g.grievancesinservicedelivery)

 Timehorizons:ruleoflawreformisoftenalong‐term,multi‐generational
endeavourrequiringsustainedcommitment.103Onestudyfoundthatittookthe
fastestmovingcountriesanaverageof41yearstoachievesignificant
transformationstotheruleoflaw.104

 Theneedforrobustin‐countrypoliticalcoalitionsandwill:Giventhecomplexand
context‐specificnatureofruleoflawreform,politicaldemandforreformsis
essential,asisgrapplingwithvestedintereststhatrenderreformsdifficultto
realize.105Policymakersshouldmodulateexpectationsaccordingly:“Ifthe
efficacyoflegalinstitutionsdependsoncomplementaryfeaturesofthebroader
politicalsystem,apparentlysimplereformsmaybewellbeyondthecapacityof
outsiderstoeffect.”106

 Transplantingmodelsfromelsewhere:Identifying“bestpractices”inruleoflaw
reformfromelsewhere(suchastheidealdesignofaprosecutor’soffice)and
transplantingthemisunlikelytowork.107Emphasisshouldbeplacedonthe
functionthattheysystemismeanttoperform,ratherthanwhatitlookslike.
Thatdoesnotmeanthatlearninglessonsandsharingknowledgearen’t
important,butthattheymustbeevaluatedineachnewcontext.

Inresponsetothesecritiques,policymakershavepursuednewapproachestotheruleof
lawthatbetterreflectslocalcontextsandvaryingperspectivesontheruleoflaw.The
landscapeofruleoflaweffortshasbroadenedbeyondthenarrowfocusonaparticular
setofinstitutions.Policymakershaveincreasinglyfocusedonthelegalandinstitutional
underpinningsofdevelopmentpolicy.Viewingtheruleoflawbothasanoutcomeand
elementofprocess,developmentagencieshaveincorporatedattentiontoruleoflaw
intoavarietyofdevelopmentprogrammes,fromemployment,healthandeducationto
naturalresourcemanagement,crisispreventionandmitigation,povertyreduction,and
102Desai,D.,Isser,D.andWoolcock,M.(2012),‘RethinkingJusticeReforminFragileandConflict‐Affected
States:LessonsforEnhancingtheCapacityofDevelopmentAgencies’,4HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw54
103WorldBank(2012),NewDirectionsinJusticeReform,http://www‐
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/09/06/000386194_201209060
24506/Rendered/PDF/706400REPLACEM0Justice0Reform0Final.pdf,at8.SeealsoWorldBank(2011),
WorldDevelopmentReport2011:Conflict,SecurityandDevelopment.Washington,DC:WorldBank;Desai,D.,
Isser,D.andWoolcock,M.(2012),‘RethinkingJusticeReforminFragileandConflict‐AffectedStates:
LessonsforEnhancingtheCapacityofDevelopmentAgencies’,4HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw54.
104Pritchett,Lant,andFraukedeWeijer.2010.“FragileStates:StuckinaCapabilityTrap?”Background
paperfortheWorldDevelopmentReport2011,at
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9109 
105Trebilcock,M.andDaniels,R.(2006)RuleofLawReformandDevelopment:ChartingtheFragilePathof
Progress.Cheltenham:EdwardElgar;
106Haggard,S.,MacIntyre,A.andTiede,L.,2008.‘Theruleoflawandeconomicdevelopment.’Annual
ReviewofPoliticalScience,11,pp.205‐34,at206
107Carothers,Thomas.2006.“TheProblemofKnowledge,”inCarothers,ed.PromotingtheRuleofLaw
Abroad.Washington,DC:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.


24

economicgrowth.Theyhavealsoengagedabroaderrangeofstateandnon‐stateactors,
legalsystemsanddisputeresolutionmechanisms.

Manypolicymakersandscholarshaveturnedtopragmaticproblem‐solving.Inthis
approach,theyhaveworriedlessaboutcapacity‐buildinginorservicedeliveryfrom
specificinstitutions;rather,theyhavemadechoices,trade‐offsandbalancesonacase‐
by‐casebasiswithanemphasisontheperspectiveoftheend‐user.Theyhavefocused
onworkingwiththerangeofinstitutionsandactorsthataffectthedesireddevelopment
outcome.Engagingwiththenorms,laws,regulationsandmechanismstoenforcethem
andresolvedisputesiscriticaltothisapproach.TherecentWorldBankstrategic
documentonjusticereformoffersanimportantpracticalsynthesisofhowto
understandROLthroughthelensofthisapproach.Fromadevelopmentperspective,
ROLbecomes(1)asetoflaws,regulationsandinstitutionsspanningallthreebranchesof
governmentandmultiplenonstateactorscarryingoutrelevantfunctions;(2)accessto
andenforcementoftheselaws,regulationsandinstitutions;and(3)thenormsandvalues
thatinfusethem.108Thisapproachhassomekeycomponents:

 End‐UserPerspective:Senarticulatesa“realization‐focusedunderstandingof
justice”,orthe“needtofocusonactualrealizationsandaccomplishments,rather
thanonlyontheestablishmentofwhatareidentifiedastherightinstitutions
andrules.”109TheWorldBankcommitstodoingsofromtheperspectiveofend‐
usersandpotentialend‐users110,andUNDPlooksattheruleoflawfroma
people‐centredperspective.111Inordertoknowtheseneedsandproblems,
policymakersanddonorsneedtocommittobuilding,articulatingandlistening
tothevoicesofthepoorandofnational‐levelpolicymakers.Thisisbotha
developmentend,andameansofimprovingotherdevelopmentprocesses
throughbettermonitoringandevaluation.

 Startswithconcreteproblemsfacingpeople.Ratherthanstartingwithbroadly
definedprinciplesorinternationalbestpractices,thisapproachseekstoidentify
thekeychallengesexperiencedbycitizens.Localappropriateness(alongwith
participationandbuy‐in)willaffectthesustainabilityofreform.112Forexample,
humanrightsrealizationinMalawi113andAngola114havebeenhamperednotby
constitutionalissuesbutpracticalissuessuchasaccesstojusticeandthe
capacityofcourts.

 Evidence‐Based:Aprogramonjusticeindicatorsandnational‐leveldata
collectionatHarvardseesruleoflawreformasaprocessofgatheringdataand
solvingproblemsthattheybringtolight.115Theseapproachesdonot
108WorldBank(2012),NewDirectionsinJusticeReform,http://www‐
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/09/06/000386194_201209060
24506/Rendered/PDF/706400REPLACEM0Justice0Reform0Final.pdf,at3
109Sen,A.2009.TheIdeaofJustice.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,at10
110WorldBank,NewDirectionsinJusticeReform,at1.
111UNDP(2011),StrengtheningtheRuleofLawinCrisis‐affectedandFragileSituations.NewYork:UNDP,
at11
112InternationalIDEAandIDLO(2012),“Informaldiscussiononlinkagesbetweentheruleoflaw,
democracyandsustainabledevelopment”,ConceptNote,athttp://www.idea.int/un/upload/Concept‐Note‐
IDEA‐IDLO‐Italy‐rev‐5‐0‐Final.pdf
113Gloppen,S.andKanyongolo,F.E.(2007).“CourtsandthepoorinMalawi:Economicmarginalization,
vulnerability,andthelaw.”InternationalJournalofConstitutionalLaw,5(2),258‐293.
114Skaar,E.,SerraVan‐Dúnem,J.O.(2006).“CourtsunderconstructioninAngola:Whatcantheydoforthe
poor?”WorkingPaper‐Chr.MichelsenInstitute,20.
115TheHarvardKennedySchoolPrograminCriminalJusticePolicyandManagement,see
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/criminaljustice


25

presupposetheprincipalruleoflawchallenges,butseektoaddressthemas
theyareandhowevertheyareconfigured.116ArecentreviewoftheUNROL
supportagendafoundthat“[r]atherthanpresupposingformaljudicialand
securityinstitutions,astendstobethepractice,thoseseekingtoprovide
assistancecouldlookinsteadtotheimmediateself‐definedneedsofthe
citizenryasaguide…Theprecisesequenceandprioritizationoftheseefforts
shouldnotbegeneralizedanddevelopedintoboilerplateresponsesandthey
certainlyneedtobeaccompaniedbysoundpoliticaleconomyandotherformsof
analysis.”117

 Cutsacrossarangeofinstitutions:Policymakershaveworriedlessaboutwhat
constitutes“law”andwhatcountsasan“institution”inaruleoflawsystem:
concernedwith“acontinuumwhichrunsfromtheclearestformofstatelaw
throughtothevaguestformsofinformalsocialcontrol”118,insofarasthese
mechanismsimpactdevelopmentoutcomes.119Providersrangefromcourtsto
customaryleaders,toyouthgroupstoconflict‐resolutionNGOsandsoon.120
o Noinstitution–formalorinformal–isapanacea:inanevaluationofLok
Adalats(communityjusticeinstitutions)inIndia,Galanter&Krishnan
foundtheirjudgementsandeffectivenesstobeinconsistent.121A
problem‐solvingapproachisnotweddedtoparticularinstitutionsor
institutionalforms,buttakesapragmaticapproachtorealizedesired
functions.

