Conference PaperPDF Available

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra): from Natural Medicine in Ancient Times to Protection against Witches in the Middle Ages – a Brief Historical Overview

Authors:

Abstract

In ancient times humans knew that some plants have effects on the human body. Despite this knowledge, people at the time could not explain this power of plants, and thus they attributed supernatural forces to them. Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) was one of such plants. Elderberry seeds have been found associated with human activity by archaeologists and assigned to the Stone and Bronze Age. At that stage people used the fruits, bark and branches of the elderberry. In their writings, naturalists, healers and philosophers of Ancient Greece and Rome also referred to this mysterious healing plant. Hippocrates devoted special attention to the elderberry fruits, and Dioscorides recommended wine made from its roots as a remedy for snake bite. In the Middle Ages elderberry was used as protection against witches. In another period, its effects were attributed to the power of devils. According to mythology, the spirit dwells in its trunk; while the Germanic people believed that it was an evil spirit, in Denmark and Latvia it was a good spirit. Unpleasant odor and the presence of the fungus, Auricularia auricula-juadae, associated with the biblical story in which Judas Iscariot hanged himself on this shrub, certainly add to the negative connection. We now know that different parts of the elder have positive and beneficial effects on the human body. INTRODUCTION Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L. subsp. nigra) is a European species with an oceanic to sub-oceanic, cool-temperate and west-Mediterranean range. The species is common in western and central Europe as well as in North Africa, Scandinavia and Great Britain. Its distribution range reaches 63°N latitude in western Norway (with scattered naturalized shrubs up to at least 68°N) and approximately 55°N in Lithuania (Laivinš, 2002; Atkinson and Atkinson, 2002). The populations in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia as well as in the Azores are introduced. Sambucus nigra is present in the northern and western part of the Iberian peninsula, in Sicily and mainland Greece, but is absent from Crete. It occurs sporadically in western and eastern Turkey, particularly in the northern coastal strip. The eastern limit of its geographical range is approximately 55°E. In mountainous regions S. nigra is absent from the higher altitudes, such as above 1600 m in the Alps, 900 m in the Tatra mountains, 2200 m in Morocco (Atkinson and Atkinson, 2002) and 1200 m in the Caucasus (Anonymous, 1962). Overall, limits of the S. nigra native range are difficult to define due to its wide cultivation and naturalization since the Middle Ages, and in many countries it is cultivated, but not naturalized, or rare (Tutin et al., 1976). Elderberry has been introduced into many parts of the world including North Europe, East Asia, North America, New Zealand and the southern part of Australia (Hultén and Fries, 1986; Priedītis, 2002; Weber, 2003), and many taxonomists consider the native elderberries of North America and Asia as subspecies. ELDERBERRY BIOCULTURAL HISTORY American and European elderberries have been harvested by native people since
35
Elderberry (Sambucus nigra): from Natural Medicine in Ancient Times
to Protection against Witches in the Middle Ages – a Brief Historical
Overview
I. Salamon and D. Grulova
Department of Ecology
Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, University of Presov
Presov
Slovak Republic
Keywords: Adoxaceae, magic, medicinal plants, mythology
Abstract
In ancient times humans knew that some plants have effects on the human
body. Despite this knowledge, people at the timecould not explain this power of
plants, and thus they attributed supernatural forces to them. Elderberry (Sambucus
nigra) was one of such plants. Elderberry seeds have been found associated with
human activity by archaeologists and assigned to the Stone and Bronze Age. At that
stage people used the fruits, bark and branches of the elderberry. In their writings,
naturalists, healers and philosophers of Ancient Greece and Rome also referred to
this mysterious healing plant. Hippocrates devoted special attention to the
elderberry fruits, and Dioscorides recommended wine made from its roots as a
remedy for snake bite. In the Middle Ages elderberry was used as protection against
witches. In another period, its effects were attributed to the power of devils.
According to mythology, the spirit dwells in its trunk; while the Germanic people
believed that it was an evil spirit, in Denmark and Latvia it was a good spirit.
