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Ms. Trust: Gender, Networks and Trust--Implications for Management and Education
Abstract
Despite knowing how important social capital is and despite the fact that so much time, money, and attention is given to raising the status of women in managerial ranks, women have yet to achieve anything like equal status at the top level of organizational hierarchies. One factor that has received limited attention in the literature is that of differences in the way men and women network and that the way women network might not only disadvantage their own professional career progression but also put other women at a disadvantage as well. This study explores this phenomenon and specifically looks at how social network size varies with level of trust between parties. Our results suggest women tend to trust each other less in a risky professional environment compared to men. Though women were found to have the same scale social networks, they exhibit a greater reduction in aggregate network size at higher trust levels. We find that women socialize with each other, but when it comes to a matter of risk taking, women exclude each other and prefer to network with men. Implications for development and management education are discussed and avenues of future research are considered.
... This study is specifically focussed on whether and with whom ECAs engage, socially co-construct and share knowledge beyond the "PD training room" (Bevelander and Page, 2011;Roxå et al., 2011). Uptake of PD and "successful" transition may be dependent on the "external" (i.e., outside the PD training) network of participants (Akkerman and Bakker, 2011;Roxå et al., 2011;Van Waes et al., 2018;Thomas et al., 2019) and/or the organizational cultures within the participants' organizational units or departments (Daly and Finnigan, 2010;Pataraia et al., 2013;Van Waes et al., 2018;Wellcome Trust, 2020). ...
... A social network consists of set of nodes (i.e., participants in a PD program) and the relations (or ties) between these nodes (Wassermann and Faust, 1994). In social network theory, the focus of analysis is on measuring and understanding the social interactions between entities (e.g., individuals, organizational units, companies), rather than focussing on individual behavior (Lee, 2010;Bevelander and Page, 2011). ...
... Coleman (1988) indicates that high, frequent and intensive levels of connectedness between people can encourage formation of trust and stable relations, which in turn enhances fine-grained knowledge sharing and performance (Moolenaar et al., 2012). In social network studies this is commonly referred to as homophily, whereby people will be attracted to work (formally/informally) together and develop ties when individuals are (perceived to be) similar in terms of surface-level attributes, such as same gender (Bevelander and Page, 2011), similar interests (Borgatti and Cross, 2003), similar hierarchical position (Rehm et al., 2014;Thomas et al., 2020b), or following the same program/discipline. For example, in study amongst 106 academics, Roxå et al. (2011) found that most academics relied on a relatively small network of key, trusted network contacts to discuss their teaching practice. ...
The purpose of this article is to explore how Early Career Academics (ECAs) cope with their complex and multiple transitions when starting their new role. By focussing on the participants’ lived experiences in a professional development (PD) training program to discuss and share practice, we explored how ECAs developed and maintained social network relations. Using social network analysis (SNA) with web crawling of public websites, data was analyzed for 114 participants to determine with whom they shared practice outside PD (i.e., external connectors), the seniority of these connectors, and similarity to their job area. The results highlight that ECA networks were hierarchically flat, whereby their sharing practice network of 238 external connectors composed of their (spousal) partner and (male) colleagues at the same hierarchical level. The persons whom ECAs were least likely to discuss their practice with were people in senior management roles. The results of this study highlight that the creation of a community of practice for discussing and sharing of practice from PD programs appear to be insular. Activities within the organization and the formation of learning communities from PD may become lost as most of the sharing of practice/support comes from participants’ partners. Organizations may have to create spaces for sharing practice beyond the PD classroom to further organizational learning.
... Many researchers who study networks have taken an interest in gender-related differences in the structure of individual professional networks and how these networks affect the success at the workplace . Some have argued that, compared to their male colleagues, women are more often excluded from professional networks (Bevelander & Page, 2011;, that they have fewer professional network contacts (Aldrich, 1989;Cromie & Birley, 1992), that they need different professional networks for career success (Aldrich, 1989;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Broadbridge, 2010;Moore, 1990;Munch, McPherson, & Smith-Lovin, 1997), and that they use professional networks less effectively Broadbridge, 2010;Timberlake, 2005). However, the empirical evidence about these differences is contradictory or inconclusive at best. ...
... Many researchers who study networks have taken an interest in gender-related differences in the structure of individual professional networks and how these networks affect the success at the workplace . Some have argued that, compared to their male colleagues, women are more often excluded from professional networks (Bevelander & Page, 2011;, that they have fewer professional network contacts (Aldrich, 1989;Cromie & Birley, 1992), that they need different professional networks for career success (Aldrich, 1989;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Broadbridge, 2010;Moore, 1990;Munch, McPherson, & Smith-Lovin, 1997), and that they use professional networks less effectively Broadbridge, 2010;Timberlake, 2005). However, the empirical evidence about these differences is contradictory or inconclusive at best. ...
... Second, the majority group can easily exaggerate the differences between itself and the skewed group and thus isolate the latter: "tokens are by definition too few in number to prevent the application of familiar generalizations or stereotypes" (Kanter, 1977b: 971). By isolating women, the dominant majority prevents them from gaining equal access to elite or important networks (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Forret & Dougherty, 2004;Grugulis & Stoyanova, 2012;Kanter, 1977b;Oakley, 2000;Roth, 2004). This mechanism is similar to the practice that social identity theory describes, through which in-groups reinforce their self-perception by developing coherence and confidence (Elstad & Ladegard, 2012). ...
English The aim of this cumulative dissertation is to give three specific insights into the broad topic of careers: The first study is a meta-analysis regarding the different promotion success of men and women. The sample is based on 498 estimates of 107 studies done in academic, business and federal organizations. The results show a significant female disadvantage, which is independent of the measure of career success. The second study focuses on how social networks influence academic career success. The results show that the proportion of women in the upper level of a university is a major predictor, whether a specific network structure leads to slow or fast promotions for women. A higher proportion of women allows them to be successful with the same network structure and to achieve similar career outcomes as men. The third study examines the work efforts and its reliable measurement of top-managers. The study proposes Golf handicaps as an unconventional and innovative effort measure. The study is based on the idea that the more time managers invest in their golf handicap, the less time they can spend on work activities. The results indicate that the golf handicap really can be seen as proxy for the effort a manager invests in the firm. Position changes of managers over eight years are used to control for individual characteristics. Abstract Deutsch Das Ziel dieser kumulativen Dissertation ist es, drei spezifische Einblicke in das breite Thema der Karriere zu geben: Die erste Studie ist eine Meta-Analyse bezüglich unterschiedlicher Beförderungserfolge von Frauen und Männern. Das Sample basiert auf 498 Ergebnissen aus 107 Studien, durchgeführt in akademischen, unternehmerischen und staatlichen Organisationen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass unabhängig davon, wie Karriereerfolg gemessen wurde, ein signifikanter Nachteil für Frauen besteht. Die zweite Studie beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, wie soziale Netzwerke den akademischen Karriereerfolg beeinflussen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, ob eine bestimmte Netzwerkstruktur zu langsamen oder schnellen Beförderungen von Frauen führt, wird entscheidend beeinflusst vom Frauenanteil auf der professoralen Ebene einer Universität. Ein höherer Anteil erlaubt Frauen, mit den gleichen Netzwerken wie Männer einen vergleichbaren Karriereerfolg zu erzielen. Die dritte Studie untersucht die Arbeitsanstrengung und deren zuverlässige Messung von Top-Managern. Die Studie stellt Golf Handicaps als unkonventionelles und innovatives Leistungsmass vor. Die Idee besteht darin, dass je mehr Zeit Manager in das Golf Handicap investieren, desto weniger Zeit bleibt für das Management. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Handicap tatsächlich als Proxy für die Leistung eines Managers fungieren kann. Positionswechsel von Managern wurden über acht Jahre untersucht, um für individuelle Charakteristiken zu kontrollieren.
... In this study, we will use a method of pre-post longitudinal social network analyses (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Emery, Daniloski, & Hamby, 2011;Rienties & Nolan, 2014) with 683 students from 55 countries in four modules at a UK business school who were distributed across 132 groups. Based upon the theoretical considerations described in the next section, we aimed to address the following two research questions: ...
... There is increased recognition in the learning sciences that students' social networks substantially impact upon their attitudes, actions, and behaviours (Baldwin, Bedell, & Johnson, 1997;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Hommes, Arah, et al., 2014;Hommes et al., 2012;Katz, Lazer, Arrow, & Contractor, 2004;Kimmel & Volet, 2010;Neri & Ville, 2008). In social network theory, the focus of analysis is on theorising, understanding, and measuring the social interactions between entities (e.g., individuals, groups, classes), rather than focussing solely on individual or within-group behaviour (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Katz et al., 2004), which is also common in educational psychology and group research. ...