 Cutsacrossarangeofsectors(“cross‐cutting”or“mainstreaming”).Ruleoflaw,
especiallyasexperiencedbycitizens,isnotlimitedtothecourts,policeand
otherelementsofthejusticesystem.Thefairallocationanddeliveryofservices,
treatmentofgrievancesandresolutionofpropertydisputesaffectcitizens’
perceptionandrealityoftheruleoflaw.Strengtheningtheruleoflawtherefore
requireslookingacrosssectorsfromhealthandeducationtoeconomic
development.

Theproblem‐solvingapproachhasbeguntoreconfigurepolicyapproachestoROL’s
variousdevelopmentfunctions,bringingintofocusROL’ssocialandpoliticalcomplexity;
itscross‐cuttingnature;andtheimportanceofinnovativetools.Weseethefollowing
areasascoredimensionsofthewaysinwhichROLrelatestothepost‐2015agenda:

o Enablingeconomicdevelopment:afocusonproblemsfacedbyend‐usersratherthan
specificinstitutionsorpreconceivednotionsoftheruleoflaw–forexample,
propertyrightsandenablingmarkets‐hasledtopolicymakersappreciating
116Scheye,Eric(2009)‘RuleofLawinFragileandConflictAffectedCountries:Workingwithinthe
IntersticesandInterfaces’FramingPaperProducedfortheWorldBankHeadlineSeminaronRuleofLawin
Conflict‐AffectedandFragileSituations,at
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTLICUS/Resources/511777‐1224016350914/5474500‐
1257528293370/Scheye.pdf
117Kavanagh,CaminoandBruceJones(2011)“ShakyFoundations:AnAssessmentoftheUnitedNation’s
RuleofLawSupportAgenda”,NYUCenteronInternationalCooperation,at
http://www.cic.nyu.edu/staff/docs/kavanagh/kavanagh_rol.pdf
118Woodman,G.(1998),“IdeologicalCombatandSocialObservation:RecentDebateAboutLegalPluralism.”
JournalofLegalPluralism,42:21‐59,atp.45.
119Tamanaha,B.(2007).“UnderstandingLegalPluralism:PasttoPresent,LocaltoGlobal.”SydneyLaw
Review,30:375‐411
120Baker,B.&Scheye,E.(2009).“AccesstoJusticeinaPost‐conflictState:Donorsupported
MultidimensionalPeacekeepinginSouthernSudan.”InternationalPeacekeeping16(2),171‐85.
121Galanter,M.,Krishnan,J.K.(2004).“‘Breadforthepoor’:Accesstojusticeandtherightsoftheneedyin
India.”HastingsLawJournal,55(4),789‐834.


26

grievancesandconflictsacrosstheirdevelopmentportfoliosasruleoflawissues.
Thusresolvingconflictovergrazingrightsisnotjustaquestionoflandand
agriculturepolicy,butajusticeissuethatmayberesolvedthroughsupportfor
locally‐drivencommunitygroupsorcommittees;122servicedeliveryprojectssuchas
basichealthcareprovisionnowincludethedesignofgrievancemechanismsand
theirlinkagestoexistingcourtsandlegalmechanismsincountry.123

o Citizenshipandsocialandeconomicjustice:Legalempowermentapproacheshave
emergedasusefulproblem‐solvingtoolsinthiscontextastheyaretargeted,flexible
andparticipatory.Forexample,paralegalshelppeoplenavigatestateandcustomary
courtstohavetheirgrievancesredressed,fromsanitationissuestotheprovisionof
healthcare.124Empowermentapproachesneedtobeconsideredinthepolitical
contextandpowerdynamicsofthecommunitiesinwhichtheyoperate:thereisa
riskofcapturebypowerfulinterests125andaquestionofaccountabilityofthe
facilitators(suchasparalegals)tothetargetbeneficiaries.126
o Conflict,crimeandviolence:therecentWorldDevelopmentReport2011highlighted
theimportanceofjusticeandtheruleoflawtoavoidingconflictandfacilitating
transitionsoutofconflict.However,italsostressedtheimportanceofaproblem‐
solvingapproachdrivenbyinstitutionalfunctions,aswellasthelengthoftime
donorsneededtocommittoreformsandtheimportanceofrealisticexpectations.127

o Accountability:focusingonend‐userperspectives,policymakershaveturnedto
technology:forexample,inthegatheringandresolutionofgrievances(throughSMS
hotlines,forexample),thegatheringanddisseminationoflegalinformation(for
example,broadcastingradioprogramsaboutrights‐awareness)128andparticipation
indecisionprocesses.129

o ServiceDelivery.Thelegalframeworksforlocalpublicandjudicialauthoritiesare
emergingasanimportantareaforruleoflawreform.Manydecisionsaffectingdaily
liveshappenatthelocallevel,andlocaladministrationisakeylinkinthebuildingof
trustbetweentheindividualorcommunityandthestate.130Apilotreformeffortin
QuezonCityinthePhilippinesidentifiedspecificproblemswiththeruleoflaw
122TanjaChopra(2009),“JusticeVersusPeaceinNorthernKenya”,2WorldBankJustice&Development
WorkingPaperSeries1;Knight,R.etal(2012),ProtectingCommunityLandsandResources:Evidencefrom
Liberia,MozambiqueandUganda.RomeandWashington,D.C.:IDLOandNamati.
123VarunGauri(2011),“RedressingGrievancesandComplaintsRegardingBasicServiceDelivery”,World
BankPolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeries5699.
124VivekMaru(2010),“AlliesUnknown:SocialAccountabilityandLegalEmpowerment”,HealthandHuman
Rights12,pp83‐93.
125HooriaHayatandKholaAhmed(2008),“LegalEmpowerment:AnImpossibleDream”,DfIDandWomen's
EmpowermentinMuslimContextsWorkingPaper,at
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/PDF/Outputs/WomenEmpMus/WEMC_WP_HayatandAhmed.pdf
126MarlesevonBroembsen(2012),“LegalEmpowermentofthePoor:TheRe‐emergenceofaLostStrandof
HumanRights?”,RapoportCenterHumanRightsWorkingPaperSeries,1/2012,at15.
127WorldBank(2011),WorldDevelopmentReport2011:Conflict,SecurityandDevelopment.Washington,
DC:WorldBank
128VarunGauri(2011),“RedressingGrievancesandComplaintsRegardingBasicServiceDelivery”,World
BankPolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeries5699.
129UNSystemTaskTeamonthePost‐2015UNDevelopmentAgenda,“GovernanceandDevelopment:
ThematicThinkPiece”,May2012,at3.
130PerBergling,ErikOWennerströmandRichardZajacSannerholm(2010),“RuleofLawinPublic
Administration:ProblemsandWaysAheadinPost‐ConflictPeace‐building”,HagueJournalontheRuleof
Law,2(2),pp.171‐202.


27

frameworkforimplementationofacityhousingprogram,inlargepartonthebasis
ofend‐usersurveys.131

InternationalPolicyCommitmentstotheRuleofLaw

CommitmentstothePrincipleofRuleofLaw

Theimportanceoftheruleoflawisbroadlyacceptedacrosscountriesandregions,as
reflectedininternationalpolicydocuments,conventionsandresolutionsofmultilateral
andregionalorganizationsaroundtheworld.Severalofthesedocumentsspecifically
affirmtheimportanceoftheruleoflawtodevelopment.

o TheUNMemberStateshaveaffirmedtheircommitmenttotheruleoflawthrough
severalUNGeneralAssemblyResolutions.MostrecentlytheSeptember2012
DeclarationoftheHigh‐LevelMeetingoftheGeneralAssemblyontheRuleofLawat
theNationalandInternationalLevels(followingonpreviousUNGAResolutions
includingthe2005WorldSummitOutcomesandfollowupresolutions),statedthat
“theadvancementoftheruleoflawatthenationalandinternationallevelsis
essentialforsustainedandinclusiveeconomicgrowth,sustainabledevelopment,the
eradicationofpovertyandhungerandthefullrealizationofallhumanrightsand
fundamentalfreedoms,includingtherighttodevelopment,allofwhichinturn
reinforcetheruleoflaw,andforthisreasonweareconvincedthatthis
interrelationshipshouldbeconsideredinthepost‐2015internationaldevelopment
agenda.”132

o TheRio+20ConferenceonSustainableDevelopmentinJune2012affirmedthe
essentialroleoftheruleoflawindevelopment.IntheOutcomeDocument,which
wasadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyinSeptember2012,participatingstates
“acknowledgethatdemocracy,goodgovernanceandtheruleoflaw,atthenational
andinternationallevels,aswellasanenablingenvironment,areessentialfor
sustainabledevelopment,includingsustainedandinclusiveeconomicgrowth,social
development,environmentalprotectionandtheeradicationofpovertyandhunger.”
Theparticipantsalsoacknowledgedtheneedfor“strongandeffectivelegaland
regulatoryframeworks,”especiallytoensuresustainabledevelopmentthrough
extractiveindustries,andtoexpanddevelopmenttothepoorandvulnerable.133