Unpleasant odor and the presence of the fungus, Auricularia auricula-juadae,
associated with the biblical story in which Judas Iscariot hanged himself on this
shrub, certainly add to the negative connection. We now know that different parts of
the elder have positive and beneficial effects on the human body.
INTRODUCTION
Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L. subsp. nigra) is a European species with an
oceanic to sub-oceanic, cool-temperate and west-Mediterranean range. The species is
common in western and central Europe as well as in North Africa, Scandinavia and Great
Britain. Its distribution range reaches 63°N latitude in western Norway (with scattered
naturalized shrubs up to at least 68°N) and approximately 55°N in Lithuania (Laivinš,
2002; Atkinson and Atkinson, 2002). The populations in the Atlas Mountains of
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia as well as in the Azores are introduced. Sambucus nigra is
present in the northern and western part of the Iberian peninsula, in Sicily and mainland
Greece, but is absent from Crete. It occurs sporadically in western and eastern Turkey,
particularly in the northern coastal strip. The eastern limit of its geographical range is
approximately 55°E. In mountainous regions S. nigra is absent from the higher altitudes,
such as above 1600 m in the Alps, 900 m in the Tatra mountains, 2200 m in Morocco
(Atkinson and Atkinson, 2002) and 1200 m in the Caucasus (Anonymous, 1962). Overall,
limits of the S. nigra native range are difficult to define due to its wide cultivation and
naturalization since the Middle Ages, and in many countries it is cultivated, but not
naturalized, or rare (Tutin et al., 1976). Elderberry has been introduced into many parts of
the world including North Europe, East Asia, North America, New Zealand and the
southern part of Australia (Hultén and Fries, 1986; Priedītis, 2002; Weber, 2003), and
many taxonomists consider the native elderberries of North America and Asia as
subspecies.
ELDERBERRY BIOCULTURAL HISTORY
American and European elderberries have been harvested by native people since
Proc. Is
t
IS on Elderberry
Ed.: A.L. Thomas
Acta Hort. 1061, ISHS 2015
36
before recorded history and have been written about around the world for centuries,
leading to a plethora of vernacular names. The generic name Sambucus is apparently
derived from the Greek world sambuke or Latin world sambuca, which designates either a
kind of a flute that was made out of an elderberry twig, or a small harp (Charlebois et al.,
2010). “Elder” (elderberry) comes from the Anglo-Saxon word “aeld” which meant “fire”
as the hollowed out stems were used to blow up a fire, and the hollowed out tubes were
also used to fashion early smoking pipes, giving it the name of “pipe tree” (Milliken and
Bridgewater, 2004). Old names like holler, hylder, hyllantree, and the German word
holunder all refer to an ancient vegetation Goddess, Hyldemoer (“Elder Mother”), as she
was known in Denmark (Morgenstern, 2000). Elderberry must have been cultivated from
ancient periods because its remains have been found in archeological sites (Zohary and
Hopf, 2000). Elderberry seeds have been found in archeological localities dated to Stone
and Bronze Ages (3,000-4,000 B.C.) in Italy and Switzerland (Pejml, 1938; Morgenstern,
2000). Theophrastus (371-287 B.C.), a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos, was the
successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He called the shrub “akté”. Pedanius
Dioscorides (40-90 A.D.) was a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, the author
of De Materia Medica, who recognized two different forms: “akté” and “chamaiakté”.
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 A.D.), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman
author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as army commander of the early
Roman Empire. He presented a second, different species of elderberry, now known as
Sambucus ebulus L.
There are many references to the elder being the tree Judas used to hang himself
from, and one of its names is the “Judas Tree.” Other historical accounts say the Cross of
Calvary was made of elder wood, hence linking it to sorrow and death. Also Shakespeare
refers to the elder in his play “Cymbeline” as a symbol of sadness and grief (Milliken and
Bridgewater, 2004).