... There is increased recognition in the learning sciences that students' social networks substantially impact upon their attitudes, actions, and behaviours (Baldwin, Bedell, & Johnson, 1997;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Hommes, Arah, et al., 2014;Hommes et al., 2012;Katz, Lazer, Arrow, & Contractor, 2004;Kimmel & Volet, 2010;Neri & Ville, 2008). In social network theory, the focus of analysis is on theorising, understanding, and measuring the social interactions between entities (e.g., individuals, groups, classes), rather than focussing solely on individual or within-group behaviour (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Katz et al., 2004), which is also common in educational psychology and group research. A general assumption of social network theory is that people's behaviours are best predicted by their web of relationships (Borgatti, Mehra, Brass, & Labianca, 2009;Coleman, 1988). ...
Most research related to learning in groups focuses on the unit of the group and/or its group members. However, students may benefit from crossing the boundaries of their own group, as students in different groups may provide access to new, non-redundant knowledge and opportunities for learning. Whether boundary crossing between groups is beneficial or not for learning and academic performance has received limited conceptual and empirical attention. Using SNA and SEM modelling, we contrasted pre-post network developments amongst 683 students (132 groups) across four modules at a UK business school. We examined whether it is better for students to invest in social relations in groups to learn and enhance academic performance, or if it is better to (continue to) invest in social relations outside groups. Our findings indicated that students seemed to learn more from learning relations outside their group than from their own group members. Students with more inter-group relative to intra-group learning relations performed better on module assessments and throughout the academic year than students with more intra-group learning relations. Boundary crossing and inter-group learning deserves more empirical attention and experimentation on how to balance boundary crossing and effective group learning strategies.
... students in an interdisciplinary module) and the ties between these nodes (Wassermann and Faust 1994). In social network theory, the focus of analysis is on measuring and understanding the social interactions between entities (e.g., individuals, groups, disciplines), rather than focussing on individual or group behaviour (Katz et al. 2004, Bevelander and Page 2011, Baker and Lattuca 2010, Pilbeam and Denyer 2009, Taha and Cox 2014. A general 4 assumption of social network theory is that people's behaviour is best predicted by the web of relationships in which they are embedded. ...
... Informal socialisation mechanisms are important means for facilitating knowledge sharing (Bevelander andPage 2011, Gasevic, Zouaq, andJanzen 2013). Social identity theory (Tajfel 1978) indicates that people seek part of their self-identity through affiliation to "groups" (e.g., social groups, disciplines, organisations). ...
... Some sense of subjective commitment to the group is crucially important for people to start acting in terms of their group membership (Hewstone, Rubin, and Willis 2002). In social network studies this is commonly referred to as homophily, whereby people will be attracted to work (formally/informally) together and develop ties when individuals are (perceived to be) similar in terms of surface-level attributes, such as same gender (Bevelander and Page 2011), similar interests (Borgatti and Cross 2003), similar academic performance (Hommes et al. 2012, Gasevic, Zouaq, andJanzen 2013), or following the same discipline. We expect that in a strongly interdisciplinary module, even when students are enrolled in interdisciplinary small groups, students still prefer to work either formally or informally with students from the same discipline, as indicated by H2: 6 H2: Learning within disciplines is a stronger driver for social network development than the actual group allocation. ...
While interdisciplinary courses are regarded as a promising method for students to learn and apply knowledge from other disciplines, there is limited empirical evidence available whether interdisciplinary courses can effectively ‘create’ interdisciplinary students. In this innovative quasi-experimental study amongst 377 Master’s students, in the control condition students were randomised by the teacher into groups, while in the experimental condition students were ‘balanced’ by the teacher into groups based upon their initial social network. Using social network analysis, learning ties after 11 weeks were significantly predicted by the friendship and learning ties established at the beginning of the course, as well as (same) discipline and group allocation. The effects were generally greater than group divisions, irrespective of the two conditions, but substantially smaller than initial social networks. These results indicate that interdisciplinary learning does not occur ‘automatically’ in an interdisciplinary module. This study contributes to effective learning in interdisciplinary learning environments.
... In this sense, much like business schools have been accused of being culpable for some remarkable ethical and market failures, they are also partially responsible for perpetuating gender bias. These observations resulted in a publication in the Academy of Management Learning & Education journal (Bevelander & Page, 2011) and to the launch of the RSM's Kilimanjaro MBA elective. ...
... How did it all start, and what does the future hold for ECWO in helping business schools in general -and RSM in particular -make a gender shift? Business schools claim they are shaping management attitudes and practice (Bevelander & Page, 2011). If this is the case we need to acknowledge that business courses are not gender neutral and that this fact perpetuates bias! ...
... In our Academy of Management article, Ms Trust: Gender, Networks and Trust -Implications for Management & Education (Bevelander & Page, 2011), we provide evidence that female MBA students skew relatively more to the opposite gender -men -when engaged in activities that involve greater degrees of trust. They also tend to trust less at higher levels of trust than their fellow male students. ...
In this inaugural address I follow the statement of who I am and why I am passionate about addressing the challenges facing career-oriented women, with a brief reflection on recent patterns to gender diversity across business, government, and academia. Sadly, the statistics present a rather dismal picture that is of little surprise to many of us. I then turn to the literature to provide an overview of the various factors considered to contribute to the current status. Informed by these insights, and by my own research findings, I discuss the role that universities and business schools need to play to create the gender-balanced eco-systems necessary to provide equal opportunity for men and women. I argue that advocacy, leadership, and action are crucial if we are to produce a cadre of leaders whose thinking is far less unconsciously biased, future leaders capable and motivated to make the needed transformation. I make a case for significant changes to curriculum content – courses taught, materials used, and role-models engaged – and research needed to inform each of these elements. I conclude by discussing the Centre for Women and Organisations and the leadership role it is currently playing, and intends to, play to contribute to the debate and actions needed for the eco-system transformation called for by many dominant thinkers and organisations around the globe. I argue for advocacy as a key factor supporting this agenda and discuss the contribution that I hope to make with the support and active engagement of many stakeholders within and outside our Business School and our University.
... We controlled for several variables relevant to our research model. First, we controlled for gender (female 5 0, male 5 1) because male and female employees may form different trust relationships (Bevelander and Page, 2011). Second, we also included age, team tenure and education as control variables because these factors influence trust and organizational commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1991). ...
... Therefore, future research can investigate whether gender plays a significant role in trust networks (cf. Bevelander and Page, 2011). For example, whether the gender of central employees moderates the positive effect of trust networks can be explored in future research. ...
Purpose
Although extant research on trust focuses on the dyadic relationship (trustor-trustee), the effectiveness of an employee's outcome may vary depending on the features of trust networks. This study examined how an employee's centrality in two types of trust networks (cognitive and affective) among coworkers is associated with employee job performance. Further, this study highlighted the mediating role of compassionate help in the effect of affective trust networks on individual performance.
Design/methodology/approach
Survey data were collected from 204 employees and 39 team leaders in South Korea. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.
Findings
The results indicated that cognitive trust centrality is positively associated with employee job performance, but affective trust centrality is not. However, an affective trust centrality indirectly increases individual performance via compassionate helping from coworkers.
Originality/value
This study contributes to a better understanding of trust networks and compassionate helping and expands both trust literature and HQR research.
... Nevertheless, prior studies have revealed that trust in professional networks is gendered. Women are more likely to describe fellow women as difficult (Merluzzi 2017) and instead prefer to network with men, especially in high-risk settings (Bevelander and Page 2011). Both black and white women receive less work-related help from their network than do white men, despite their ties to powerful contacts (McGuire 2002). ...
... Despite helping us understand gendered trust, both accounts have potential shortcomings. The former assumes a paucity of women in higher ranks, although women's managerial presence continues to increase (Bevelander and Page 2011;Cohen and Huffman 2007). The latter seems dependent on the social network context. ...
Although scholars have long acknowledged the importance of having effective networks in business, little is known about the role of women’s professional status in the effectiveness of their networks. Drawing on gender-status beliefs theory, we examine how a woman’s status affects levels of trust in the information that she shares with members of her professional network. We hypothesize that network members are likely to mistrust information from women because of a gender-status mismatch—a perceived mismatch between a woman’s work-related high status and her low social status, due to widely held beliefs about women’s lack of competence. By measuring three types of status and analyzing trust levels in 3,842 dyads from communication networks in a UK railway construction project from 2014 through 2015, we find that network members trust information from women who are in supervisory positions and are connected with central contacts less than information from low-status women. Our study extends the literature on gender-status beliefs and effective networks, and discusses practical implications.
... Nas últimas três décadas, estudos vem analisando o papel da mentoria e outros comportamentos de assistência à carreira na trajetória profissional de indivíduos (Orpen, 1995;Richard, Taylor, Barnett, & Nesbit, 2002;Diller & Kenneth, 2020). No que se refere a questões específicas de gênero, os achados têm sugerido que mulheres tendem a preferir ser apoiadas por homens do que por mulheres (Bevelander & Page, 2011), pois interpretam que mulheres seniores oferecem um apoio insatisfatório (O'Neil et al., 2018) e que as redes de contato de mentores homens tendem a ser mais úteis que as de mentoras (Chow & Ng, 2007). Além disso, há evidências de que o processo de orientação e assistência à carreira conduzida por homens tende a ser avaliado pelas mulheres como mais satisfatório do que o que é feito por mentoras (Ramaswami, Dreher, Bretz & Wiethoff, 2010). ...