o TheUNSecretaryGeneralhasproducedseveralreportsfocusedontheruleoflaw
(forexample:theProgrammeofAction;,A/66/749andOctober2011,S/2011/643;
TheRuleofLawandTransitionalJusticeinPost‐ConflictsocietiesAugust2004,
S/2004/616;“Unitingourstrengths:EnhancingUnitedNationsSupportfortheRule
ofLaw,”S/2006/908,14December2006)

o TheUNCommissiononLegalEmpowermentofthePoor,whichincludedbroad
representationfromaroundtheglobe,statedinits2008finalreport,Makingthe
LawWorkforEveryone,that“theruleoflawisnotamereadornmentto
131EdnaEstifaniaA.Co,MariaFainaL.Diola,DanA.Saguil,EleanorE.Nicolas,andCrinezzaVeilMendoza
(2011),RuleofLawinPublicAdministration:ThePhilippineLocalGovernmentUrbanPoorResettlementand
HousingProgram.UPNCPAGPolicyBriefNo.2,at
http://folkebernadotteacademy.se/Documents/Kunskapsomr%C3%A5den/Rule%20of%20Law/Rule%20
of%20Law%20in%20PA%20Philippines.pdf
132DeclarationoftheHigh‐levelMeetingoftheGeneralAssemblyontheRuleofLawattheNationaland
InternationalLevels,A/67/L.1*(2012)
133UNGeneralAssembly,“TheFutureWeWant,”A/RES/66/288(2012).


28

development;itisavitalsourceofprogress.Itcreatesanenvironmentinwhichthe
fullspectrumofhumancreativitycanflourish,andprosperitycanbebuilt.”Itcalled
formoreattentionto“legalempowerment,”definedas“aprocessofsystemic
changethroughwhichthepoorandexcludedbecomeabletousethelaw,thelegal
system,andlegalservicestoprotectandadvancetheirrightsandinterestsas
citizensandeconomicactors.”134

o TheMillenniumDeclaration,adoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyin2000asthe
basisfortheMDGs,statedthat“Wewillsparenoefforttopromotedemocracyand
strengthentheruleoflaw,aswellasrespectforallinternationallyrecognized
humanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms,includingtherighttodevelopment.”135
TheUNGeneralAssemblyhasreaffirmedthat“thatgoodgovernanceandtheruleof
lawatthenationalandinternationallevelsareessentialforsustained,inclusiveand
equitableeconomicgrowth,sustainabledevelopmentandtheeradicationofpoverty
andhunger”insubsequentresolutionsregardingtheMDGs.136

o TheHighLevelForumonAidEffectivenessBusanDeclarationcallsforcombating
corruptionandillegalfinancialflows.TheG‐7+NewDealforEngagementinFragile
StatesincludessecurityandjusticeastwoofitscentralPeacebuildingand
StatebuildingGoals,withanunderlyingfocusontheruleoflaw.

o RegionalandMultilateralOrganizationshaveaffirmedcommitmentstotheruleof
lawintheirchartersandfoundingdocuments,forexample:
 TheAfricanUnion:“TheUnionshallfunctioninaccordancewiththe
followingprinciples:...respectfordemocraticprinciples,humanrights,the
ruleoflawandgoodgovernance”(ConstitutiveActoftheAfricanUnion,
Article4)
 ASEAN:“Tostrengthendemocracy,enhancegoodgovernanceandtheruleof
law”(ASEANCharter,art.17)
 OrganizationofAmericanStates:“Theeffectiveexerciseofrepresentative
democracyisthebasisfortheruleoflawandoftheconstitutionalregimesof
thememberstatesoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates.”(Inter‐American
Charter,art.2)
 TheEuropeanUnion:“TheUnionisfoundedonthevaluesofrespectfor
humandignity,freedom,democracy,equality,theruleoflawandrespectfor
humanrights,includingtherightsofpersonsbelongingtominorities(Treaty
ofLisbon,Art.1a);“EUpartnershipanddialoguewiththirdcountrieswill
promotecommonvaluesof:respectforhumanrights,fundamental
freedoms,peace,democracy,goodgovernance,genderequality,theruleof
law,solidarityandjustice”(TheEuropeanConsensusonDevelopment,
2006/C46/01)137
 TheCommonwealthofNations:“ThosePrincipleshavebeenfurther
elaboratedandstrengthenedovertheyearstounderlinethatdevelopment
restsonthefoundationsofdemocraticgovernance,theruleoflaw,respect
forhumanrights,genderequalityandpeaceandsecurity.”

134CommissiononLegalEmpowermentofthePoor,“MakingtheLawWorkforEveryone”Vol.1(2008)
135MillenniumDeclaration(GeneralAssemblyResolution)A/Res/55/2(2000)
136Keepingthepromise:unitedtoachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(GeneralAssembly
Resolution)A/RES/65/1(2010)
137JointstatementbytheCouncilandtherepresentativesofthegovernmentsoftheMemberStatesmeeting
withintheCouncil,theEuropeanParliamentandtheCommissiononEuropeanUnionDevelopmentPolicy:
‘TheEuropeanConsensus’


29

Atthislevel,thecommitmenttotheruleoflawismostoftenframedasacommitmenttoa
generalprincipleofgovernance.ThisprincipleismostclearlydefinedinUNdocuments,
includingthe2012UNGAResolution,inthedefinitioncitedabove.138

Althoughthereisbroadrecognitionoftheprincipleoftheruleoflaw,thespecificpolicy
commitmentsareextremelyvariedAgreementtothebroadprinciplehastranslatedinto
avarietyofsubstantivecommitmentsbymemberstates,whichspandifferent
conceptionsanddefinitionsoftheruleoflaw.Thebreadthofthisconceptandthe
resultingcommitmentscanbeillustratedbythecountrypledgesatthe2012UNGAHigh
LevelMeetingontheRuleofLaw.Someofthepledgesarerelatedtointernational
relations,whileothersarerelatedtotheruleoflawatthenationallevel,andinvolvea
rangeofissuesfromindividualhumanrightstoprivatesectorgrowth.Someexamples
ofthesepledgesinclude:
 Ratifyand/orapplyofinternationalhumanrightsandhumanitarianlaw
instruments,e.g.GenevaConventions,RomeStatute,ConventionAgainst
Torture,ProtocolConventiononRightsoftheChild,etc.
 Strengthendomesticimplementationofhumanrightsnorms,e.g.through
developmentofstrategiesandactionplansforreducingviolenceagainstwomen,
addressneedsofwomenprisoners,etc.
 Supportpost‐conflictruleoflawdevelopment,e.g.throughfundingtoUNDP,
bilateraldevelopmentcooperation,anddeploymentofcivilianspecialiststo
post‐conflictcountries;
 Strengtheninternationalcooperationoncombatingtransnationalcrimeand
corruption,includingtraffickinginpersons,drugtrafficking,terrorismand
financialcrimes
 Introducedomesticlawsandpoliciestoimprovefairandefficientjustice,e.g.
expandlegalaid,buildcorrectionsfacilities,improvemediation
 Introducedomesticpoliciesandprocedurestoincreaselegalcertaintyfor
business,e.g.administrativeburdensandbarrierstotrade

SpecificCommitmentsrelevanttotheruleoflawanddevelopment

Thewiderangeofspecificcommitmentsreflectsthevariedconceptionsofandapproaches
tomeasuringcountries’adherencetotheruleoflaw.Beyondbroadstatementsof
commitmenttotheprincipleofruleoflaw,countrieshaveadoptednumerousspecific
commitments,rangingfrombindingtreatiestomuchlooserprinciplesandstandards,in
avarietyofareasthataredirectlyapplicabletotheruleoflaw.Thesecommitmentsare
fartoonumerousandvariedtolist.Nonetheless,someofthebroadcategoriesthatare
relevanttotheruleoflawarelistedbelow.

o HumanRightsConventions.Theseinstrumentsareacentralpillarforupholdingthe
ruleoflawattheinternationalandnationallevels.States’formalcommitmentsto
conformnationallawandpracticetotheprinciplescontainedinthesedocuments
areavehiclethroughwhichnationalactorsensurethattheirgovernmentsuphold
thelaw.Someofthemoreprominentexamplesinclude:UniversalDeclarationof
HumanRights(1948);InternationalCovenantsonEconomic,SocialandCultural
RightsandonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966);InternationalConventiononthe
138“aprincipleofgovernanceinwhichallpersons,institutionsandentities,publicandprivate,includingthe
Stateitself,areaccountabletolawsthatarepubliclypromulgated,equallyenforcedandindependently
adjudicated,andwhichareconsistentwithinternationalhumanrightsnormsandstandards.Itrequires,as
well,measurestoensureadherencetotheprinciplesofsupremacyoflaw,equalitybeforethelaw,
accountabilitytothelaw,fairnessintheapplicationofthelaw,separationofpowers,participationin
decisionmaking,legalcertainty,avoidanceofarbitrarinessandproceduralandlegaltransparency”(see
S/2004/616).