Elderberry has often been described as the medicine for the country people and
many of its medicinal uses are still in common use by modern herbalists. John Parkinson
(1567-1650) was apothecary to James I and a founding member of the Worshipful Society
of Apothecaries. He is celebrated for his two monumental works, the first Paradisi in Sole
Paradisus Terrestris in 1629 (a gardening book), but the second was his Theatrum
Botanicum of 1644, one of the largest herbals ever produced. A portion of this book was
dedicated entirely to the virtues of the elder tree, wherein the author sings its praises in no
less than 230 pages. That portion of the book became so popular that a booklet of that
section was published in several editions in both English and Latin. Every single part of
the plant was mentioned as medicinally useful. Its medicinal powers were deemed
effective for treating quinsy (peritonsillar abscesses), sore throats and strangulation. The
elder berries were also used for practically any ailment, “from toothache to the plague”. It
seems like a whole apothecary could be stocked solely from the many preparations that
could be made from its various parts. The list is quite exhaustive – syrup, tincture,
mixture, oil, ointment, concoction, liniment, extract, salt, conserve, vinegar, oxymel,
sugar, decoction, bath, cataplasm, and powder made from one, several or all parts of the
plant (Pejml, 1938). However, in ancient times the healing powers of a plant were not just
considered due to their phytochemical activity, instead the more esoteric, subtle energy of
the plant (as we might call it today) also played a great part in many sympathetic magical
healing operations. A favorite remedy against rheumatism, for example, came in the form
of a charm or amulet, which was made by tying several knots into a young elder twig that
had to be carried close to the body. Elder twigs were also believed to cure warts. For this
purpose the wart was rubbed with a freshly cut twig, which thereafter had to be buried in
mud and left to rot (Morgenstern, 2000). Other, more direct forms of “transfer magic”
were also common. The idea behind such practices was that sickness could be transferred
to a tree, which by the merit of its healing power could absorb and neutralize the sickness.
Various trees served this purpose, depending on the type of illness or local availability of
particular trees. A typical practice noted for the elder tree, for example, was to take a
measure of three spoons from a sick person’s bath-water and to pour this liquid onto the
37
roots of the tree. Many other illnesses, from epilepsy to pneumonia could be cured in
similar ways, and numerous related customs are reported from many areas of Europe. To
cure epilepsy, for example, the sufferer had to go and lie down under an elder tree upon
the first attack, whilst for pneumonia it was recommended that the person should lie face
down under an elder tree with outstretched arms. Another person should measure himself
from one hand to the other and from head to toe with a piece of string. The string was
then hung from the tree and when it had rotted away the pneumonia was supposed to be
cured. However, to dream of elder was deemed to be an omen of sickness (Morgenstern,
2000).
MYTHICAL ELDERBERRY
In addition to its healing properties, people in different regions believed that inside
the elder shrub lives good or bad spirit (Pejml, 1938). Or the shrub was said to be a
heaven for lost spirits, and therefore medieval people refused to cut it down or burn it
(Zohary and Hopf, 2000). In 17th century Schleswig-Holstein (Germany), before cutting
any parts of S. nigra, people called for the spirit “Hyldemoer” three times with clasped
hands, and poured milk on its roots before they could cut some part for healing purpose.
People from Latvia believed in the spirit named Puškaitis - Elder God, to whom they
brought gifts of bread, beer and other food (Pejml, 1938). The elder tree was also
considered sacred to Goddess, and the tree’s gifts were regarded as her blessings. It was
commonly believed that elders were inhabited by a tree dryad who was thought to
represent the soul of the tree or sometimes was seen as an aspect of the Goddess herself.
If treated well and honored appropriately, the dryad was a most benevolent spirit that
blessed and protected the people who cared for it. Thus, elders were often planted around
the house and on the farm where they served as a shrine to the Goddess whose protective
powers could be invoked by making prayers and offerings to the tree (Stoney, 2010).
Since elders never seemed to get struck by lightning, having it grow near the house was
believed to protect the house as well. There was a widespread taboo against cutting elders
down, or burning any of its wood, which lasted well into this century. It was thought that
the dryad would take out her vengeance against the offender by hunting them down and
punishing them with bad luck or, as was believed in Romania and Denmark, also with
toothache. According to ancient folk beliefs toothaches were thought to be caused by
supernatural forces and were often considered a divine punishment or else caused by evil
spirits. The only legitimate reason for cutting down an elder tree or taking any part of it
was to use it for medicine or as a protective charm and even that only with the consent of
the resident dryad (Anonymous, 2013).