... Parte dessas barreiras se deve a uma diferença de expectativas e avaliações que mulheres seniores e juniores fazem a respeito do grau em que as primeiras apoiam ou deveriam apoiar as segundas no progresso de buscar progredir em suas carreiras (O'Neil et al., 2018). Assim, este resultado se soma aos encontrados em estudos anteriores e que lançam luz à necessidade de ir além da visão de que apenas homens seriam fonte de falta de apoio para a progressão da carreira feminina (Chow & Ng, 2007;Ramaswami et al., 2010;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Faniko, Ellemers & Derks, 2020). ...
Resumo O objetivo foi comparar as expectativas que mulheres seniores e juniores possuem umas das outras no que se refere ao comportamento de assistência, ao engajamento e as motivações de mulheres seniores para ajudar mulheres juniores a progredirem na carreira. Utilizou-se o Teste t e MANOVA. Com relação ao comportamento de assistência, as mulheres juniores avaliaram que as mulheres seniores as ajudam menos do que poderiam ajudar; no engajamento com a carreira, as mulheres seniores consideram que as mulheres juniores deveriam se empenhar mais nesse processo; quanto as motivações de ajuda, constatou-se que as mulheres seniores se consideram com níveis mais baixos de autopromoção, e níveis mais altos de motivação pelo benefício a outros e satisfação intrínseca do que as mulheres juniores as consideram. Abstract The aims were to compare the expectations that senior and junior women have of each other regarding to the assistance behavior, the engagement and the motivations of senior women to help junior women progress careers. Were used the t-test and MANOVA. In relation to assistance behavior, junior women assessed those senior women help them less than they could help; to career engagement, senior women consider that junior women should be more involved in this process; the motivations for help, it was noticed that senior women consider themselves with lower levels of self-promotion, and higher levels of motivation for the benefit of others and intrinsic satisfaction than junior women consider themselves.
... Many researchers who study networks have taken an interest in gender-related differences in the structure of individual professional networks and how they affect the success of their members at the workplace [1]. Some have argued that, compared to their male colleagues, women are more often excluded from professional networks [2,3] and have fewer professional network contacts [4]. Further, there are arguments that women need different professional networks for career success [5][6][7], and that they use professional networks less effectively [6][7][8]. ...
... Second, the majority group can easily exaggerate the differences between itself and the skewed group and thus isolate the latter [19]. By isolating women, the dominant majority prevents them from gaining equal access to elite or important networks [2,3,32]. Third, tokens are associated with assimilation or role encapsulation. ...
This paper examines how gender proportions at the workplace affect the extent to which individual networks support the career progress (i.e. time to promotion). Previous studies have argued that men and women benefit from different network structures. However, the empirical evidence about these differences has been contradictory or inconclusive at best. Combining social networks with tokenism, we show in a longitudinal academic study that gender-related differences in the way that networks affect career progress exist only in situations where women are in a token position. Our empirical results further show that women not in severely underrepresented situations benefit from the same network structure as men.
... For example, in many discussion forums, participation is rather unequal and dominated by certain participants (Rehm et al., 2015(Rehm et al., , 2018. Indeed other researchers have found that gender (Bevelander & Page, 2011), ethnicity (Jindal-Snape & Rienties, 2016;), seniority (Rehm et al., 2015), and technology access (Gemmell & Harrison, 2017) could be mediating factors in engagement, explaining a divergence of practice. ...
... For many participants these relations were maintained to keep them "sane" and to rapport and reflect (up)on their professional, emotional, and academic support. As the lens of the research team was embedded into the AD programme, any other lenses in terms of intersectionality, like gender (Bevelander & Page, 2011), seniority (Rehm et al., 2015), or disciplinary differences , were not explored explicitly. As a result, researchers with different research questions and/or approaches could potentially find different patterns and results when conducting MMSNA. ...
Across the globe researchers are using social network analysis (SNA) to better understand the visible and invisible relations between people. While substantial progress has been made in the last 20 years in terms of quantitative modelling and processing techniques of SNA, there is an increased call for SNA researchers to embrace and mix methods developed in qualitative research to understand the what, how, and why questions of social network relations. In this chapter, we will reflect on our experiences with our latest edited book called Mixed Methods Approaches to Social Network Analysis for Learning and Education, which contained contributions from 20+ authors. We will first review the empirical literature of mixed methods social network analysis (MMSNA) by conducting a systematic literature review. Secondly, by using two case studies from our own practice, we will critically reflect on how we have used MMSNA approaches. Finally, we will discuss the potential limitations of MMSNA approaches, in particular given the complexities of mastering two ontologically different methods.
... Women are behind in this process of honing their networking skills which may often lead to the opportunity of connecting them with decision makers that may eventually lead to future career advancement (Washington, 2011). The fact that women are struggling to form and maintain these networking relationships (Forett, M. L., & Dougherty, T. W., 2004) proves to be a major disadvantage as they are missing out on some of the afore mentioned benefits such as available resources, access to new or inside information, favors and power (Bevelander &Page, 2011). Forett andDougherty (2004) also mention that along with the more physical benefits provided by networking, this process also helps to develop interpersonal relationships that are considered to be a vital competency for advancing one's career in the work environment today. ...
... Studies have found that for women networking can be especially important as these relationships can help build confidence by having the support of those in their networks (McGregor & Tweed, 2002). These relationships also tend to be with people higher in the organization which can increase a person's chances of advancement within that organization (Bevelander &Page, 2011). Forett andDougherty (2004) also found that these networks of relationships should be as diverse as possible, in order to be highly effective and useful, having a more diverse network of people leads to being able to reach into different social circles thus providing the individual with more career opportunities and resources. ...
... Most ties in WeChat are strong social ties, such as ties between good friends or between relatives (Gong et al., 2015). The ties or interactions are described as strong when they display high degrees of trust and predictability (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Granovetter, 1973;Ibarra, 1993). Several studies have denoted that trust, trusting relationships and interpersonal affect normally stem from strong and symmetrical interaction ties (Gulati, 1995;Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). ...
... IS research on trust perception and usage continuance has considered the importance of gender difference (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Venkatesh & Morris, 2000;Zhou et al., 2014). According to SRT, females are more characterised by emotional (communal) traits, whereas males are more characterised by instrumental (agentic) traits. ...
With the development of mobile Internet technology and smartphone devices, mobile social networking services (mobile SNS) have become increasingly popular in recent years. However, research that systematically investigates the antecedents of trust, especially the gender differences therein, in the context of mobile SNS has been scarce. Building upon social role theory (SRT), this study extends existing literature by exploring the driving forces of trust in mobile SNS for different genders. Data are collected from WeChat users and analysed through multigroup analysis. Results have confirmed that trust in mobile SNS is associated with antecedents including perceived satisfaction, social ties, system quality, reputation and structural assurance. Particularly, social ties and reputation have dominant effects on trust of male users, whereas structural assurance has a greater effect on trust of female users. Implications for both researchers and practitioners are presented.
... The issue of gendered networks and entrepreneurship, including how women appear disadvantaged within institutional network relationships, has received limited attention (Bevelander and Page 2011;Carter et al. 2001;Emirbayer and Goodwin 1994;Wijen and Ansari 2007). The study of how women can act as entrepreneurs or transformational leaders within institutional settings has taken on increasing interest (Eyal and Kark 2004). ...
... Of these four variables, two-structure and agency-have been the most extensively examined Ridgeway and Smith-Lovin 1999). The other two are networks (Aldrich andZimmer 1986, Bevelander andPage 2011;Brass 1985) and context (Johns 2001;Sewell 1992;Welter 2011). While all these authors acknowledge that the variables they have explored interact with others to influence entrepreneurial outcomes, there is as yet no research available on how all four interact with each other at the level of the individual Bygrave and Hofer 1991;Fenwick 2003;Morris and Jones 1999;Sexton and Bowman-Upton 1990;Sorenson and Stuart 2008;Welter 2011). ...
This chapter takes ‘female masculinity’ as a way of teasing out the tensions and contradictions implicit in current approaches to feminine leadership and the ways that they stress the competitive advantage of women in the workplace. Current approaches to feminine leadership run the risk that the entry of the feminine into leadership might actually attempt to control and serve to further oppress women’s subjectivity through its appropriation of the feminine. To advance leadership thinking, ‘feminine leadership’ requires being read as a contradictory site which promotes flexible and ambiguous portraits of gender and leadership. This notion of female competitive advantage obscures the problematic gender binaries on which the juxtaposition between feminine and masculine leadership is based. This construction and constriction of femininity negate a multiplicity of subjectivities and require closer examination especially in relation to how the re-appropriation of gendered binaries which demarcate sexual difference and mark femininity as under control or within ‘acceptable bounds’ may serve to promote inequality. Given this critique, we conclude that closer attention to feminist ethics, especially a turn to understanding femininity and leadership as relational, allows us to explore and promote the possibilities of an ethical openness to otherness.