30

EliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination;ConventionontheEliminationofAll
FormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen;ConventionagainstTortureandOtherCruel,
InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment;ConventionontheRightsofthe
Child.

o StandardsforFairandEfficientJusticeSystems.Avarietyofstandardshaveevolved
toguidenationallawandpolicyonthetreatmentofindividualsthroughthecriminal
andjusticesystem,andonthestructureofthesystemoverall.Althoughsome
standardsarecontainedinbindingconventions,suchastheTortureConvention,
mostareintheformofstandards,principlesandcodesofconductsthatareapplied
bynationalauthoritiesinthedevelopmentoftheirownlawandpolicyregarding
theirjusticesystems.Althoughthesestandardsgenerallyreflectbroadhuman
rightsandruleoflawprinciples,theytendtofocusonspecificinstitutionsor
actions,suchastheconductofjudges,prosecutorsandpoliceinthetreatmentof
prisonersorthefulfilmentoftheiractions.Forexample,theBasicPrinciplesonthe
IndependenceoftheJudiciarysetoutstandardsfortheconditionsofservice,
qualificationsandprofessionalethicsforjudges.Otherexamplesinclude:the
StandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners;UnitedNationsRulesforthe
ProtectionofJuvenilesDeprivedoftheirLiberty;CodeofConductforLawEnforcement
Officials;BasicPrinciplesontheRoleofLawyers.

o Governanceandcorruption.Numerousinternationalinstrumentshavesetstandards
aimedatincreasingtransparencyandreducingcorruptionatthenationallevel.The
mostrobustandwidelyrecognizedinstrumentistheUnitedNationsConvention
AgainstCorruption(UNCAC),whichinvolvesspecificcommitmentstoadopt
domesticlawandpolicyandcooperateinternationally,andincludesareview
mechanismstoenforcecompliance.Regionalorganizations,liketheAfricanUnion
andOrganizationofAmericanStates,haveadoptedtheirownconventionsand
standardsoncorruption.Othermechanismsconsistofvoluntarypartnershipsand
commitmentstoadoptstandardsgoverningspecifictypesofrevenueorservices,
liketheKimberlyProcesswhichinvolvescommitmentsregardingtheminingand
exportofdiamonds,andtheExtractiveIndustryTransparencyInitiative(EITI)which
governstheextractionandsaleofoilandminingresources.Otherinitiativesinvolve
broaderstandardsthatareusedasareferencepoint,withvaryinglevelsofreview
andenforceability.ExamplesincludetheOpenGovernmentPartnership.

o SecurityandLawEnforcement,includingpreventingandmitigatingconflict,and
combatingcrimeandterrorism.Agrowingnumberofinternationalinstruments
havefocusedonstrengtheningthetoolsatthenationalandinternationallevelto
reduceviolentcrimethatcontributetoinsecurityandconflict.Suchinstruments
rangefromconventionsthatrequirenationalactionagainstspecificformsofcrime,
liketheUNConventionAgainstTransnationalOrganizedCrime,International
ConventionfortheSuppressionoftheFinancingofTerrorismandrelatedconventions,
tocommitmentstoimprovecooperationinpreventingtransnationalcrimeand
preventingcriminalfinancing.Stateshavealsocommittedtobuildingand
strengtheninginternationalbodies,liketheInternationalCriminalCourt,with
jurisdictionoverinternationalcrimes.

o Economicactivity.Severalinternationaltreatiesandstandardsfocusedoneconomic
activitiesincludeextensiveprovisionsthataffectthecontentofstates’lawand
policyandtheirtreatmentatthedomesticlevel.Thesecommitmentsaredirectly
relatedtodevelopment,andtothedomesticpolicyinstrumentsthataffect
developmentthroughtrade,investment,intellectualproperty,andotherareasof
economicactivity.ThemostprominentexampleistheWorldTradeOrganization,
anditssystemoftraderequirementsthatmustbeenshrinedinlaw.


31

TargetsandIndicators
Justastheruleoflawmatters,someasuringitmatters.Thedesignoftargetsand
indicatorsfortheruleoflawhasbeenachallengefordevelopmentpolicyandprograms.
Thebroadandmulti‐facetednatureoftheruleoflawhasresultedinanincredibly
variedsetofindicatorsandtools,eachwithitsowncomplexitiesandlimitations.Yet
recentadvanceshaveproducednewtoolsformeasuringvariouselementsoftheruleof
law

Thefirststepinsettingruleoflawtargetsisdefiningoneormoreclearandmeasurable
concepts.DonorsfrequentlydeploydifferingdefinitionsofROLinlinewiththeir
respectiveconceptions,comparativeadvantagesandinstitutionalmandates.Low
correlationamongdifferentmeasuresoftheruleoflawrevealthatthemeasuresare
highlysensitivetothespecificconceptmeasured,themethodologychosen,andthe
contextinwhichtheyaredeployed.139Yetitisimportanttobearinmindthat
definitionsforthepurposeofmeasurementarenotnecessarilythesameasthe
principlesofROLthatguidedonorprogramming.Donorscanchoosetomeasure
adherencetothesebroadprinciplesortheeffectivenessofruleoflawprogramming
throughdifferentindicators.

Measuringtheimpactofdevelopmentpoliciesisparticularlydifficult,duetoconfusion
aboutcausationbetweenprogramoutputsandintendedoutcomes(seeevidencesection
above).Moreover,anymeasureisonlyanimperfectproxyforthatconcept.Tryingto
measureamorespecificelementoftheconceptinevitablyomitsothercoreelementsof
theconcept.Compositeindicatorsloseprecisionandsensitivitytochange,andruninto
methodologicalproblems.140

Significantadvanceshavenonethelessbeenmadeinmeasuringtheruleoflawfroma
varietyofperspectivesandmethods.Existingindicatorsfortheruleoflawfocuson
differentconceptsinherenttotheruleoflawandapplyvariousmethods.Someofthe
approachesincludethefollowing.

 Broadindicesofruleoflawatthecountrylevel.Attemptstocapturethebroad
conceptionofruleoflawgenerallyrelyoncompositemeasuresthatcombineseveral
dimensionstoproduceamulti‐facetedmeasureofruleoflawatthecountrylevel.
Thisisdoneeitherbycombiningseveralexistingindicatorsthatmeasuremore
specificaspectsoftheruleoflaw,(e.g.WorldBank’sGovernanceIndicators);or
throughexpertandpublicsurveysthataskavarietyofquestionsregardingdifferent
elementsoftheruleoflaw(e.g.theWorldJusticeProject’sRuleofLawIndex).The
broadertheconcept,however,thelessspecificandsensitivetochanges.Broad
measureshavealsobeencritiquedforemphasizingcertainelementsoftheruleof
lawoverothers,orforfavouringWesternconceptionsoftheruleoflaw.Combining
multipleindicatorscanalsoleadtomethodologicalproblemsintheaggregationof
thedata,andhowtointerpretsuchaggregation.

 Indicatorsofelementsoftheruleoflaw.Severalindicesmeasuresmorespecific
elementsorcomponentsoftheruleoflaw,suchassecurityofpropertyand
individuals(e.g.WorldEconomicForum,IndexofEconomicFreedom,WorldBank’s
CPIA);contractrightsandenforcement(WorldBank’sCPIAandDoingBusiness);
139Arndt,C.,&Oman,C.(2006).Usesandabusesofgovernanceindicators.Paris:OrganizationforEconomic
CooperationandDevelopment.Haggard,S.,MacIntyre,A.,&Tiede,L.(2008).Theruleoflawandeconomic
development.AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience,11,205–234.
140Botero,JuanCarlos,RobertL.NelsonandChristinePratt.2011.“IndicesandIndicatorsofJustice
GovernanceandtheRuleofLaw:AnOverview,”TheHagueJournalontheRuleofLaw3(2).


32

compliancewithhumanrightsandcivilliberties(e.g.Cingranelli‐RichardsCIRI
HumanRightsDataset,FreedomHouse);judicialindependence(e.g.Judicial
IndependenceIndex);constraintsontheexecutive(e.g.PolityIV,BertelsmanRuleof
Lawindex);orcorruption(e.g.GlobalCorruptionBarometer,GlobalIntegrityIndex).
Theseindicesoftenrelyonperceptionasmeasuredbyexpertsurveys.Asaresult,
theyaresensitivetothesampleofrespondentsandmaybebiased.Someofthese
indices,forexample,havebeencritiquedforrelyingtoomuchonelitelawyersor
businesses.

 Measuresofinstitutionalperformance.Severalmeasuresfocusontheperformance
ofspecificgovernmentinstitutions,usuallyinthejusticesector,althoughsomealso
includeothersectorsofthegovernment,oralternativeandnon‐statedispute
resolution.Oneadvantageofsuchmeasuresisthattheabilitytocollect
administrativestatisticsonelementsofgovernmentperformance,suchascourt
efficiency,allowsfordirectandaccuratemeasures.Yetthereliabilityandavailability
ofsuchdatavarieswidely.Morefundamentally,focusingoninstitutional
performance,suchastheefficiencyofcourtproceedings,oftenrevealslittleabout
thebroaderruleoflaw(inparticulartheconstellationofinstitutionsthatcitizens
turnto)orhowitisexperiencedbycitizens.Moreover,institutionsandstandards
maydifferconsiderablyacrosscountries.Someexamplesinclude:theAmericanBar
Association/ROLILegalEducation,LegalProfessionandJudicialReformIndices,the
NationalCenterforStateCourt’sCourToolsfocusingoncourtperformance;the
NationalJudicialInstituteofCanada’sframeworkforassessingjudicial
independence,transparencyandaccountability;theWorldBank’sDoingBusiness
indicatorsandWorldBusinessEnvironmentSurveyofthecredibilityofthecourtsin
enforcingcontracts.