With the rise of Christianity and the subsequent persecution of any form of tree
worship, the sacred elder tree became a tree of witches and the old stories were soon
distorted and turned around to suit the preachers of the new religion. The Church
portrayed the elder as a tree of sorrow because Judas Iscariot supposedly hanged himself
after betraying Jesus (Morgenstern, 2000). The fungus Auricularia auricula-judae occurs
on elder trees and is said to symbolize Jesus’ betrayal by Judas (Pejml, 1938).
Nevertheless, some of the older beliefs persisted, and people carried on pinning
elder leaves on their doors to ward off witches, demons and other evil influences. During
the Middle Ages such folkloristic magic was practiced all over Europe and many curious
customs evolved from the eventual merging of pre-Christian and Christian beliefs. For
example, it was thought that witches and sorcerers could be revealed by cutting the pith of
elder stems into flat disks, dipping these in oil, setting them alight and floating them in a
glass of water, if performed on Christmas Eve. The author (Morgenstern, 2000) of this
recommendation does not specify how the demons would manifest under these
circumstances, though. On the other hand, one could also use elder to entice the devil for
one’s own purposes. On the 6th of January (Bertha Night) when the devil apparently “goes
about with special virulence”, one could try to obtain some of his “mystic fern seed”
which was believed to give its owner the strength of 30 or 40 men, keep worms out of
furniture, repel snakes and mosquitoes and cure toothache. To obtain this magic substance
38
it was essential to protect oneself by casting a magic circle, the boundary of which must
not be broken under any circumstances. Further protection in this instance was offered by
carrying some elderberries that had been gathered on St. John’s night. But since there are
no elderberries to be found on St. Johns Day (21 June) this recommendation appears to be
impractical. A more likely version of this ritual recommends casting the circle with elder
branches as a magic wand (Pejml, 1938; Morgenstern, 2000).
The elder’s reputation to offer protection against evil spirits seems to be common
everywhere, from Russia to Romania and from Sicily to Scotland. Cut hair, nails and
broken teeth were many times placed under the roots of elder tree as a protection against
witches, who used these in their practices (Pejml, 1938). A less common custom comes
from Serbia, where elder twigs were believed to bestow good luck to a newly-wed couple
if introduced at the wedding ceremony. This old pagan custom may have been the basis of
a more recent belief, common in Britain during Victorian times. According to this belief a
man and woman would marry within a year if they were to drink together from an ale
(beer) that had been infused with elder flowers.
In pre-Christian times the ancient vegetation Goddess presided over the cycle of
life, namely birth, fruition, death and regeneration. This rhythm was reflected in the
waxing and waning of the moon, the cycles of the season, and naturally was also thought
to govern the lives of women. Thus, in one of her aspects, she was revered as a Goddess
of the Underworld, who guarded over the souls of the dead. Green twigs of elder were
often placed into coffins or buried in graves to offer protection for the deceased on their
journey to the Otherworld. Elsewhere Christian and pre-Christian beliefs merged into a
new brand of compound folk customs bearing elements of both traditions. In Tyrol for
example, elders were planted onto graves and trimmed into the shape of a cross. If the
tree started to flower, the soul was said to be happy.
An interesting custom from Romania allows a deeper glimpse into the old folk
beliefs. At Easter it was customary to sacrifice a pig for the festive roast. The pig’s
inedible remains were given a ceremonial burial and it was thought that in the following
year an elder tree would grow from them. The Easter/spring equinox is the time of
regeneration, the time when the power of the Earth-Goddess reawakens the land and
blesses the people with her abundant gifts. Both pigs (being an image of self-sacrificing
motherhood and the nurturing principle per se) and elder trees were sacred to this ancient
Goddess on account of their obvious attributes of abundance and fertility.