... The issue of gendered networks and entrepreneurship, including how women appear disadvantaged within institutional network relationships, has received limited attention (Bevelander and Page 2011;Carter et al. 2001;Emirbayer and Goodwin 1994;Wijen and Ansari 2007). The study of how women can act as entrepreneurs or transformational leaders within institutional settings has taken on increasing interest (Eyal and Kark 2004). ...
... Of these four variables, two-structure and agency-have been the most extensively examined Ridgeway and Smith-Lovin 1999). The other two are networks (Aldrich andZimmer 1986, Bevelander andPage 2011;Brass 1985) and context (Johns 2001;Sewell 1992;Welter 2011). While all these authors acknowledge that the variables they have explored interact with others to influence entrepreneurial outcomes, there is as yet no research available on how all four interact with each other at the level of the individual Bygrave and Hofer 1991;Fenwick 2003;Morris and Jones 1999;Sexton and Bowman-Upton 1990;Sorenson and Stuart 2008;Welter 2011). ...
This chapter explores leadership practices undertaken by owner-managers of small and medium-sized accounting firms in India. The overarching aim of the study is to identify whether or not owner-managers of accounting firms in India undertake inclusive leadership practices as a strategic orientation for their employees in the small and medium-sized firms. As the contemporary business demands an inclusive work environment to create a competitive advantage for firms on a long-term basis, it is important to study firms’ inclusive leadership practices. Data from 20 in-depth qualitative interviews is analysed to explore thematic categories of importance relevant to the Indian accounting context. The results indicate that the owner-managers of small and medium-sized accounting firms encourage or create exclusively gendered spaces in the organisation of work practices and lack core competencies associated with inclusive leadership.
... Exposure to influential people in organizations is among the most important support functions for subordinates' advancement: The more central people are in dominant organizational networks, the more likely they are to be promoted (Brass, 1985). Previous research suggests that exposure is disproportionately critical to career advancement for women, who may struggle to break into powerful male-oriented networks on their own (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Ibarra, 1992;Ibarra, 1993;Timberlake, 2005). People tend to form more and stronger network ties to those who are part of their own identity groups (Ibarra, 1992), making it difficult for women to develop the informal connections they need to advance because men at the top of organizations may see them as illegitimate or untrustworthy "outsiders" (Burt, 1998). ...
... People tend to form more and stronger network ties to those who are part of their own identity groups (Ibarra, 1992), making it difficult for women to develop the informal connections they need to advance because men at the top of organizations may see them as illegitimate or untrustworthy "outsiders" (Burt, 1998). Powerful sponsors within the organization can help women by providing them with challenging assignments that can get them noticed, as well as by brokering introductions-enabling women to "borrow" the sponsor's social capital or "reflected power" (Kanter, 1976) and the accompanying transferal of trust and legitimacy (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Burt, 1998). Burt (1998) found that women who made use of such borrowed capital were promoted earlier, whereas promotions lagged for women who took an entrepreneurial approach to constructing their own social networks. ...
We attempt to make sense of ongoing gender disparities in the upper ranks of organizations by examining gender bias in leaders’ assessments of managers’ derailment potential. In a large managerial sample (Study 1: N∼12,500), we found that ineffective interpersonal behaviors were slightly less frequent among female managers, but slightly more damaging to women than men when present. Evidence of bias was not found in performance evaluations, but emerged when leaders were asked about derailment potential in the future. We replicated this pattern of effects in a second large managerial sample (Study 2: N∼35,500) and in two experimental studies (Studies 3 and 4) in which gender and interpersonal behaviors were manipulated. In Study 4, we also showed that when supervisors believe that a manager might derail in the future, they tend to withdraw mentoring support and sponsorship, which are especially critical for women's career advancement. Our research highlights the importance of leaders’ perceptions of derailment potential—which differ from evaluations of performance or promotability—both because they appear to be subject to stereotype-based gender bias, and because they have important implications for the mentoring and sponsorship that male and female managers receive. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
... Many researchers who study networks have taken an interest in gender-related differences in the structure of individual professional networks and how they affect the success of their members at the workplace (Burt, 1998). Some have argued that, compared to their male colleagues, women are more often excluded from professional networks (Bevelander and Page, 2011;Brass, 1985), that they have fewer professional network contacts (Aldrich, 1989), that they need different professional networks for career success (Bierema, 2005;Broadbridge, 2010;Burt, 1992), and that they use professional networks less effectively (Bierema, 2005;Broadbridge, 2010;Timberlake, 2005). However, the empirical evidence about these differences is contradictory or inconclusive at best. ...
... Second, the majority group can easily exaggerate the differences between itself and the skewed group and thus isolate the latter (Kanter, 1977b). By isolating women, the dominant majority prevents them from gaining equal access to elite or important networks (Bevelander and Page, 2011;Brass, 1985;Forret and Dougherty, 2004). Third, tokens are associated with assimilation or role encapsulation. ...
This paper addresses career advancements of women in different minority situations within an organization. To date, research has come to conflicting conclusions regarding the existance and explanation of the gender promotion gap for people in senior positions. We argue that this can be explained with the fact that, researchers have not paid enough attention to gender proportions as an important factor that affects careers. Based on the theory of social network structures, we argue that a gender promotion gap is likely to exist only in situations where women are in an extreme minority position (‘token’ position). We develop respective hypotheses that we test on an empirical sample of academic professors at a Swiss University. Our empirical results confirm that the gender promotion gap disappears when gender ratios are more balanced.
... Given the greater access to organizational resources enjoyed by the majority group in many organizations, minority group members seemingly have little to gain from selfsegregation and should be highly motivated to build connections across diversity with the majority. Consistent with the value of connecting with the majority group, prior research has shown that members of minority groups have more diverse personal networks both in general (Blau, Ruan, & Ardelt, 1991; Marsden, 1987) and in organizational settings (Bevelander & Page, 2011; Ibarra, 1995). These findings appear to contradict each other by suggesting that numerical minorities simultaneously self-segregate and show greater diversity in their networks compared to the majority group. ...
... We test these arguments by examining three distinct measures of network diversity in a Networking Across Diversity by Minorities and Majorities 6 longitudinal study of 253 MBA students. We contribute to prior work on MBA networks (e.g., Bevelander & Page, 2011) by crossing gender with international student status to examine outcomes for four student groups, specifically, domestic men, domestic women, international men, and international women. We examine friendship networks rather than task or socializing networks in order to assess the relationships that are most likely to last beyond graduation from the MBA program. ...
The value of the networks that MBA students develop is often limited by the tendency of people to favor connections with similar others, resulting in self-segregation among identity groups. In order to identify the origins of network diversity, a key question for theory and practice is whether majority or minority groups are more likely to develop diverse personal networks. This paper provides a partial answer to this question by integrating network theory with three conceptual dimensions of diversity: variety, dissimilarity, and status. This conceptualization suggests that individuals can display three distinct types of diversity in their networks with different theoretical antecedents and outcomes. Consistent with theoretical predictions, we find systematic differences between the networks of high-status majorities and low-status minorities in a longitudinal study of MBA student networks. Specifically, minorities show more variety, greater dissimilarity and lower status centrality in their networks compared to majorities. Tie strength and time period affect the findings in predictable ways. These results demonstrate the value of integrating diversity theory with network theory for understanding the development of inclusive networks in business schools. We conclude by discussing potential remedies to enhance the diversity of MBA student networks.
... According to Bombuwela (2013), though women work as much as their male counterparts yet they have to face more challenges in their career development. Interestingly, though gender barriers in organizations have been investigated by a considerable amount of research throughout the years, advancement has been inadequate (Bevelander & Page, 2011). ...
This research study combines scholarly research work on factors influencing women and top positions.Providing a synthesis of 94 research studies published in the ISI web of knowledge, this study not only highlightssignificant factors influencing women's journey towards top managerial positions but also compares literaturefrom developing and developed nations. Empirical and conceptual papers were chosen by scanning the title,abstract and stated aim of the study. Broadly two theoretical models, the Gender Organization and Systemframework by Fagenson-Eland and Baugh (2000) and the Systems of Career Influences Model purposed by DianeMagrane, et al. (2012) were used for the analysis. Overall three themes, Institutional Resources and Strategies,personal and professional roles and values and systemic factors were identified. By using literature each factorwas placed under one theme For analysis all factors (identified by using existing literature) were coded underthree main themes and analysed by using frequencies and charts. In the end, the research gap, implications andlimitations are also mentioned.
... The Study 2 findings show that women middle managers prefer internal networking behaviors. The main purpose of their internal networking is to strengthen their emotional ties to enhance their career benefits (Bevelander and Page, 2011;Forret and Dougherty, 2004). A possible explanation, suggested by Tlaiss and Kauser (2010), is that women's responsibilities as a caregiver for the family will obstruct their development and maintenance of external networks, which often require time and attendance outside work hours (Mooney and Ryan, 2009). ...
Purpose: Research suggests that engaging in networking behaviors can affect individual work outcomes. However, relatively less is known about how internal versus external networking behaviors influence work outcomes, and whether gender moderates these relationships. Drawing on social capital theory and social role theory, we propose a positive relationship between employees’ internal and external networking behaviors and their work outcomes (job commitment and career success), and the moderating effect of gender. We also explore employee preference in networking.