 Compliancewithinternationalnorms.Onestraightforwardwaytomeasurestates’
compliancewithinternationallawistoexaminetheirlawsandprocedures,and
whethertheyconformtointernationallawsandstandards.Manyinternational
conventionsincludemonitoringmechanisms,liketheICCPR’speriodicreview
process,orUNCAC’speerreviewprocess.Theseprocessesgenerallyreview
whetherthecountryhasadoptedandimplementedthelegalandpolicyprovisions
requiredbytheconvention.Howeverfocusingoncomplianceoftenleavesoutthe
crucialelementsofimplementationandthepolicytrade‐offsthatresultfrom
competingnorms,whichcanbemuchhardertoassess.

 Measuresofuserexperienceandcitizenperception.Anotherwaytomeasuretherule
oflawistofocusontheexperienceofusersofinstitutionsandtheperceptionsof
citizensingeneral.Anumberofcross‐countrysurveysaskspecificquestionsabout
people’sperceptionofstateinstitutions,theircompliancewiththelaw,andtheir
attitudetowardvariousaspectsoftheruleoflaw.Surveyscanalsofocusmore
narrowlyonparticularcategoriesofcitizens,suchasthosethathavebeenincontact
withcourtsorpolicetomeasuretheirperformance.Someexamplesinclude
Afrobarometer,AsianBarometer,Latinobarometer,TI’sCorruptionBarometer
Relyingonperceptionscanbehighlyimpreciseandrevealcontradictoryfindings.
Forinstance,agovernment’seffortstocombatcorruptioncanresultsingreater
exposureofcases,resultinginanincreaseincitizenperceptionofcorruption.They
alsodependonthedefinitionoftheconcepttobemeasured,andtheframingofthe
problem.Forexample,surveysontheperceptionofcrimerarelydefinewhat
“crime”isandhowseriousitshouldbe.

 “Baskets”ofIndicatorstailoredtocountryneeds.Otherindicatorsstartfrombroad
principlesbutbreakdowntheconceptintovariousprinciplesandsub‐principles
thatareaggregatedinto“baskets”ofmeasuresfromvarioussources.Themeasures


33

usedinaparticularcountrycanbetailoredtocountryneeds.Anexampleofthis
approachthatseekstocompareacrosscountriesistheUNRuleofLawIndex.Other
“basket”approachesaremoretailored,anddevelopindicatorsbasedonananalysis
ofcountryconditionsandwhatisneededtoachieveeitherhigherlevelprinciples
andstandards,orspecificimprovementsintheprovisionofjustice.141Forexample,
generatingindicatorsbasedonadetailedanalysisofaparticularissueandthedata
availabletocraftabasketofindicatorsfocusedontheparticularproblem–e.g.aset
ofindicatorsfocusedonpolicesearches,seizuresandarreststomeasuredimensions
ofpoliceperformanceidentifiedasaproblembypolicymakers.142Yetthemore
countryspecifictheindicator,thelesstheyarecomparableacrosscountries.
Moreover,usingmultipleindicatorsanddatasourceincreasesthecostofcollecting
thedata.

Theforegoingdiscussionhighlightsseveraltrade‐offsindefiningindicatorsandtargets
relativetotheruleoflaw.Asamulti‐dimensionalsocialandpoliticalrealitythatvaries
bycontext,changesintheruleoflawcannoteasilybecapturedthroughasingle,time‐
boundorspecificindicator.Manymeasuresoftheruleoflawhavetendedtoprivilege
certainconceptionsoftheruleoflawoverothers–suchassecurityofpropertyrather
thanequitableenforcement–andtofocusoninstitutionalperformance–suchascase
processingtime‐ratherthanoutcomesforcitizens.Sincedataoneachoftheseelements
tendstobefragmentedandunreliable,selectingasingleindicatorthatcanbemeasured
acrosscountriescanbetricky. Othertrade‐offsthatariseinselectingindicatorsinclude:
 Specificityvs.Breadthofconcept
 Universalapplication/comparabilityvs.Contextspecificity
 Sensitivityofmeasurementvs.Comprehensivenessofmeasurement
 Achievablevs.Ambitious
 Norm‐basedvs.Performance‐based
 CostofMeasurement
 Reliabilityandmeasurabilityofdata
 Incentivescreatedbydifferentindicators

Effortstomeasuretheruleoflawcanalsoproduceunintendedconsequences.Evenwhere
policymakersintendtoaddressvariouselementsoftheruleoflaw,selectingindicators
formeasuringpolicyimpactcanempowercertainactorsoverothers,ordistort
institutionalperformancetowardfulfillingtargetswhileneglectingothercrucial
functions.Significantgapsintheavailabilityofdata,bothontheperformanceof
institutionsandonoutcomesforthepubliccanexacerbatetheseconsequencesif
policymakerschoosetomeasurewhatisavailableratherthanwhatmatters.For
example,themeasureofhomicideratesisoftenusedasaproxyfortheruleoflaw,since
itisrelativelyreliable,sensitivetopolicychange,andcanbecomparedacrosscountries.
Yetitcanalsoleadtoafocusoncertaintypesofcrimeoverothers,whichdrivesthe
allocationofresourcesandthelackofattentiontoimportantelementsofinsecurityand
injustice.

Amulti‐nationalindicator,drivenbynationalvoices,initspoliticalcontextandwithclear
andlimitedaims,canbevaluable.Suchanindicatorcouldfocusglobalattentionon
elementsoftheruleoflawthatareunderstoodtobeimportantacrosscountriesand
contexts,andhelpspurimprovedapproachestomeasuringit.Itcouldbebasedona
141Parsons,Jim.2011.“DevelopingClustersofIndicators:AnAlternativeApproachtoMeasuringthe
ProvisionofJustice”TheHagueJournalontheRuleofLaw3(2).Seealso
142Stone,ChristopherandToddFoglesong,“StrengtheningRuleofLawbyMeasuringLocalPractice,One
RuleataTime,”PrograminCriminalJusticePolicyandManagementattheHarvardKennedySchoolof
Government.


34

“basket”ofindicatorsthataregroundedinlocalchallengesandcontext.Forexample,a
measureofaccesstojusticemightincludesurveydatashowingthetypesofcasesof
mostconcerntocitizens,captureuserperceptionandexperience,measurethe
performanceofseveralinstitutions,andassesstheavailabilityandqualityofarangeof
services–fromcourtsandparalegalstocommunitymediationandmediaaccess–that
arerelevanttoagivencontext.Suchanapproachcouldmeasureglobaloutcomeswhile
remainingadaptabletolocalcontexts.Themostcommoncriticismofuniversal
indicatorsisthattheylackrelevancetoparticularcountrycontextsandneedsinorder
toachieveacommonconceptacrosscountries.Underlyingthisisthenotionthatthey
havebeenbuiltonlimitedinputfromdifferentvoices,especiallyfromthesouthandat
thelocallevel.

Countrieshavebeguntodefinetheirowncountry‐specificindicators.Someprocessesare
attemptingtobreakthemould,usingnationally‐drivenprocessestodeveloptargeted
multi‐nationalindicatorswhileacknowledgingtheirimprecisionandstressingthelinks
betweentheindicator,thebehaviouralchangetheyaretryingtostimulate,andavision
oftheruleoflaw.InthecontextoftheMDGs,Mongolia,AlbaniaandCambodiadefined
theirown“ninth”MDGfocusedonhumanrights,goodgovernanceorhumansecurity.
Eachofthesegoalsreflectedvaryinglevelsofpublicconsultation,buttheywereall
tailoredtotheirparticulardevelopmentneeds.Othercountrieshavesoughttodefine
theirowncommitmentsandtargetsmoreexplicitlyfocusedontheruleoflawinthe
contextofotherfora.ForexampletheG‐7+NewDealforEngagementinFragileStates
hassoughttodefineindicators,includingforsecurityandjusticethatreflecttheneeds
andperspectivesofthemembercountries.Thiseffortattemptstodefineasetoftargets
andindicatorsthataremorecomparableacrosscontextsbutrootedincountryneeds.

Moreattentioncouldbedevotedtonationalandlocal‐levelinputinthedefinitionof
targetsandindicators.Nationalvoicesareessential,buttheyhavebeen“notablyabsent
fromtheglobaldiscussiononruleoflawassistance,whichhasbeenrepletewith
internationalexperts.Governmentandcivilsocietystakeholderswithinrecipient
countriescanprovidesubstantiveinsightonthedynamicsunderlyingkeyconceptssuch
asnationalownership.Moreover,theymightquestionfundamentalaspectsofcurrent
approachesandsuggestinnovationstoimprovethelikelihoodofsuccess.”143Morefocus
shouldbedevotedtodefiningtargetsandindicatorsthatrespondtotheconditionsin
variouscountries,thatarerelevanttospecificcountrycontexts,andthatincorporatea
broaderrangeofvoicesandperspectives.Thiscontextualizedapproachshouldnotbe
usedtoavoidchallengingindicators,suchasmulti‐dimensionalonesorthosethatfocus
onendusers.Rather,itshouldbeusedtoexplorewhetherthecountrycontext–
includingthenatureandcapacityofgovernmentauthorities–suggeststhemtobe
useful.