CONCLUSION
Elderberry still counts among the most useful medicinal plants available to
modern herbalists. All parts of the plant are pharmacologically active and in times gone
by, a myriad of different remedies were prepared from the different parts. Since
traditional medicine has somewhat gone out of fashion these days, elder bark, root-bark
and leaves are no longer used. Uses for these parts are cited here merely for the sake of
historical completion. As their action is very powerful, caution is advised and self-
medication is not recommended.
The world interest for elderberry plants and for products derived of them remains
steadfast and increasing. This is well encapsulated by one of our old proverbs: “There is
not a plant without use”, and modern scientific research can decisively contribute to
continued modern-day exploitation of the properties of this plant species which has
benefitted mankind for eons.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was supported by the Ministry of Education SR, the project: The
Isolation of Plant Natural Components by Lyophilisation Processand Modification of
their Qualitative-Quantitative Properties (No. 00162-0001 /MŠ SR-3634/2010-11/).
Literature Cited
Anonymous 2013. Elderberry History. Black Elderberry. Pharmacare (Europe),
39
http://www.blackelderberry.info-elderberry-history/.
Anonymous 1962. Trees and Shrubs of the USSR. Vol. VI. USSR Academy of Science,
Moscow-Leningrad. 380p.
Atkinson, M.D. and Atkinson, E. 2002. Sambucus nigra L. – Biological flora of the
British Isles, No. 225. J. Ecology 90:895-923.
Hultén, E. and Fries, M. 1986. Atlas of North European Vascular Plants North of the
Tropic of Cancer. Koeltz Scientific Books, Königstein.
Charlebois, D., Byers, P.L., Finn, C.E. and Thomas, A.L. 2010. Elderberry: botany,
horticulture, potential. Horticultural Reviews 37:213-280.
Laivinš, M. 2002. Distribution of Sambucus nigra in Latvia. www.lva.gov.lv/daba/.
Milliken, W. and Bridgewater, S. 2004. Flora Celtica: People and Plants in Scotland.
Birlinn, Edinburgh.
Morgenstern, K. 2000. Elder in profile. http://www.sacredearth.com/ethnobotany/
plantprofiles/elder.php.
Pejml, K. 1938. Bez černý. In Člověk a Rostlina. Svazek I. Kytice čarovných rostlín.
Praha: Impressa.
Priedītis, N. 2002. Melnais plūškoks Sambucus nigra L. enciklopēdija Latvijas daba.
www.latvijasdaba.lv.
Stoney, R. 2010. A Proposal to Change the Etymology of the Taxonomical
Nomenclature, Sambucus. http://richston100.tripod.com/manu.html.
Tutin, Y.G., Heywood, V.H., Burges, N.A., Moore, D.M., Valentine, D.H., Walters, S.M.
and Webb, D.A. 1976. Flora Europaea, Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to
Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.
Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 2000. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. The Origin and
Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley, 3rd ed.
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
40
... Historically, the elder tree was used to treat illnesses such as peritonsillar abscesses, sore throats, rheumatism, warts, epilepsy, and pneumonia [13] . Prior to scientific understanding of the plant, the elder tree was considered to heal with its energy as the elder tree was thought to absorb illness and negative energy, either through direct contact or within proximity [13] . ...
... Historically, the elder tree was used to treat illnesses such as peritonsillar abscesses, sore throats, rheumatism, warts, epilepsy, and pneumonia [13] . Prior to scientific understanding of the plant, the elder tree was considered to heal with its energy as the elder tree was thought to absorb illness and negative energy, either through direct contact or within proximity [13] . Many medicinal instruments included elder tree ornaments such as amulets to cure rheumatism [13] . ...
... Prior to scientific understanding of the plant, the elder tree was considered to heal with its energy as the elder tree was thought to absorb illness and negative energy, either through direct contact or within proximity [13] . Many medicinal instruments included elder tree ornaments such as amulets to cure rheumatism [13] . To cure epilepsy it was believed that the affected individual could simply lie under an elder tree after the first seizure [13] . ...