Design/methodology: Based on a sequential mixed-method research design with a four-month time lag, Study 1 data on networking behaviors and employee outcomes were collected via a survey of middle managers and their supervisors from 10 private sector organizations in Sri Lanka. Study 2 data were collected via interviews from a sample of those middle managers and their supervisors.
Findings: Study 1 findings indicate a positive relationship between internal networking behaviors and job commitment, and external networking behaviors and career success. We also found that internal networking behaviors enhance job commitment. Study 2 findings indicate men and women network differently and benefit differently from that networking but achieve equitable workplace benefits.
Originality/value: This study provides pioneering evidence that internal networking behaviors enhance job commitment among women. It appears that past research did not test the moderating effect of gender for internal versus external networking behaviors separately. Moreover, this study refines the evidence that internal and external networking behaviors differentially impact employee outcomes and explains the processes through a qualitative inquiry.
... In a nutshell, these approaches focus either on fundamental differences across gender identities based on their biological and psychological attributes or (and more recently) on socially-constructed differences (Marlow & Dy, 2018). It is commonly suggested that disadvantages for female IT entrepreneurs are rooted in their education (Bevelander & Page, 2011), culture and norms (Hechavarría et al., 2018), stereotypes (Gupta et al., 2009), role expectations (Bullough et al., 2022), or work-family conflicts (Shelton, 2006). These conditions differ significantly across gender identities to the disadvantage of women, presenting them with obstacles to the success of their entrepreneurial aspirations in IT-driven environments (Sperber & Linder, 2019). ...
Drawing on optimal distinctiveness theory and Jellinek’s concept of the Normative Force of the Factual, we provide an alternative explanation for how the normality of gender imbalance in IT-driven start-ups (i.e., the fact that there are far more men than women) becomes normativity (what everyone expects to see), and eventually an imperative for those desiring to enter the field. We uncover the process used to pressure female founders of IT start-ups into being like the prototypical actor, usually male, and how failing to do so reduces audience support. This process is self-referential and self-enforcing and thus detached from efforts to reduce hurdles and obstacles for female founders. Our article provides recommendations on how to break this self-referential cycle.
... The second hypothesis predicts career elevation to executive roles in the industry whereby marriage benefits spouses by enabling the receiving spouse to capitalize on supporter's accumulated social ties to ascend the industry's career hierarchy through recruitment into executive roles. The third hypothesis is gender-specific, predicting that marriage amplifies benefits for women by enabling the receiving spouse to capitalize on her spouses' accumulated social ties such that it curbs gender bias to facilitate women's participation in executive roles (Bevelander & Page, 2011;Burt, 1998). ...
We depict Hollywood celebrity couples as business families who participate in the project-based movie production industry, which is a temporary and disaggregated form of organization where skilled individuals are linked to one another through contractual and social relationships. Appearing in Hollywood movies generates celebrity capital, which can be converted into economic capital through involvement in endorsements and other rent-generating activities. Finding projects is facilitated by membership in high-quality social networks, and we consider celebrity marriage as a means of merging two individuals’ social networks, which can be mutually beneficial for both parties. We develop and test three hypotheses about the quality of social networks prior to and after marriage and analyze their impact upon celebrities’ postmarriage career performance. We contribute to the family business literature by exploring hybridized and adaptive forms of business family in contemporary project industries, which has the potential to enlarge family business scholars’ research horizons.
... It was also noticed that that size of social networks changes with the level of trust between the parties. At the same time, women have less confidence in themselves in risky work environments, are mutually exclusive, and prefer to interact with men (Bevelander and Page, 2011). As a result, women's networks contain less favorable contacts and resources than men's networks. ...
As is the case with many other organizations, banks in Poland are facing the crisis
caused by COVID–19 that has created threats to the their performance and viability. The impact on organizational life was sudden and will be longer than expected.
It is the initial organizational responses and new tools employed by banks to rebalance employee relational capital that have been analyzed in the article. Focusing
on HRM challenges and in particular on HR practices introduced to calm person
– organization misfit and work–life imbalance in particular, the article provides
preliminary evidence of adjustment to the newly altered work environment.
... It was also noticed that that size of social networks changes with the level of trust between the parties. At the same time, women have less confidence in themselves in risky work environments, are mutually exclusive, and prefer to interact with men (Bevelander and Page, 2011). As a result, women's networks contain less favorable contacts and resources than men's networks. ...
The trust–based relationship between a supervisor and subordinate is crucial for
social exchange. An important element in such an exchange is the supervisor’s
attitude with respect to the employee. This, in line with the reciprocity norm, has
an impact on the employee’s attitude toward the organization. The aim of the
study was verification of whether, according to the theory of social exchange,
the positive attitude of the supervisor toward employees as expressed by them in
perceived supervisor support (PSS), through increased trust in the person of the
supervisor, improves their gratitude and loyalty to the organization. A total of
804 employees from various organizations participated in the study. The following
tools were used: the Perceived Supervisor Support Scale, Trust in Supervisor
Scale, Gratitude toward Organization Scale, and Organizational Loyalty Scale.
Results show that trust in the supervisor mediated between PSS and gratitude
and loyalty to the organization. This means that the relationship between PSS and
gratitude and loyalty to the organization is indirect through trust in the supervisor.
It shows the significant role of trust in the relationship between the employee
and the supervisor for the social exchange taking place between them, where the
supervisor is perceived as a personification of the organization and the ultimate
effect is a positive attitude on the part of employees toward the organization.
... Fifteen studies accounted for one aspect of the professional context-the availability of men and women within the organization-enabling researchers to determine whether the proportion of same-gender contacts in men and women's networks is driven by actors' and (potential) contacts' "choices" to connect to same-gender contacts (McPherson & Smith-Lovin, 1987). 3 After adjusting for availability, both men and women tend to have more samegender connections than would be expected by chance (e.g., Bevelander & Page, 2011;Burt, 2019;Mehra, Kilduff, & Brass, 1998). The only exception is that men tended to connect with men and women in proportion to their availability in their electronic communication networks (i.e., email and enterprise social media; Di Tommaso, Gatti, Iannotta, Mehra, Stilo, & Velardi, 2020;Yang, Chawla, & Uzzi, 2019). ...
Substantial research has documented challenges women experience building and benefiting from networks to achieve career success. Yet fundamental questions remain regarding which aspects of men’s and women’s networks differ and how differences impact their careers. To spur future research to address these questions, we present an integrative framework to clarify how and why gender and networks—in concert—may explain career inequality. We delineate two distinct, complementary explanations: (1) unequal network characteristics (UNC) asserts that men and women have different network characteristics, which account for differences in career success; (2) unequal network returns (UNR) asserts that even when men and women have the same network characteristics, they yield different degrees of career success. Further, we explain why UNC and UNR emerge by identifying mechanisms related to professional contexts, actors, and contacts. Using this framework, we review evidence of UNC and UNR for specific network characteristics. We found that men’s and women’s networks are similar in structure (i.e., size, openness, closeness, contacts’ average and structural status) but differ in composition (i.e., proportion of men, same-gender, and kin contacts). Many differences mattered for career success. We identified evidence of UNC only (same-gender contacts), UNR only (actors’ and contacts’ network openness, contacts’ relative status), neither UNC nor UNR (size), and both UNC and UNR (proportion of men contacts). Based on these initial findings, we offer guidance to organizations aiming to address inequality resulting from gender differences in network creation and utilization, and we present a research agenda for scholars to advance these efforts.
... We recognized that were was a large body of knowledge about social culture and how those factors impact individual behavior (Bell, 2007;He & Freeman, 2010;Adekola & Sergi, 2007;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Caca, 2010;Chen, Sun, & McQueen, 2010;Cooper, Edgett, & Kleinschmidt, 2009;Fujita, 2002;G. J. Hofstede, 2009;Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006;Michailova & Hutchings, 2006;Pheng & Yuquan, 2002;Siakas, Georgiadou, & Balstrup, 2010;Strang, 2012;Vajjhala & Strang, 2014). ...
Many stakeholders in society are concerned about the effectiveness of decision making behavior for our future generation of leaders. Risk taking behavior has been studied in the context of cultural factors (including gender) or decision making but rarely have both of these dimensions been examined simultaneously especially with emerging business leaders. Decision making behavior has not been studied at the group level of analysis in the context of socialized culture using samples of young emerging executives. Therefore, the authors conducted a controlled experiment with senior university students to test the impact of risk taking culture and gender on group decision making behavior in a complex project. In their experiment gender did not impact decision making behavior but the socialized uncertainty was a statistically significant casual factor. The authors conducted a controlled experiment with senior university students to test the impact of risk taking culture and gender on group decision making behavior in a complex project. Although their results agreed with the literature, one finding was completely opposite from their hypothesis. In the authors' experiment, the participant's gender did not impact decision making behavior but the socialized uncertainty factor was statistically significant in the logistic regression models.