Settingruleoflawtargetswillalsorequireattentiontodevelopinglocalsourcesofdataon
theruleoflaw.Thisincludesbuildingcapacitytocollectandanalyzedatathatis
relevanttolocalcontexts,andhelpstoassesslocalrealities,includingbyincorporating
sub‐nationalandlocalvoicesusingarangeofdifferentmethods.

 Thisrequiresdomesticdata‐collection,investmentbydonorsinbuilding
domesticcapacityforsuchdatacollection,andruleoflawstaffincountrywho
haveagraspoflocalcontext.144Italsorequireseffectiveengagementatthe
143UNSGreportA/63/226,at17
144DeborahIsser(2011),“UnderstandingandEngagingCustomaryJusticeSystems”,inDeborahIsser(ed.),
CustomaryJusticeandtheRuleofLawinWar‐TornSocieties.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesInstituteof
Peace,at344‐345.


35

internationalwithacademicsandpolicy‐makersfromrecipientcountries,145and
facilitiestopromoteSouth‐Southexchangeoflessons.

 Italsorequiresdifferenttypesofdata.Legalanalyses,householdsurveysand
economicdatadonotseemtobesufficientinexpressingthecomplexityofrule
oflawsystemsinordertosupportthedesignofproblem‐basedinterventions.146
Thisisparticularlytruewhenwethinkofsystemsincorporatingtraditional,
customaryandotherformsofjustice.Understandinglocalconceptionsofjustice
andcapturingvoiceandagencythroughabroaderrangeofdata–forexample
theWorldBank’sVoicesofthePoorproject‐isessential

 Thisalsorequiresaconcertedeffortbydonorstolinklocalandnationaldata
andunderstandingofcontexts.Targetedlocalinterventionswillnotbesuccessful
withoutanunderstandingofthenationalcontextsofpowerandcoalitionsin
whichtheyplayout.Nationalorbiginterventionswillnotworkunlesstheyare
maderelevanttopowerandcoalitiondynamicsatthelocallevel.147Additional
dataandanalyticaltechniquesarerequiredtomeasurethesevariouselements
oftheruleoflaw.
LessonsfromtheMDGs
ExperiencesuggeststhevalueoftheMDGsforincreasingattentionandresourcesto
particulardevelopmentchallenges.ThemostfrequentlycitedbenefitoftheMDGshas
beenitsimpactonfocusingattentionofdonorsandrecipientcountriesonachieving
commonobjectivesandtargets.TheMDGsarecreditedwithhavinggenerated
consensusarounddevelopmentpriorities,raisedinternationalawarenessofpoverty,
shiftedthedevelopmentdiscoursefromafocusoneconomicgrowthtopoverty
reduction,andencouragedgovernmentsandtheirpublicstodevoteresourcesto
addressthesegoals.148TheMDGsalsoledtoimproveddatacollectionandtechniques
formeasuringdevelopmentoutcomes,toenablethedefinitionofconcreteand
measurablegoals.149

Theevidenceforthisimpactislimitedsofar.Fewsystematicstudieshavebeencarried
outtomeasuretheseeffectsandmoreresearchisneeded.150Thosestudiesthathave
beenconductedsuggestthattheimpactofMDGsonachievinggoalshaseithervariedby
thespecificgoal–withmoreprogressonincome,primarycompletionrates,childand
145WilliamTwining,“LegalPluralism101”,ininTamanaha,B.,Sage,C.andWoolcock,M.(eds.),Legal
PluralismandDevelopment:ScholarsandPractitionersinDialogue.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
146Desai,D.,Isser,D.andWoolcock,M.(2012),‘RethinkingJusticeReforminFragileandConflict‐Affected
States:LessonsforEnhancingtheCapacityofDevelopmentAgencies’,4HagueJournalontheRuleofLaw54.
147GilesMohanandKristianStokke,2000.“Participatorydevelopmentandempowerment:thedangersof
localism”.ThirdWorldQuarterly,21(2),pp.247‐268.
148SakikoFukuda‐Parr,Shouldglobalgoalsettingcontinue,andhow,inthepost‐2015era?,DESAWorking
Paper117(2012,ST/ESA/2012/DWP/117),2;CharlesKennyandAndySumner,MoreMoneyorMore
Development:WhatHavetheMDGsAchieved?(CenterforGlobalDevelopmentWorkingPaper278,2011),
AlexEvansandDavidSteven,BeyondtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals:AgreeingaPost‐2015
DevelopmentFramework(ManagingGlobalOrderWorkingPaper,2012),
http://www.beyond2015.org/sites/default/files/evans_steven_millennium_2015.pdf,6;andClaire
MelamedandAndySumner,APost‐215GlobalDevelopmentAgreement:why,what,who?(Paperfor
ODI/UNDPCairoworkshoponapost‐2015GlobalDevelopmentAgreement,2011)
http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi‐assets/publications‐opinion‐files/7369.pdf,2‐4.
149ClaireMelamed,After2015:Context,politicsandprocessesforapost‐2015globalagreementon
development(OverseasDevelopmentInstitute,2012),7.
150SeeRichardManning.2009.“UsingIndicatorstoEncourageDevelopment:LessonsfromtheMillennium
DevelopmentGoals”DIISReport1,DanishInstituteforInternationalStudies.


36

maternalmortalitythanothergoals151–orhasnotledtoanyaccelerationinachieving
goalsrelativetothepre‐2000period.152Moreover,studiesofcertainsectors,in
particularhealth,havenotedthedistortiveimpactoftheMDGsonstatesystems,with
anoveremphasisofaidandpolicyonspecifictargets(suchasHIV/AIDSandmalaria
preventionandtreatment)tothedetrimentofotheressentialareas(suchas
deworming).153ThuswhiletheMDGsappeartohavehadanimpactonincreasingaid
flowstopriorityareas,theimpactoneffectivegovernmentpolicyandresource
allocationislessclear.154Aclearlessonlearnedistodevoteresourcesandattentionto
ensuringthattheobjectivesandtargetsareresultingingreaterresourceallocation.

TheMDGexperiencehighlightedtheimportanceoftheROLforbroaderdevelopment
outcomes.Areviewofcountryreportsrevealstheimportanceofaddressingtheruleof
lawtoachieveMDGtargetsacrosssectors.155Inabroadrangeofcountries,establishing
transparentandlegitimatelegalframeworks,ensuringpredictableenforcementofrules
andprocedures,andreducingcorruptionhaveenabledeffectivedeliveryofhealth,
educationandothersocialservices.Theabsenceoftheseelementshasinmanycases
beencitedasafactorincountries’failuretomeettargets.Forexample,legitimatelaws
andcredibleenforcementmechanismshaveparticularlycontributedtoexpanding
opportunitiesforwomenandvulnerablegroupstoparticipateineconomicandpolitical
life–asrequiredbythethirdMDGongenderequality.

Inafewcases,theMDGshaveencouragedcountriestodefinecontext‐specificapproaches
topromotingtheruleoflaw.Inahandfulofcountries,includingMongolia,Albania,
CambodiaandIraq,theMDGshaveresultedinspecificattentiontoelementsoftherule
oflaw.Asnotedabove,thesecountriesadoptedadditionalMDGobjectivesandtargets
relatedtotheruleoflaw,anticorruption,governanceorhumansecurity.TheMongolian
MDG,whichonrespectinghumanrights,ensuringfreeaccesstoinformation,
mainstreamingdemocraticprinciplesandpractices,andreducingcorruption,reflected
broadpublicconsultationsaswellastheinputofinternationalexpertisetodefine
targets,indicatorsandmeasurementtechniques.156TheAlbanianMDGfocusedon
improvinggovernance,ruleoflawandinclusionofminoritiesinthecontextofitsbidfor
EUaccession.Cambodia’sMDGsfocusedontheneedtoreducetheimpactoflandmines
andimproveassistancetovictims.TheimpactoftheseMDGsontheresourcesdevoted
totheseissuesorthesuccessofprogramssofarhasnotbeensystematicallytested.