Article
Food and health industries are taking advantage of the phenolics in elderberries (Sambucus L.) to relieve symptoms of ailments like the flu. A rise in demand has induced an increase in the production of elderberry products. Although the pharmacological attributes of these fruits have been investigated, the toxicology has not been well addressed. While inedible species such as S. glauca have been found to contain cyanogenic glycosides, there is not a clear understanding of the toxicity of these plants. These cyanogenic glycosides hydrolyze to form the toxin hydrogen cyanide (HCN) when consumed, causing the clinical symptoms of nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, cyanosis, liver damage, hypotension, fever, mental confusion, and even death. For this reason, the consumption of these fruits in the raw state may pose a hazard to humans. Before consumption it is recommended that berries be de-stemmed, seeded, and cooked to avoid toxic effects. The purpose of this study was to quantify the cyanogenic glycosides prunasin and sambunigrin in elderberries native to Maine. This research observed that prunasin standard chemically changes over time while in a methanol solution. This change may be from degradation or from reactions with unknown impurities in the standard. This study also found that standard can be removed from methanol and later re-dissolved to prevent this chemical change, which may save time and money in future studies. Another finding in this study is that the best HPLC-UV chromatographic separation occurs in an acid-free mobile phase. Finally this study found that an ELSD should be used to quantify prunasin.
... canadensis (American elderberry) are two taxa of elderberry that are increasingly being commercially produced. American elderberry is native to much of eastern and midwestern North America and has been used for both food and medicine by indigenous communities for millennia [2][3][4] . It is emerging as an important specialty crop in the midwestern USA, mostly cultivated for processing markets 5 . ...
... American elderberry has been reported to contain health-promoting compounds 2,14,22 . In our study, we conducted an untargeted metabolomic analysis and putatively identified more than 100 metabolites (Supplementary Table 1). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
American elderberry ( Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis ) is a rapidly emerging new perennial crop for Missouri, recognized for its high level of bioactive compounds with significant health benefits, including antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant properties. A high-throughput screening assay combined with untargeted metabolomics analysis was utilized on American elderberry juice from 21 genotypes to explore and characterize these bioactive compounds. Our metabolomics study has identified 32 putative bioactive compounds in the American Elderberry juices. An array of high-throughput screening bioassays was conducted to evaluate 1) total antioxidant capacity, 2) activation of antioxidant response elements (ARE), 3) antiviral activity, and 4) antibacterial activity of the putatively identified compounds. Our results revealed that 14 of the 32 American elderberry compounds exhibited strong antioxidant activity. Four compounds (isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol, quercetin, and naringenin) activated ARE activity and were found to be non-cytotoxic to cells. Notably, six of the 32 compounds demonstrated significant antiviral activity in an in vitro TZM-bl assay against two strains of HIV-1 virus, CXCR4-dependent NL4-3 virus and CCR5-dependent BaL virus. Luteolin showed the most potent anti-HIV activity against the NL4-3 virus (IC 50 = 1.49 µM), followed by isorhamnetin (IC 50 = 1.67 µM). The most potent anti-HIV compound against the BaL virus was myricetin (IC 50 = 1.14 µM), followed by luteolin (IC 50 = 4.38 µM). Additionally, six compounds were found to have antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria S. aureus , with cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside having the most potent antibacterial activity in vitro (IC 50 = 2.9 µM), followed by cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (IC 50 = 3.7 µM). These findings support and validate the potential health benefits of compounds found in American elderberry juices and highlight their potential for use in dietary supplements as well as innovative applications in health and medicine.
... Phytotherapeutic practices and magic-religious beliefs cooccur and are tightly intermingled in the folklore of most Mediterranean countries, and the same happened in Sicily [63]. Not surprisingly, a medicinal plant used-and very effective-for an extremely wide spectrum of purposes, such as S. nigra, was also considered to have magic powers (see, for instance, [117]). As early as the 4th century BC, the authors of [118] accurately described the morphology of elderberry and the uses of some of its portions: for instance, the branches were used as walking sticks and as protection against snakes, while the juice extracted from the fruits "looks like wine, and men dip their hands and heads during the initiation to the mysteries". ...
