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Words to count on: L1 and L2 speakers’ perceptions of nonce words in vocabulary research and some implications

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Barry Lee Reynolds at University of Macau
Barry Lee Reynolds
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Abstract and Figures

Vocabulary research examining the amount of repeated exposure (i.e., frequency) needed to acquire a word through reading has often relied on the use of nonce words. Nonce words have been used by researchers to ensure exposure to target words only occurs through the reading of target texts given to research participants and not through other means of exposure (Pitts, White, & Krashen, 1989; Saragi, Nation, & Meister, 1978; Waring & Takaki, 2003; inter alia). The use of nonce words in vocabulary research assumes that participants treat nonce words as real words while reading. I report on an empirical study that shows that L1 and L2 speakers of English give different status to nonce and real words; this difference in status matters to vocabulary acquisition research and may have affected previous research outcomes. L1 (n = 9) and L2 speakers (n = 10) were given a 4,588-token excerpt from the unmodified English novel The Big Friendly Giant (Dahl, 1982) containing nonce words (31 types; 64 tokens) and asked to read without any aid (e.g., dictionary). Eggins (2004, p. 28) describes the nonce words in the novel "as conform[ing] to possible phonological combinations of English, …exploit[ing] the phonaesthetic qualities of English sound combinations…incorporate[ing]…the grammar of English, through the attachment of conventional English morphemes of tense and word class…Thus the grammatical and phonological resources of the language function conventionally." The nonce words contained both lexicalized (e.g., bellypoppers for 'hellicopters') and non-lexicalized (grinksludger for 'a type of insult') words. A series of interview questions were asked to uncover L1 and L2 speakers’ perceptions of the nonce words that appeared within the excerpt they had just read. Through the use of indirect interview techniques, I uncovered that L1 and L2 speakers gave a different status to the nonce and real English words read. For example, differences in nonce word saliency between the two participant groups and whether they regarded nonce words as worth learning was revealed.
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120 | Reading Research Quarterly, 50(1)
acquisition. None of the correlations were statistical.
Failing to find a significant correlation indicates that
there is less likelihood that a correlation exists even
though the results show some amount of correlation be-
tween reading time and assessment results. Still, it is hard
to draw definite conclusions based on correlation results
due to the sample sizes of the L1 and L2 experimental
groups.
Q u e s t i o n 3 a s k e d p a r t i c i p a n t s , “ D i d y o u e n j o y r e a d -
ing the book?” All of the L1 experimental participants
and all but one of the L2 experimental participants
(96.88%) reported that they enjoyed the book. This result
suggests that although a few of the L2 speakers reported
that participating in the study was a burden (see question
1), it was probably not the actual reading of this target text
that caused them to feel that way. Although all of the L1
experimental group and almost all of the L2 experimental
group reported that they enjoyed reading the target text,
when asked in question 4 about the difficulty of the book
(“How was the book level? Did you find the book difficult
to understand?”), 25% of the L1 experimental group ( n =
5) and 34.38% of the L2 experimental group ( n = 11)
thought the novel was difficult. This result indicates that
although the novel was found to be difficult by some of
the participants, most still enjoyed reading it.
Vocabulary
The next set of questions dealt with the vocabulary that
participants encountered in the novel. Question 5 asked,
“Were unknown words a problem?” Exactly 30% of the L1
experimental group ( n = 6) and 50% of the L2 experimen-
tal group ( n = 16) found the unknown words to be a
problem.
F o r q u e s t i o n 6 , “ W e r e t h e r e t o o m a n y u n k n o w n
words?” exactly 15% ( n = 3) of the L1 experimental par-
ticipants and 56.25% of the L2 experimental partici-
pants ( n = 18) reported that there were too many
unknown words in the novel. The percentage of L1 ex-
perimental participants who deemed the novel as hav-
ing too many unknown words was lower than the
percentage of the L1 experimental participants who
considered the unknown words a problem. The oppo-
site was true for the L2 experimental group: The per-
centage of L2 experimental participants who considered
the unknown words a problem was lower than the per-
centage of L2 experimental participants who deemed
the novel as having too many unknown words. The re-
sult implies that although some L1 speakers considered
unknown words to be a problem, the problem was not
necessarily due to the number of unknown words en-
countered in the novel. It appears that although some
L2 speakers felt that there were too many unknown
words, some of the L2 speakers still felt that the un-
known words were not a problem.