SomeofthelessonslearnedfromtheMDGsareparticularlyrelevanttotheruleoflaw,
especiallytheneedtobetterreflectvaryingnationalandsub‐nationalcontexts,andto
151CharlesKennyandAndySumner,MoreMoneyorMoreDevelopment:WhatHavetheMDGsAchieved?
(CenterforGlobalDevelopmentWorkingPaper278,2011),18.
152SakikoFukuda‐ParrandJoshuaGreenstein,HowShouldMDGImplementationBeMeasured:Faster
ProgressorMeetingTargets?(UNDP‐IPCWorkingpaper63,2010)http://www.ipc‐
undp.org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper63.pdf,22.
153Molyneux,DavidH.,“Combatingthe‘‘otherdiseases’’ofMDG6:changingtheparadigmtoachieveequity
andpovertyreduction?”,TransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofTropicalMedicineandHygiene(2008)102,
509—519;Shiffman,J.,2008.HasdonorprioritizationofHIV/AIDSdisplacedaidforotherhealthissues?
HealthPolicyPlan.23,95—100.
154SakikoFukuda‐Parr,Shouldglobalgoalsettingcontinue,andhow,inthepost‐2015era?,DESAWorking
Paper117(2012,ST/ESA/2012/DWP/117),5.;CharlesKennyandAndySumner,MoreMoneyorMore
Development:WhatHavetheMDGsAchieved?(CenterforGlobalDevelopmentWorkingPaper278,2011),
4;seealsoClaireMelamedandAndySumner,APost‐215GlobalDevelopmentAgreement:why,what,who?
(PaperforODI/UNDPCairoworkshoponapost‐2015GlobalDevelopmentAgreement,2011),at14.
155Referencestoadequatelegalframeworks,effectiveenforcementandresolutionofgrievancesare
sprinkledthroughoutcountryreports,althoughruleoflawisrarelyanexplicittheme.
156Dorjsuren,P,“Mongolia’sExperienceinDevelopingDemocraticGovernanceIndicators,”TheAcademyof
PoliticalEducation,Mongolia,at
http://academy.org.mn/apem/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=93


37

incorporatebroaderconsultation.OneofthemaincritiquesoftheMDGswastheir
insufficientattentiontovaryinglocalcontextsandconditions.Theselectionofgoalsdid
notincludebroadconsultationsacrosscountries,oramongdifferentgroupswithin
countries,leadingtotheexclusionofimportantaspectsofdevelopment.157Although
commonobjectivesandtargetswereusefulinfacilitatingmeasurement,theydidnot
sufficientlyaddressvariationsacrosscontexts.158Globally,thetargetsdidnotaddress
thedisparitiesacrosscountriesthatconstrainedtheachievementoftheruleoflaw.At
thesub‐nationallevel,aggregateindicatorsdidnotreflectthechallengeofreducing
inequalitiesbetweendifferentgroupsorgiveprioritytothemostdisadvantaged.

Theimportanceofnavigatingthetensionbetweenuniversalbenchmarksandcontext‐
specificobjectivesisalsoparticularlyrelevanttotheruleoflaw.Giventhevariationinthe
substantiveunderpinnings,institutionalformsandprocessesthataffecttheruleoflaw
indifferentcontexts,itisparticularlyimportanttoengagewitharangeofthinkers,
ideasandperspectivesfromsocietiesinboththeGlobalNorthandSouth.Goalsand
indicatorsshouldreflectaparticularpathwayorrelationshipbetweentheruleoflaw
anddevelopment.Indefiningobjectives,targetsandindicators,policymakersshould
explorethemultiplewaysofmeasuringtheruleoflawdescribedabove,thatrangefrom
normativecommitmentstoinstitutionalperformancetocitizenperceptionand
experience,alongwitheffortstoconstructflexiblebasketsorsystemsofindicatorsthat
respondtoparticularcontexts.Developmentobjectivesrelatedtotheruleoflawshould
alsoreflectconsultationsthatincludedifferentgroupswithinsocieties,andbeflexible
tolocalconditions,normsandinstitutions.
ConcludingThoughtsandPossibleApproaches
Theruleoflawisofenduringimportancetodevelopmentpolicydiscourse.The
relationshipbetweentheruleoflawanddevelopmentismulti‐facetedandrunsthrough
variouspathways.Nonetheless,substantialevidencehasaccumulatedshowingits
importancetodevelopment.Countrieshaveexpressedtheircommitmenttotheruleof
lawthroughseveralinternationalfora,includingtheUNGeneralAssemblyaswellas
severalregionalandinternationalbodiesandinternationaltreatiesestablishingstates’
responsibilitytoprotecthumanrights.Civilsocietyactorshaveincreasedtheircallsfor
addressingtheruleoflawaspartofthepost‐2015developmentagenda.159

Althoughtheruleoflawishighlycomplex,itispartofthedeepstructureofallsocieties.As
statesoutlinedintheRio+20Outcomedocument,thepost‐2015developmentgoals
shouldhaveuniversalappeal.Attentiontotheruleoflawwouldreflectasharedsense
thathumandignityandjusticematter,andthushaveglobalpolitical,socialand
economicresonance.Giventheprevalenceofpovertyandinequalityinbothdeveloped
anddevelopingcountries,itispossibletosay,forexample,thatallcountriesface
157SakikoFukuda‐Parr,Shouldglobalgoalsettingcontinue,andhow,inthepost‐2015era?,DESAWorking
Paper117(2012,ST/ESA/2012/DWP/117),11,12;WilliamEasterly,“HowtheMillenniumDevelopment
GoalsareUnfairtoAfrica,”WorldDevelopmentvol.73,no.1(2008),27;ClaireMelamed,After2015:Context,
politicsandprocessesforapost‐2015globalagreementondevelopment(OverseasDevelopmentInstitute,
2012),7.
158SakikoFukuda‐Parr,Shouldglobalgoalsettingcontinue,andhow,inthepost‐2015era?,DESAWorking
Paper117(2012,ST/ESA/2012/DWP/117),10‐11.;CharlesKennyandAndySumner,MoreMoneyorMore
Development:WhatHavetheMDGsAchieved?(CenterforGlobalDevelopmentWorkingPaper278,2011),
11;MichaelA.Clemens,CharlesJ.KennyandToddJ.Moss,“TheTroublewiththeMDGs:Confronting
ExpectationsofAidandDevelopmentSuccess,”WorldDevelopmentvol.35,no.5(2007).
159See
http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/pub/policy_brief._looking_beyond_2015_a_role_for_governance
andhttp://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/projects/justice‐and‐development


38

challengesrelatedtoensuringeffectiveaccesstojusticebythepoorestandmost
marginalizedsectorsoftheirsocieties.

Agrowingbodyofevidenceandpracticepointtotheimportanceoftheruleofacross
sectorsofdevelopment.Theruleoflawisanendinitselfaswellasanenablingfactors
andelementofprocessthataffectsawiderangeofdevelopmentoutcomes.The
evidencefortherelationshipbetweencertainelementsoftheruleoflawand
developmentisgrowing,althoughmoreresearchandimprovedmeasurementtoolsare
needed.Developmentpracticeisalsochangingtoreflectanuancedandcomplex
understandingoftheruleoflawthatisrootedinlocalcontextandaddressesparticular
developmentchallengesinavarietyofsectors.

Incorporatingtheruleoflawintothepost‐2015developmentagendacouldincrease
attentiontoitsroleasanenablerandoutcomeofdevelopment.Theexperienceofthe
MillenniumDevelopmentGoalssuggeststhevalueofsettingglobaltargetstosteer
resourcesandattentiontowardtranslatingcommitmentsintopractice.Additional
globalfocusontheruleoflawcanchannelresourcestowarddeepeningtheevidence
base,generatingnewdataandmeasurementtechniques,anddesigningeffective
solutionstochallengesrelatedtotheruleoflawanddevelopment.

Effortstoincorporatetheruleoflawintothepost‐2015developmentagendashould
addressthelessonslearnedfromtheMDGsandfiftyyearsofruleoflawanddevelopment
programming:

 Incorporatingtheruleoflawrequiresclarifyingtheconceptoftheruleoflaw,and
itsrelationshiptodevelopment.Thevariousconceptionsoftheruleoflaw,
includingdifferingsubstantiveandculturalcommitmentsandthevarietyof
institutionsinvolved,cancomplicateeffortstodefineacommonobjective.
Nonetheless,theevidencedescribedabovesuggestsspecificpathwaysthrough
whichtheruleoflawmatterstodevelopment.Itshouldbepossibletofocuson
certainpathwaysandoutcomesthataremostrelevanttothepost‐2015agenda,
whileensuringflexibilityandadaptabilitytolocalcontexts.Arobustdiscussion
couldleadtothedefinitionofcoreelementsoftheruleoflawthatcanbe
adoptedasaspecificobjectiveorincorporatedintootherobjectives.

 Effortstomeasuretheruleoflawshouldtakeintoaccountthepotentialfor
unintendedconsequencesinadoptingindicatorsforcomplexandmulti‐
dimensionalconceptsliketheruleoflaw.Indicatorscanempowercertainactors
overothers,ordistortinstitutionalperformance.Averynarrowconceptionof
theruleoflawfocusedononeaspectofphysicalsafety,andmaydistortpolicy
efforts,forexamplebydirectingresourcestowardcertainformsofviolentcrime
ratherthanothersourcesofinsecurity,disputeorgrievancethatmore
commonlyaffectcitizens.