Article
Full-text available
Sambucus nigra, the elderberry, has long been used for its medicinal properties in treating numerous diseases. Based on this traditional knowledge, its different pharmacological activities have been the focus of active research. All parts of the tree have long been used in traditional medicine, that is, the bark, the leaves, the flowers and the fruit. This study, carried out in Sicily (Italy), concerns the traditional uses of elder against human diseases. In order to trace the history of man’s interaction with elder on the island, multidisciplinary research was carried out, aiming at (1) presenting a comprehensive overview of elderberry’s applications and activities and (2) bridging traditional knowledge (uses and beliefs) with modern science, i.e., the most recent scientific findings in the biomedical and pharmacological fields. A rigorous literature review of scientific (and other local) reports on the elderberry tree and its application in food, health and household applications was undertaken. This article also provides a synthetic and updated picture of the ecology and distribution of S. nigra in Sicily. The elderberry is quite widespread in Sicily, yet its distribution is discontinuous. It prefers hedges, riparian woodlands, forest margins and clearings and is rather common along the watercourses flowing in the canyons of the Hyblaean Plateau, in the Madonie Mts. and in Enna province. Indeed, many old plants are often found near sacred places and rural houses, suggesting that in the past, it was extensively planted on purpose for its multiple uses. The complementary data obtained from multidisciplinary research confirm the usefulness of this approach in building a comprehensive and correct picture of the distribution of the most common woody species, for which the available knowledge is often fragmentary and imprecise.
... For example, H. perforatum is considered to have mystical qualities, and plants were collected for protection from demons and to drive away evil spirits (Klemow et al. 2011). Similarly, Sambucus nigra was used as a protector from all evil (Salamon and Grulova 2015). Birch (B. ...
Article
Full-text available
The concept of “cultural keystone species” (CKS) combines ecological and socioeconomic aspects and has a great potential for improving the overall success of conservation and restoration of ecosystems. In our study, we combined an ecological analysis of traditional medicinal plant species with an explorative analysis of the stakeholder landscape to understand the importance of plants for local communities. We investigate the feasibility of the CKS concept for traditional medicinal plants using the Southern Alps (Northern Italy) as a case study. Based on a comprehensive survey of traditional medicinal plants, we analyzed the habitats where they occur and their significance as CKS candidates. We applied the index of identified cultural influence (ICI). We identified some of the relevant stakeholders and their potential interest in traditional medicinal plants. From a total of 273 native medicinal species, we ranked the 10 most important CKS candidates. These comprised species with different ecology such as the herbs Achillea millefolium agg., Alchemilla xanthochlora, Arnica montana, Hypericum perforatum, Matricaria chamomilla, Peucedanum ostruthium, Urtica dioica, the shrub Juniperus communis, and the tree species Betula pendula. By merging their importance for the local communities with their occurrences in the habitats of South Tyrol, the concept of CKS can stimulate species and habitat conservation, and ecosystem restoration.
... canadensis) is nascent but rapidly developing. Both European and American Elderberry are some of the most widely used medicinal plants worldwide (Charlebois et al., 2010;Grulova and Salamon, 2015), with both berries and flowers utilized in a variety of food and medicinal products (Kite et al., 2013). Hippocrates, a Greek physician (460-370 BC), called elderberry his "medicine chest" because of the wide range of ailments it was thought to treat. ...
Article
Elderflower products have become more popular in the U.S., yet most are still made from European-grown flowers. Flowers of the subspecies native to the western region of North America (Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea) were investigated for the first time. The phenolic compounds were evaluated in ethanol/water extracts of fresh and dry flowers (either homogenized or as the intact flower) and in hot water extracts (teas) of the dry, intact flowers. Fresh homogenized flowers had significantly higher levels of phenolic compounds than the other preparations. The predominant flavonols identified were isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (ranging from 32.48 to 78.73 mg g–1 dry weight) and rutin (ranging from 3.20 to 10.01 mg g–1 dry weight). Total phenolic levels in elderflower teas were 23.98 ± 0.838 μg g–1 and increased by 47% over a 20 min infusion time. Volatile profiles were measured in fresh and dried flowers and in teas made from these flowers. One of the prevalent compounds in fresh flowers and tea made with fresh flowers that appears unique to this subspecies is methyl eugenol (16.90 and 20.14% of the relative peak area, respectively). Drying the flowers significantly changed the headspace volatile profile. Levels of methyl eugenol were reduced to 2.46% of the relative peak area, whereas 3-hexen-1-ol levels were increased. Tea made from the fresh and dry flowers had relatively high levels of straight-chain aldehydes as compared to the flowers. Elderflowers of S. nigra ssp. cerulea can be used to make differentiated elderflower products for consumers interested in bioactive compounds and unique sensory profiles.