... Although women may be highly motivated to lead (Lizzio et al., 2011), the research suggests that they may require more time than is typically allocated within an educational program to demonstrate their right to leadership through actions and accomplishments (Mullen & Tuten, 2004). Therefore, the leadership of teams can often fall to men due to their greater propensity to use personality to assert leadership during group formation (Bevelander & Page, 2011). The implementation of 'women-only' leader development programs has, to a certain extent, attempted to address the gap in leader emergence (Debebe et al., 2016;Ely et al., 2011). ...
For most leaders, their first exposure to formal leader development training occurs in adolescence, through school, extra-curricular activities, or youth leader development programs. As with many adolescent experiences, the processes and challenges of leader development are different for girls than they are for boys. With increasing calls to address gender inequity worldwide, adolescent girls' leader development has become an important cross-disciplinary research topic. Though the literature on developing adolescent girls has grown substantially, it is fragmented across disciplines, with a lack of integration and theoretical framing hindering our advancement in knowledge. Therefore, there is a critical need for a comprehensive review article to guide scholars to build an integrated knowledge of how leader development occurs for adolescent girls. We searched for literature relevant to leader and leadership development designed for adolescent girls and reviewed a total of 108 academic papers (2000–2019). We identify and critique five themes in this literature that hold important implications for the leader development of adolescent girls. To advance knowledge, we offer social cognitive theory as a theoretical frame to understand adolescent girls' leader development and provide guidance on future research. Finally, we offer insights on how the processes and practices of adolescent girls' leader development could inform adult leader development.
... Risk has several definitions, however, one of the most commonly referred definition is the one provided by Knight (1921) in which risk is described as a situation in which the individual opting for a choice knows both the potential outcomes of each choice and the probabilities that the choices will occur (Holmes et al., 2011). We recognized that there was a large body of knowledge about social culture and how those factors impact individual behavior (Bell, 2007;He & Freeman, 2010;Adekola & Sergi, 2007;Bevelander & Page, 2011;Caca, 2010;Chen, Sun, & McQueen, 2010;Cooper, Edgett, & Kleinschmidt, 2009;Fujita, 2002;G. J. Hofstede, 2009;Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006;Michailova & Hutchings, 2006;Pheng & Yuquan, 2002;Siakas, Georgiadou, & Balstrup, 2010;Strang, 2012;Vajjhala & Strang, 2014). ...
In this chapter, we explore social science theories that could explain how executives make decisions in contexts with a high degree of uncertainty. In particular we focus on how emerging young executives respond to risk in situations of uncertainty. First, we conduct a literature review followed by a critical analysis of socio-cultural decision-making literature. Then we performed a controlled experiment using a sample of senior university students to represent young executives. A context of uncertainty was designed which required the participants to work in small teams and make a decision based on incomplete and uncertain information about a managerial case study. In this way, we intended to illustrate what aspects of culture impacts decision making in a context of uncertainty.
... To effectively develop students' emotions as an aspect of learning and development, the development of trust between instructor and students is a vital ingredient (Bevelander & Page, 2011). Trust is an interpersonal phenomenon embedded in social relationships and developed when there is "a willingness to take action in circumstances where such action makes one vulnerable to the other party" (Doney et al., 1998, p. 604) and where people share common values and norms. ...
Can the philosophical foundations of spiritual practices inform management education pedagogy and in the long-run support emotional development and more ethical and responsible business practice? In this article, we introduce the essential aspects of three different spiritual traditions—Daoist inner work, Buddhist mindful reflexivity, and Quaker discernment—and lay out some foundations between these essential aspects and management education pedagogy. We offer examples of utilizing these concepts in teaching business ethics in order to offer a foundational discussion for future elaboration. Our experiences also illuminate that instructor preparation is a key ingredient if the kinds of teaching we advance are to gain traction and contribute to the repeated calls for pedagogical innovations that challenge dominant paradigms. We offer some concluding remarks, pathways for future research and indicate a list of resources that can support potential instructors.
... To effectively develop students' emotions as an aspect of learning and development, the development of trust between instructor and students is a vital ingredient (Bevelander & Page, 2011). Trust is an interpersonal phenomenon embedded in social relationships and developed when there is "a willingness to take action in circumstances where such action makes one vulnerable to the other party" (Doney et al., 1998, p. 604) and where people share common values and norms. ...
Can the philosophical foundations of spiritual practices inform management education pedagogy and in the long-run support emotional development and more ethical and responsible business practice? In this paper, we introduce the essential aspects of three different spiritual traditions – Daoist inner work, Buddhist mindful reflexivity, and Quaker discernment - and lay out some foundations between these essential aspects and management education pedagogy. We offer examples of utilizing these essential aspects in teaching business ethics in order to offer a foundational discussion for future elaboration. Our experiences also illuminate that instructor preparation is a key ingredient if the kinds of teaching we advance are to gain traction and contribute to the repeated calls for pedagogical innovations that challenge dominant paradigms. We offer some concluding remarks, pathways for future research and indicate a list of resources that can support potential instructors
... Besides features derived from players' behaviour, we use a small set of relatively stable traits that can be collected outside of a game session through one-time self-reports. In particular, we added features based on previous work suggesting that perception of the other, e.g., trust, is affected by age [15], gender [19], the gender combination of people involved in an interaction [5,94,102,103], and personality traits like agreeableness or propensity to trust [32,79]. Finally, we use features based on identification as a gamer and preferred gaming style because of previous work suggesting a link between gaming frequency and social interaction [117]. ...
... Besides features derived from players' behaviour, we use a small set of relatively stable traits that can be collected outside of a game session through one-time self-reports. In particular, we added features based on previous work suggesting that perception of the other, e.g., trust, is affected by age [15], gender [19], the gender combination of people involved in an interaction [5,94,102,103], and personality traits like agreeableness or propensity to trust [32,79]. Finally, we use features based on identification as a gamer and preferred gaming style because of previous work suggesting a link between gaming frequency and social interaction [117]. ...
Online social interactions in multiplayer games can be supportive and positive or toxic and harmful; however, few methods can easily assess interpersonal interaction quality in games. We use behavioural traces to predict affiliation between dyadic strangers, facilitated through their social interactions in an online gaming setting. We collected audio, video, in-game, and self-report data from 23 dyads, extracted 75 features, trained Random Forest and Support Vector Machine models, and evaluated their performance predicting binary (high/low) as well as continuous affiliation toward a partner. The models can predict both binary and continuous affiliation with up to 79.1% accuracy (F1) and 20.1% explained variance (R2) on unseen data, with features based on verbal communication demonstrating the highest potential. Our findings can inform the design of multiplayer games and game communities, and guide the development of systems for matchmaking and mitigating toxic behaviour in online games.
... In recent years, scholars have increasingly used network analysis to understand student interactions in business courses. For example, researchers used network analysis to show that gender (Bevelander & Page, 2011), minority status (Konrad, Seidel, Lo, Bhardwaj, & Qureshi, 2017), and personality factors (Seevers, Johnson, & Darnold, 2015) influence student interactions in business classes. Researchers have also used social network analysis to understand how business students build social capital in management education settings (Konrad, Radcliffe, & Shin, 2016). ...
The constructivist theory of learning states that student interaction with peers leads to cognitive development. Meanwhile, scholars claimed that traditional management classes that use group work do not promote student interaction effectively. Despite this concern, student interaction has not been compared between different courses. In the current study, the authors used social network analysis to explore student interaction in two traditional classes and one that followed the Classroom-as-Organization (CAO) approach. The authors found that the CAO involves students in a better cohesive network of interactions compared to other classes. Implications for management educators are discussed.
... The Study 2 findings show that women middle managers prefer internal networking behaviors. The main purpose of their internal networking is to strengthen their emotional ties to enhance their career benefits (Bevelander and Page, 2011;Forret and Dougherty, 2004). A possible explanation, suggested by Tlaiss and Kauser (2010), is that women's responsibilities as a caregiver for the family will obstruct their development and maintenance of external networks, which often require time and attendance outside work hours (Mooney and Ryan, 2009). ...
Networking behaviours are becoming increasingly important to employees in the workplace for their career management strategy. The purpose of this study is to propose and test the relationship between networking behaviours and employees' work outcomes: job satisfaction, job commitment and internal visibility; and the moderating effect of gender. A mixed method research design was used, and data were gathered through a survey and interviews. The study focused on the management level employees from ten private sector organisations in Sri Lanka. The quantitative data were analysed through the hierarchical regression technique and interview data were analysed through thematic and content analysis. The results show that both internal and external networking behaviours enhance employees' work outcomes. Further, the findings suggest that male and female employees' networking behaviours are different, but their work outcomes are similar since they work on a common platform within an organisation. We discuss, theoretical, research and practical implications. Word count: 6,547 Internal and external networking behaviours and employees' work outcomes: The moderating effect of gender 3
... In the recent period, research into issues related to networks and trust has focused on the following: trust in governance network [76], gender-based differences in risky environments [77], the significance of the various dimensions of trust (abilities, kindliness, integrity, and predictability) in the particular phases of the trust building process [78], the significance of the various dimensions of trust in developing and managing interpersonal trust [79], the significance of network infrastructure in information markets and products [80], trust and reliability in Online Social Networks [81], the importance of the kinds of actors in building trust in networks that are created in the public sector [82], relations between the level of social support experienced by network members and the level of trust available to network members with respect to one another and with respect to the network as a whole [83], the influence of trust and social networks on wellbeing-in the relationship between social capital and income [84], the level of trust in cliques [85], expectations regarding reliability [86], the role of trust in interactions in complex social systems [87], the significance of a network of trust in career progression [88], the significance of trust in e-commerce services [89], the uses of social media in the process of managing and building trust [90], the significance of the independent thought and readiness for change in creating informal social networks [91], and the role of network openness and social capital in the information sharing process [92]. ...