F o r q u e s t i o n 9 , “ D o y o u t h i n k y o u h a v e l e a r n e d a n y
new words from the book?” a similar percentage of both
L1 experimental participants (80%; n = 16) and L2 ex-
perimental participants (81.25%; n = 26) reported that
they felt they had learned some of the unknown words.
Vocabulary Strategies
The last set of questions concerned vocabulary learning
strategies used during the reading. In answering question
7, “What was the main strategy you used for dealing with
unknown words?” the L1 experimental participants re-
ported using three vocabulary strategies: surrounding
context ( n = 12; 60%), root words and affixes ( n = 5; 25%),
and comparing with already known vocabulary ( n = 3;
15%). In contrast, the L2 experimental participants re-
ported using four vocabulary strategies: surrounding
context ( n = 28; 87.5%), ignore ( n = 2; 6.25%), root words
and affixes ( n = 1; 3.13%), and comparing with already
known vocabulary ( n = 1; 3.13%).
For question 8, “Did you have previous instruction
on possible strategies to deal with unknown words you
encounter while reading?” a similar percentage of both
L1 experimental participants ( n = 16; 80%) and L2 ex-
perimental participants ( n = 26; 81.25%) answered yes.
L1 and L2 Experimental Participants’
Perceptions of Nonce Words as
Being Useful for Learning
Results of the number of English and nonce words
h i g h l i g h t e d f o r e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t d u r i n g t h e p o s t h o c i n t e r -
views is shown in Table 3 . L1 experimental participants
tended to highlight more words than L2 experimental
TABLE 3
Comparison of L1 and L2 Speakers’ Highlighted Words
L1
speaker ID
English
word
types
Nonce
word
types
L2
speaker ID
English
word
types
Nonce
word
types
1 153 0 1 28 2
2 106 0 2 14 3
3 156 0 3 29 0
4 27 0 4 78 10
5 15 0 5 9 0
6 72 0 6 5 0
7 27 0 7 17 2
8 35 0 8 4 0
9 105 0 9 23 3
10 27 6
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Second Language Reading and Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2004
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
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Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition from Reading, Reading-While-Listening, and Listening to Stories
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2008
This study examined the rate at which English vocabulary was acquired from the 3 input modes of reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. It selected 3 sets of 28 words within 4 frequency bands and administered 2 test types immediately after the reading and listening treatments, 1 week later and 3 months later. The results showed that new words could be learned incidentally in all 3 modes, but that most words were not learned. Items occurring more frequently in the text were more likely to be learned and were more resistant to decay. The data demonstrated that, on average, when subjects were tested by unprompted recall, the meaning of only 1 of the 28 items met in either of the reading modes and the meaning of none of the items met in the listening-only mode, would be retained after 3 months.
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Learning Words from Context
Article
  • Jan 1985
School children appear to increase their vocabularies by thousands of words per year. Many have hypothesized that a large proportion of this growth occurs through incidental learning from written context. However, experimental research has until now failed to provide unequivocal support of this hypothesis. The present study attempted to determine whether students do acquire measurable knowledge about unfamiliar words while reading natural text. Fifty-seven eighth-grade students of average and above average reading ability read either an expository or a narrative text about 1,000 words in length. After reading, subjects completed two vocabulary assessment tasks on 15 target words from each passage (thus serving as controls for the passage not read), an individual interview and a multiple-choice test, both designed to tap partial knowledge of word meanings. Results of within-subject, hierarchical regression analyses showed small but statistically reliable gains in word knowledge from context. Tentative extrapolations from the results and current estimates of the volume of children's reading lead us to believe that incidental learning from context accounts for a substantial proportion of the vocabulary growth that occurs during the school years. /// [French] Les écoliers semblent augmenter leur vocabulaire de milliers de mots par an. Nombreux sont ceux qui ont pour hypothèse qu'une large proportion de cette croissance intervient grâce à une acquisition accidentelle à partir d'un contexte écrit. Cependant, la recherche expérimentale n'a pas pu jusqu'à présent fournir un soutient univoque à cette hypothèse. L'étude présente essaie de déterminer si les