Article
Full-text available
Damask rose is a well-established, abundant source of phytochemicals, as well as economically important essential oil—however, its cultivation is demanding and costly. In this paper, extracts from four raw plant materials— Salvia officinalis , Sambucus nigra , Matricaria chamomilla , Calendula officinalis , known to be rich in phenolic compounds, but also far easier to cultivate—were directly compared to those obtained from Rosa × damascena Mill. By combining diverse extraction methodologies (in a Soxhlet apparatus, ultrawave-assisted and microwave-assisted, using supercritical CO 2 ) and complementary in vitro assays (radical scavenging, iron reducing, Folin–Ciocalteau and Al ³⁺ complexation), it was possible to conveniently approximate and compare the phytochemical portfolios of those diverse plants. By factoring in the crop yields of different species, economically important conclusions can be reached—with pot marigold ( C. officinalis ) seemingly the most viable substitute for damask rose as a source of phenolics. Fatty acid and microelement analyses were also performed, to further enrich the chemical profiles of plant extracts. The paper also aims to collate and redesign multiple colorimetric assays frequently used while studying plant extracts in vitro, but criticized for their lack of correlation to in vivo activity. We show that they remain a viable tool for direct comparison of extraction methodologies, while highlighting their shortcomings.
Chapter
American elderberry (Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis) is a common fruiting shrub native to much of Eastern North America. While the fruit and flowers have been used for eons as food and medicine by both early and contemporary North Americans, its use is seeing a resurgence. This has resulted in a renewed interest in horticultural development and cultivation of elderberry, with numerous new products developed especially in the form of dietary supplements. Recent scientific research continues to underscore the health-benefitting attributes of both elderberry fruit and flowers, and is further fueling the development of a significant elderberry value chain from production, to processing, marketing, and consumption.
Book
Flora Celtica: Plants and People in Scotland documents the continuously evolving relationship between the Scots and their environment from the Stone Age to the present day. Based on a mixture of detailed research and information provided by the public, it explores the remarkable diversity of ways that native plants have been, and continue to be, used in Scotland. The information is presented in clear and accessible format and is laced with quotations, illustrations, case studies and practical tips.
  • Y G Tutin
  • V H Heywood
  • N A Burges
  • D M Moore
  • D H Valentine
  • S M Walters
  • D A Webb
Tutin, Y.G., Heywood, V.H., Burges, N.A., Moore, D.M., Valentine, D.H., Walters, S.M. and Webb, D.A. 1976. Flora Europaea, Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Elderberry: botany, horticulture, potential
  • D Charlebois
  • P L Byers
  • C E Finn
  • A L Thomas
Charlebois, D., Byers, P.L., Finn, C.E. and Thomas, A.L. 2010. Elderberry: botany, horticulture, potential. Horticultural Reviews 37:213-280.
Distribution of Sambucus nigra in Latvia
  • M Laivinš
Laivinš, M. 2002. Distribution of Sambucus nigra in Latvia. www.lva.gov.lv/daba/.
Trees and Shrubs of the USSR
Anonymous 1962. Trees and Shrubs of the USSR. Vol. VI. USSR Academy of Science, Moscow-Leningrad. 380p.
Bez černý In Člověk a Rostlina. Svazek I. Kytice čarovných rostlín
  • K Pejml
Pejml, K. 1938. Bez černý. In Člověk a Rostlina. Svazek I. Kytice čarovných rostlín. Praha: Impressa.
A Proposal to Change the Etymology of the Taxonomical Nomenclature
  • R Stoney
Stoney, R. 2010. A Proposal to Change the Etymology of the Taxonomical Nomenclature, Sambucus. http://richston100.tripod.com/manu.html.