Currently, the most common way of managing cultural heritage in a sustainable manner takes the form of cultural routes. The phenomenon of cultural routes mainly results from their innovative organisation, different from the previously adopted institutionalised and formalised heritage management structure that did not align with the contemporary discourse around cultural heritage, which currently constitutes one of the bases of sustainable development. The novel idea focuses on the active involvement of many diverse entities in heritage management: not only public sector organisations with their statutory appointment for this purpose, but, first and foremost, entrepreneurs who create heritage products, tourists visiting sites on the route, or people who create this heritage. Thus, the cultural route acquires the characteristics of a network-points (nodes) that are shaped depending on the needs of the region and its inhabitants, their knowledge, experience, current ideas about a given place, and the way in which specific communities would like to be perceived. The undertaken research problem explores what features cultural route networks have and how they are managed, as well as what values, including trust, are manifested in the mutual relations of route-related entities. An original concept of shaping trust within the network of cultural routes has also been proposed based on the research results.
... There is some evidence that women prefer to work with male mentors (Bevelander and Page, 2011) and be associated with male networks (Hau-siu Chow and Ng, 2007), that male mentors have a more positive impact on women's career advancement than do female mentors (Ramaswami et al., 2010), and that women-to-women mentoring relationships can be unsatisfying (Parker and Kram, 1993). These findings may reflect the fact that as long as the executive suite is still largely populated by men, male mentors/ sponsors will be in a better position to provide access to advancement opportunities than female mentors. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to better understand women’s working relationships and career support behaviors, by investigating expectations women have of other women regarding senior women’s roles in (and motivations for) helping junior women succeed, and junior women’s engagement in their own career advancement behaviors.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors surveyed self- and other-reports of senior women’s engagement in career assistance behaviors on behalf of junior women colleagues, and junior women’s engagement in their own career advancement behaviors. One sample of respondents indicated to what extent they believed senior women did engage in career assistance toward junior women, and to what extent they believed junior women did engage in career advancement. Another sample indicated to what extent they believed senior women should engage in career assistance, and to what extent they believed junior women should engage in their own career advancement.
Findings
Results suggest a disconnect between the expectations and perceptions junior and senior women have of each other. Junior women expect senior women to engage in career assistance behaviors to a greater degree than they believe senior women are engaging in such behaviors, and junior women think they are doing more to advance their careers than senior women are expecting them to do. The authors examine individual and organizational implications of these unmet expectations and perception mismatches.
Originality/value
Women-to-women working relationships are under-studied, and typically viewed in either/or terms – good or bad. The findings provide a more nuanced understanding of women’s perceptions and expectations and offer suggestions for how women can influence female career advancement.
... Herminia Ibarra (1997) shows that networks of both men and women are homophilous, but women's networks are less homophilous than men's, meaning women's networks contain more people of the other sex. Dianne Bevelander and Michael John Page (2011) study trust in relation to the size of networks and report that women tend to trust each other less in a risky professional environment compared to men. Though women were found to have the same scale social networks, they exhibit a greater reduction in aggregate network size at higher trust levels. ...
This study uses the Italian data from the Multiscopo surveys of 1997 and 2011 to assess differences in life-cycle accumulation of social capital by sex and age. First, the study identifies some crucial aspects regarding the definition and measurement of social capital: individual versus collective dimension, different typologies of social capital, and the fact that the literature often deals with women in social capital but seldom with gender. Second, using a regression analysis with cross-sectional data, it shows that social capital accumulation along the life cycle is different for men and women, with men accumulating more social capital at all ages, with a different peak and overall profile. The study also shows that, over fifteen years, the gap in social capital by sex narrowed. Finally, it introduces a model of social capital structure compatible with the empirical evidence and with notions of gender as defined in feminist literature.
... In recent years it has been used as a basis for discussion in many papers (e.g. Bevelander and Page, 2011;Bianchi and Brockner, 2012;Colquitt and Rodell, 2011;Desmet, D Cremer, & van Dijk, 2011;Gulati, Wohlgezogen & Zhelyazkov, 2012;Kramer and Lewicki, 2010;Lount Jr. And Pettit, 2012;Malhotra and Lumineau, 2011;Palanski, Surinder & Yammarino, 2010;Rupp, Shao, Jones and Liao, 2014;Sonenshein, Herzenstein & Dholakia, 2011) and has thousands of citations. ...
One of the most important issues in modern society is how society modifies the way in which its members develop relationships and foster cooperation in the face of new communication technologies. I explore theoretical and empirical parameters of this process and their implications for encouraging trust and cooperation in negotiations.
I begin with an argument for the role of trust and cooperation as part of the foundation of digital commerce by expanding the reach of the social contract theory (ISCT) of Donaldson and Dunfee (1994; 1999). I argue that a digital community is a community in the ISCT sense, and that the basic framework of ISCT can apply to the digital business world. I then analyze the roles of trust and cooperation within this framework, explaining their moral relevance for e-commerce.
I follow this discussion with two empirical papers to begin to uncover the nature of digital norms. In "Negotiating with the Millennial Generation" I use a series of behavioral studies and online chat analyses to show that people build trusting relationships online, often resulting in more cooperation than when they talk face to face. I then look at what type of texting creates stronger relationships, showing that longer texting conversations that go beyond small talk generated greater trust and rapport. I also use a behavioral study involving a smartphone application to discuss how over time people learn to use new forms of communication to build trusting relationships through digital media.
In the third paper "Why the F*** Don't They TRUST" I develop the notion that particular behaviors can affect online trust development. Using analyses of online texts and additional behavioral studies I show how norm-defying online incivility decreases trust while norm-abiding use of capital letters does not. I show that encouraging people to abide by civility norms develops more trusting and cooperative online environments.
... Although other factors have also been argued to relate to networking (cf. Wolff and Muck 2009), these factors-conscientiousness, extraversion, self-monitoring, interpersonal trust, proactivity, and self-esteem-do not seem to systematically vary between women and men [for conscientiousness and extraversion, see (Costa et al. 2001); for self-monitoring, see Rupert and Kent (2007); for interpersonal trust, see Bevelander and Page (2011); for proactivity, see Finkelstein et al. (2003); for self-esteem, see Gentile et al. (2009)]. ...
In modern knowledge societies, scientific research is crucial, but expensive and often publicly financed. However, with regard to scientific research success, some studies have found gender differences in favor of men. To explain this, it has been argued that female researchers collaborate less than male researchers, and the current study examines this argument scientometrically. A secondary data analysis was applied to the sample of a recent scientometric publication (König et al. in Scientometrics 105:1931–1952, 2015. doi:10. 1007/ s11192-015-1646-y). The sample comprised 4234 (45 % female) industrial–organizational psychologists with their 46,656 publications (published from 1948 to 2013) and all of their approx. 100,000 algorithmically genderized collaborators (i.e., co-authors). Findings confirmed that (a) the majority of researchers’ publications resulted from collaborations, and (b) their engagement in collaborations was related to their scientific success, although not as clearly as expected (and partly even negatively). However, there was no evidence that a lack of female collaboration causes females’ lower scientific success. In fact, female researchers engage in more scientific collaborations. Our findings have important implications for science and society because they make gender differences in scientific success much harder to rationalize.
... n recent years, the business education literature-and particularly the marketing education literaturehas witnessed a significant rise in scholarship concerning students' social networks and networking behavior. This interest is fueled by a concern for facilitating student-to-student communication and mutual support (Boostrom, Kurthakoti, and Summey 2009), encouraging networking as a tool to aid students in their professional transition (Bacile 2013;Bevelander and Page 2011;Buff and O'Connor 2012), developing networking skills for the sake of self-marketing and personal branding (McCorkle and McCorkle 2012), and the use of computer-mediated social networks to enhance instruction (Tuten and Marks 2012). This expanding interest is also consistent with the more general growth of research in the business literature that examines the positive benefits of social networks that have been shown to accrue to individuals, groups, and organizations. ...
This study examines personality factors as antecedents of student social capital. We hypothesize relationships between two constructs taken from the five-factor model of personality (agreeableness and extraversion) and two variables that reflect a students social capital (quantity of ties and strength of ties) in an academic setting. Analysis of roster-based, sociometric data suggests that agreeableness is associated with higher quantity of ties, but not higher tie strength. In contrast, extraversion is linked to higher tie strength, but not higher overall network size. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of student social capital for educational research and practice.