élèves acquièrent en fait des connaissances mesurables sur les mots qui ne leur sont pas familiers au cours de la lecture de textes naturels. Cinquantesept élèves de quatrième à compétence de lecture moyenne et au-dessus de la moyenne ont lu un texte d'exposition ou de narration d'environ 1000 mots. Après la lecture, les sujets ont complété deux tâches d'évaluation de vocabulaire sur 15 mots cibles à partir de chaque passage (servant ainsi de contrôles pour le passage non lu), un entretien individuel et un test à choix multipes, désignés à aborder la connaissance partielle des significations de mots. Les résultats des analyses de régression hiérarchique de sujet unique ont montré des gains moindres mais statistiquement sûrs en connaissance de mots à partir d'un contexte. Des extrapolations d'essai à partir des résultats et des calculs courants du volume de lecture chez les enfants nous ont menés à croire que la lecture accidentelle à partir d'un contexte compte pour une proportion substantielle de la croissance du vocabulaire qui a lieu au cours des années scolaires. /// [Spanish] Al parecer, alumnos incrementan su vocabulario con miles de palabras cada año. Muchos han avanzado la hipótesis que una gran proporción de este incremento ocurre por medio de aprendizaje incidental del contexto escrito. No obstante, investigación experimental no ha provisto evidencia irrefutable para esta hipótesis. Este estudio trató de determinar si los alumnos adquieren conocimiento medible de palabras desconocidas durante la lectura de textos normales. Cincuenta y siete alumnos de octavo grado, de habilidad normal y superior en lectura, leyeron un texto descriptivo o narrativo, de approximadamente 1000 palabras. Después de la lectura, los alumnos completaron 2 actividades de evaluación de vocabulario sobre 15 palabras específicas de cada pasaje (sirviendo así como control de los pasajes no leídos), una entrevista individual y un test de elección múltiple, ambos diseñados para descubrir conocimiento parcial de significado de palabras. Los resultados por individuo, utilizando análisis de jerarquía de regresión, mostraron pequeño pero estadísticamente fiable progreso en el conocimiento de palabras por medio de contexto. Extrapolaciones tentativas de los resultados y cálculos presentes del volumen de lectura de alumnos, nos llevan a deducir que aprendizaje incidental del contexto da cuenta de una proporción considerable del incremento de vocabulario que ocurre durante los años escolares.
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Incidental Learning of Word Meanings While Reading: A Chinese and American Cross-Cultural Study
Article
  • Jan 1995
Children's natural learning of word meanings while reading was investigated in a study involving 447 American and Chinese children in third and fifth grades. The children read one of two cross-translated stories and then completed a test on the difficult words in both the story they read and the one they did not read. The results showed significant incidental learning of word meanings in both grades in both countries. In each country, incidental word learning appeared on both easy and difficult test questions and among children of all levels of ability. For children from both cultures, the strength of contextual support in the stories and the conceptual difficulty of the words affected learning. The morphological transparency of words influenced word learning among Chinese fifth graders, but not among American children in either grade. Considering the many differences between China and the United States in language and culture, the results imply that incidental acquisition of word meanings while reading is a universal in written language development. /// [Spanish] En un estudio realizado con 447 niños estadounidenses y chinos de tercero y quinto grado se investigó el aprendizaje natural del signficado de palabras durante la lectura. Los niños leyeron una de dos historias traducidas y posteriormente completaron una prueba sobre las palabras difíciles, tanto de la historia que habían leído como de la que no habían leído. Los resultados mostraron un significativo aprendizaje incidental de los significados de las palabras en ambos grados en los dos países. En cada país, el aprendizaje incidental de palabras se manifestó en las preguntas fáciles y difíciles de la prueba y entre niños de todos los niveles de habilidad. La fuerza del soporte contextual de las historias y la dificultad conceptual de las palabras afectó el aprendizaje de los niños de ambas culturas. La transparencia morfológica de las palabras influenció el aprendizaje de palabras entre los niños chinos de quinto grado, pero no afectó a los niños estadounidenses de ninguno de los dos grados. Si se consideran las múltiples diferencias lingüísticas y culturales entre China y Estados Unidos, los resultados implican que la adquisición incidental de los significados de