 Inaddressingtheruleoflaw,anyfutureglobalframeworkshouldremain
sufficientlyadaptabletoreflectitscontext‐specificandcomplexnature.Giventhe
ruleoflaw’scontestednature,itisparticularlyimportanttoengagewitharange
ofthinkers,ideasandperspectivesfromsocietiesinboththeGlobalNorthand
South.Moreover,theexperienceofunintendedconsequencessuggeststhe
importanceofbroadinputindefiningruleoflawelementsofthedevelopment
framework,includingvoiceswithinandacrosscountrieswithvarying
conceptionsandpriorities. Thedefinitionoftargetsandindicatorsshouldalso
reflectlocal,context‐specificunderstandingoftheruleoflawandits
relationshiptodevelopment,withouteschewingorunderminingcomplexity.



39

 Thepost‐2015agendashouldrecognizetheimportanceoftheruleoflawacross
sectorsofdevelopment.Itisincreasinglyunderstoodthattheruleoflawshapes
outcomesacrosssectors,fromhealthandeducationtoequitablegrowth,
throughinstitutionsandprocessesthatensurelegitimatelegalframeworks,
predictableandfairenforcement,andopportunitiestoequitablyresolve
grievancesandclaims.Therelationshipbetweentheruleoflawand
developmentarisesnotonlyinaparticularsetofinstitutions,butalsoacross
social,economicandpoliticaldevelopment.

 Goals,targetsandindicatorsrelatedtotheruleoflawshouldreflectitsmultiple
dimensionsandfunctions.The multi‐facetednatureoftheruleoflawrequiresa
flexibleandmulti‐dimensionalapproachtosettingtargetsandindicators.Many
measuresoftheruleoflawhavetendedtoprivilegecertainconceptionsofthe
ruleoflawoverothers–suchassecurityofpropertyratherthanequitable
enforcement–andtofocusoninstitutionalperformance–suchascase
processingtime‐ratherthanoutcomesforcitizens. Someoftherecent
innovationsinmeasuringtheruleoflaw,includingdefiningbasketsofindicators
orindicesthatincludemultipledimensionsoftheruleoflawandthatcanbe
tailoredtolocalcontexts,mightbetterreflectthiscomplexitythanasingle
indicator.
Threegeneralapproachestoincorporatingtheruleoflawintothepost‐2015development
agendacouldbeconsidered.Theseapproaches,basedoncurrentdeliberationsregarding
thefutureframeworkasreflectedinintergovernmentaldiscussionsandoutcomes,are
notmutuallyexclusiveandcouldbeadoptedinconcert:

1. Defineacommonruleoflawgoalwithaflexiblebasketofindicatorsthat
canbetailoredtocountrycontexts.Aruleoflawgoalwouldsignalthe
importanceoftheruleoflawasanoutcomeofdevelopmentonparwithother
outcomessuchaspovertyreductionandhealth.
o Selectingaruleoflawgoalwouldrequireachievingbroadconsensuson
aparticularaspectorfunctionoftheruleoflawthatresonatesacross
borders.Thismightfocusonsafetyandsecurity,aformofgovernance,
accesstojustice,orsocialandeconomicjustice.Achievingsuch
consensuswouldrequireconsultationsattheinternationalandcountry
levelsthatincludeavarietyofvoices.Thegoalwouldalsoneedtobe
sufficientlybroadtoreflectvariationsacrossculturesandcontexts.It
wouldneedtotakeintoaccountthelessonslearnedfromtheMDG
process–suchasaiddistortionandunintendedconsequences‐andthe
historyofruleoflawpolicymaking.
o Thegoalshouldfocusonanaspectoftheruleoflawthatisrelatedto
otherpartsofthepost‐2015agenda.Forexample,ifthepost‐2015
frameworkfocusesonpovertyreduction,thegoalmightbeoriented
towardsocialoreconomicjustice,perhapsaimingforequitable
allocationofopportunitiesandservicesoraccesstocredibleprocesses
forresolvinggrievancesanddisputes.
o Developingsuchagoalanditstargetsisacomplexendeavour.Thegoal
wouldbespecific,time‐boundanduniversallyapplied.Forexample,a
goalonequitableaccesstojusticemightfocusonthepercentageof
peoplewithaccesstocertaintypesofservices,orwhofeelfairlytreated
inthedeliveryofservices.Yetatthesametime,lessonsfromtheMDGs


40

suggestthatcountriesshouldretainflexibilitybydesigningatleastsome
oftheirowntargetsandindicators,drawingfrom“baskets”ofindicators
thatcanbetailoredtospecificcontexts.Forexample,agoalrelatedto
publicsafetyandsecuritymightinvolveatargetofreducingviolent
crimebyacertainpercentage,butallowcountriestodefinethetypeof
crimethatismostsalientinitscontext,andcomplementindicators
basedoncrimestatisticswithmeasuresofcitizenexperience.Carefully‐
craftedconsultationswithineachcountrywouldaimtodevelop
indicatorsthatresonatewitheachsociety’sprioritiesandexperience.

2. Adopttheruleoflawasahighlevel“enabling”goal.Operatingatalevel
beyondtheprimarydevelopmentgoals,anenablinggoalwouldcommit
countriestomakenational‐levelpolicychangesthatenableprogressonother
developmentgoals.Thisapproachrecognizesthattheruleoflawisnotjustan
endinitself,butthatitalsoenablesabroaderrangeofdevelopmentoutcomes.
o Theenablinggoalwouldfocusonaspecificelementorfunctionofthe
ruleoflawthat,accordingtoempiricalevidence,facilitatesotheraspects
ofthenewdevelopmentframework.Onthebasisofthebriefsummaryof
theevidencepresentedabove,anenablinggoalcouldfocusononeor
morespecificfunctions,includingenforcementofcontracts;accountable
andtransparentapplicationofexecutiveauthority;protectionof
physicalsafety;oraccessforvulnerablegroupstoknowledgeabout
rightsandmeanstoenforcethem.Forexample,apost‐2015emphasison
povertyreductionandinequalitymightleadtoaruleoflawenabling
goalonparticipation,accesstoinformationandrightsprotectionfor
vulnerablegroupstoensuretheybenefitequallyfrompovertyreduction
efforts.

o Theenablinggoalwouldentailconcrete,measurablecommitmentsto
adoptnational‐levellegalorpolicychanges.Thesecommitmentswould
focusonanationalruleoflawsystemasadistinctobjectofpolicy
change.Buttheywouldalsobedesignedtoenableachievementofgoals
inothersectors.Forexample,tofulfilanenablinggoalrelatedto
expandingaccesstoinformationandprotectionofrights,countries
mightcommittosuchpolicychangesasadoptingfreedomofinformation
laws,improvingperformanceoflawenforcement,orexpandingaccessto
paralegalservices.Thesetargetswouldbedesignedtoenableprogress
onothergoalssuchashealthcaredelivery,buttheywouldproduce
broaderbenefitsaswell.
o Thedetailsofthebenchmarksandindicatorscouldvarybycountry.
Whileadoptinguniversalgoals,countrieswoulddefineatleastsome
targetsandindicatorsbasedontheirowninstitutionalneeds,contexts
anddevelopmentchallenges.Forexample,agoalfocusedonaccessto
justicemightincludeauniversaltargetfocusedonexpandingthe
percentageofpeoplewithaccesstofairandcredibledisputeresolution
mechanisms,butallowlocalvariationindefiningthespecifictypeof
mechanism–fromformalcourts,tocustomarytribunals,toparalegalor
administrativemeasures.Theindicatorsformeasuringtheeffectiveness
andfairnessofthesemechanismsmightsimilarlyvaryaccordingtothe
context.

3. Incorporatetheruleoflawacrossdevelopmentgoals.Focusingontheruleof
lawasanelementofprocess,thisapproachwouldensurethatother


41

developmentgoalssimultaneouslycontributetotheruleoflawbyincorporating
targetsandindicatorsrelatedtotheruleoflawacrossthesegoals.This
approachhighlightstheimportanceoftheruleoflawacrossdevelopment,
withoutdefiningitasadesirableendinitself.
o Thisapproachwouldrequireclarifyingtheelementsofprocessthatare
importanttoachievingthepost‐2015goalsaccordingtotheempirical
evidence.Theseelementsmightincludelegitimateandtransparentlegal
frameworks;publicparticipationandagency;thefairandequitable
resolutionofdisputesandgrievances;credibleenforcementofthelaw;
and/orrightsprotection.Eachoftheseelementswouldcontributetothe
achievementofothergoalsbystrengtheningtheruleoflawaround
particularissues.
o Theseelementscouldbeappliedacrossgoalsbyincorporatingspecific
targetsandindicatorsrelatedtotheruleoflawforeachgoal.For
example,adevelopmentgoalonimprovingmaternalhealthcould
includetargetsonequitableaccesstoservices,andincludeindicatorson
theadoptionofalegalframeworkestablishingrightstoservices,
includingmechanismsthatenforcerightsandhandlegrievancesfairly
andequitably.
o Thetargetsandindicatorswouldbecarefullyformulatedtoaddressa
rangeofcountrycontextsandinstitutionalneeds.Theymightalso
combinearangeofdatasources.Forexample,eachgoalmightinclude
indicatorsthatcombineuserperspectivescollectedthroughsurveys,
outputindicatorsshowingnumbersofindividualsserved,andinput
indicatorsrevealinglegalchanges.