palabras durante la lectura es un universal del desarrollo del lenguaje escrito. /// [German] Das natürliche, automatische Wortbedeutungslernen von Kindern beim Lesen wurde in einer Studie mit 447 amerikanischen und chinesischen Kinder aus der dritten und fünften Klasse untersucht. Die Kinder lasen eine von zwei jeweils in die andere Sprache übersetzten Geschichten und füllten dann einen Test aus, in dem nach schwierigen Wörtern in beiden, der gelesenen und der ungelesenen Geschichte, gefragt wurde. Die Ergebnisse zeigten signifikantes Nebenbeilernen von Wortbedeutungen in beiden Klassen und beiden Ländern. In jedem Land war das zufällige Wortlernen sowohl in einfachen als auch schwierigen Fragen wie auch bei Kindern unterschiedlichster Befähigung zu beobachten. Bei Kindern beider Kulturen beeinflußte die Deutlichkeit der Erklärungen im Kontext der Geschichten und die begriffliche Schwierigkeit der Wörter den Lerneffekt. Die morphologische Durchsichtigkeit hatte Wirkung auf das Wortlernen bei chinesischen Fünftklässlern, jedoch nicht bei amerikanischen Kindern. Betrachtet man die vielen sprachlichen und kulturellen Unterschiede zwischen China und Amerika, legen die Ergebnisse nahe, daß das Nebenbeilernen von Wörtern beim Lesen eine Universalie der schriftsprachlichen Entwicklung ist. /// [French] On a étudié l'apprentissage naturel du sens des mots pendant la lecture chez 447 enfants américains et chinois de troisième et cinquième année. Les enfants ont lu une des deux histoires traduite dans l'autre langue, puis ont répondu à un test portant sur des mots difficiles de l'histoire qu'ils avaient lue et de l'histoire qu'ils n'avaient pas lue. Les résultats ont montré l'existence d'un apprentissage incident significatif du sens des mots aux deux niveaux scolaires et dans les deux pays. Dans chaque pays, un apprentissage incident des mots est apparu pour les questions faciles et difficiles et à tous les niveaux de maîtrise des enfants. Pour les enfants des deux cultures, l'apprentissage a été affecté par la force du support contextuel des histoires et par la difficulté des mots. La transparence morphologique des mots a joué un rôle sur l'apprentissage des mots chez les enfants chinois de cinquième année, mais pas chez les enfants américains à quelque niveau que ce soit. Compte tenu des multiples différences de langue et de culture entre la Chine et l'Amérique, les résultats impliquent que l'acquisition du sens des mots pendant la lecture est un universau dans le développement de la langue écrite.
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Incidental Vocabulary Learning by Advanced Foreign Language Students: The Influence of Marginal Glosses, Dictionary Use, and Reoccurrence of Unknown Words
Article
  • Sep 1996
  • MOD LANG J
Dutch advanced students of French read a French short story in one of three text reading conditions: Marginal Glosses (provision of L1 translations of unknown words), Dictionary (opportunity to use a bilingual dictionary), or Control. After reading, students were tested for their recall of 16 words that had appeared either once or three times in the text. Support was found for the hypothesis that frequency of occurrence will foster incidental vocabulary learning more when advanced second language (L2) readers are given the meanings of unknown words through marginal glosses or when they look up meanings in a dictionary than when no external information concerning unknown words' meanings is available. In the former case, reappearance of a word will reinforce the form-meaning connection in the reader's mental lexicon. In the latter case, readers will often ignore unknown words or incorrectly infer their meanings, which will limit the frequency effect. This article ends with recommendations for teachers and researchers.
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The Effects of Context on Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Article
  • Jan 2008
Japanese university students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) encountered 10 target words in 3 sets of 10 short contexts that were rated on the amount of information available to infer the target words' meanings. One group of learners met the target words in contexts rated more highly than the contexts read by the other group. A surprise vocabulary test that measured recall of form, recognition of form, recall of meaning, and recognition of meaning was administered after the treatments. The results showed that the group that read the contexts containing more contextual clues had significantly higher scores on both tests of meaning. The findings indicate that the quality of the context rather than the number of encounters with target words may have a greater effect on gaining knowledge of meaning. Conversely, it is the number of encounters that will have a greater effect on knowledge of form.
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