This study investigates how to promote gender equity in finance through early financial education using the survey responses gathered in Singapore. The empirical tests for the effect of financial education on financial literacy suggest that women who receive early financial education better understand the compounding effect of interest rates on loans, portfolio diversification, and mortgage payments. The impact of early financial education on financial behavior is also evident in women's increased participation in the stock market, insurance activities, and savings habits. The implications can be used to guide policymakers charged with promoting gender equity through early financial education.
This study investigates how to promote gender equity in finance through early financial education using survey responses gathered in Singapore. The empirical tests for the effect of financial education on financial literacy suggest that women who receive early financial education better understand the compounding effect of interest rates on loans, portfolio diversification, and mortgage payments. The impact of early financial education on financial behavior is also evident in women's increased participation in the stock market, insurance activities, and savings habits. The implications can be used to guide policymakers charged with promoting gender equity through early financial education.
Unsere Einladung an diesem Sammelband mitzuwirken, verdanken wir einer von uns gestalteten 3sat-Dokumentation über die Seychellen. Zum Unterschied von vielen anderen Reisedokus über diesen Inselarchipel war unser Thema recht sperrig: „Diversität und Inklusion/Integration“. Deshalb stellen wir diesem Beitrag ein Interviewzitat als Präambel voran, das für uns die Schlüsselaussage des Films wiedergibt.
Larger discourses and social constructions of Black persons in the US are often framed within social misrepresentations, prejudices, stereotypes, and myths (Christian in Black feminist criticism—Perspectives on Black women writers. Pergamon, New York, NY, 1985; Fox-Genovese in Within the plantation household: Black and White women of the Old South. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC, 1988; Coltrane & Messineo in Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 42:363–389, 2000; Smedley & Smedley in American Psychologist 60:16–26, 2005; Scott in The language of strong Black womanhood: Myths, models, messages and a new model for self-care. Lexington Books, London, 2017). To some extent, these knowledge sets stem from ongoing forms of colonization and exploitation; wherein Blacks in the US have been socialized into a system of perceived racial and cultural inferiorities and stereotypical notions of being (DuBois in The education of Black peoples: 10 critiques 1906–1960, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA, 1973; DuBois in The souls of Black folks. Dover Publications, Mineola, NY, 1994; Helms in An overview of Black racial identity theory, Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT, pp. 9–32, 1993; Woodson in The mis-education of the Negro. Africa West Press, Trenton, NY, 1990). A related argument is that these dominant ideas and socialization practices are fuelled and sustained by more fluid combinations of power-structures that exist in the broader society (Crenshaw in University of Chicago Legal Forum 139:139–167, 1989; Collins in Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge, New York, 2000). The effect of this complex ideological and structural web of influence cannot be underestimated. In fact, Collins (Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge, New York, 2000) contended that as a constellation of knowledge projects, such thinking about Black women, have worked to frame hegemonic ideas as socially scripted frames of reference that inform understanding of selves, and their relative positioning in that contentious space. There is growing evidence of this standpoint in the literature on Black women.
In Chapter 4, we discussed the many contentions around the ability of intersectionality (as a theory) to travel beyond the context from where it originated. We specifically elaborated on this issue of transferability to underscore the theoretical and empirical challenges that emerged from the global south. In so doing, we drew attention to the different perspectives (e.g. transnational feminism and Caribbean feminism) that questioned the extent to which Eurocentric theorizations addressed the specific realities and complexities around the lives of women within these contexts. Taking these into consideration, we use intersectionality theory to interrogate the nature and significance of these differences, and perhaps similarities, across contexts. By engaging in this type of comparative intersectional analysis, two Black women, one Afro-Caribbean, and the other African American, are able to use their authentic voices to narrate their nuanced experiences in the academy as opposed to a story being told about them through a filtered lens.
Approximately one third of senior management positions across government departments in the UK are held by women. One exception to this pattern is the military arm of the UK’s Ministry of Defence (MoD) where the figure drops to below two per cent. To gain greater insight into what might account for this high variation relative to other departments, an exploratory case study was conducted in the UK’s MoD. The study investigated the structural and individual impediments faced by women seeking access to the highest organisational leadership echelons. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 high-ranked female officers drawn from all three military services. Because changes occurring within the UK government departments are informed primarily by neoliberalism and this ideology strongly values entrepreneurship, the specific leadership lens used for analysis drew heavily on entrepreneurial theories. The findings revealed a complex, dynamic interrelationship involving context, structure, agency and networks. The recursive relationship among these four components at the level of the individual represented a rich mixture of cognitive interpretation, risk taking, opportunity recognition and the use of scarce resources. Evidence was found which demonstrated that female institutional leaders could increase their career progression chances by minimising institutional deviation, thereby allowing individuals to benefit from increased leadership legitimacy. However, the evidence also suggested that women still faced many impediments which were inhibiting their chances of reaching the very top leadership roles.
Research on the use of experiential exercises to encourage exploration of professional networks shows that such exercises are effective and provide value for students seeking to enter or navigate careers. Often students in the early phase of their undergraduate experience are unaware of the process involved in building a professional network or the type of resources that can be exchanged to sustain their social capital within their career network. We share an exercise that introduces students to the concept of social capital, including both instrumental and expressive uses, that can be used to support an emerging professional network. Students learn to recognize how social capital can be used to expand network relationships and support their future career aspirations.
Arguably, the most critical time frame for organizational participants to develop trust is at the beginning of their relationship. Using primarily a cognitive approach, we address factors and processes that enable two organizational parties to form relatively high trust initially. We propose a model of specific relationships among several trust-related constructs and two cognitive processes. The model helps explain the paradoxical finding of high initial trust levels in new organizational relationships.
Recent theory and research suggest that certain situational factors can harm women’s math test performance. The three studies presented here indicate that female role models can buffer women’s math test performance from the debilitating effects of these situational factors. In Study 1, women’s math test performance was protected when a competent female experimenter (i.e., a female role model) administered the test. Study 2 showed that it was the perception of the female experimenter’s math competence, not her physical presence, that safeguarded the math test performance of women. Study 3 revealed that learning about a competent female experimenter buffered women’s self-appraised math ability, which in turn led to successful performance on a challenging math test.
The study of trust has occupied scholars from a number of disciplines, who have made limited attempts at integrating the different streams. One reason for lack of integration is that no clear definition of trust exists. In this article we grapple with this issue by going back to first principles to derive a mathematically precise and statistically rigorous definition of trust. In giving a rigorous meaning of trust, we also capture the key elements of the concept as highlighted by various disciplinary lenses. Our definition of trust, although rationally based, is consistent with many of the findings of earlier behavioral and sociological research. Its contribution is in adding precision and richness to our understanding of how trust is created and maintained in various social and economic interactions.
Abstract With efforts to de-layer organizations and reduce functional boundaries, coordination and work of importance increasingly occur through networks of informal relations rather than channels tightly prescribed by formal ,reporting structures or detailed ,work ,processes. However, while organizations are moving to network forms through joint ventures, alliances and other collaborative relationships executives,generally pay little attention to assessing and supporting informal networks ,within their own ,organizations. Working with a consortium,of 23 companies,over the past eighteen months,we have,found social
Business/management schools may be currently using an exclusive approach to the study and development of management; by ignoring gender in this arena they are reinforcing the notion that women in management are invisible. Previous research suggests that there is a masculine bias in management education, which disadvantages both female and male learners and which may discourage managers from capitalising on gender diversity in the workplace. Discusses experiences of women academics and students in a business/management school and is based on the premise that change in management education will facilitate change in organisations. Therefore, rather than reinforcing the premise that management knowledge contributes to the maginalisation of women in management, argues that business/management schools should move to an inclusive approach, where management incorporates the experience and abilities of both men and women. Concludes by suggesting a number of initiatives to place gender on the agenda in business/management schools.
The central argument of network research is that actors are embedded in networks of interconnected social relationships that offer opportunities for and constraints on behavior. We review research on the antecedents and consequences of networks at the interpersonal, interunit, and interorganizational levels of analysis, evaluate recent theoretical and empirical trends, and give directions for future research, highlighting the importance of investigating cross-level network phenomena.
This research examined the relationships between structural positions and influence at the individual level of analysis. The structure of the organization was conceptualized from a social network perspective. Measures of the relative positions of employees within workflow, communication, and friendship networks were strongly related to perceptions of influence by both supervisors and non-supervisors and to promotions to the supervisory level. Measures included criticality, transaction alternatives, and centrality (access and control) in the networks and in such reference groups as the dominant coalition. A comparison of boundary-spanning and technical-core personnel indicated that contacts beyond the normal work requirements are particularly important for technical core personnel to acquire influence. Overall, the results provide support for a structural perspective on intraorganizational influence.
in this chapter we will examine the development and impact of trust in the context of close relationships
we will begin with a definition of trust and a discussion of its roots in individuals' interpersonal histories
we will go on to explore the development of trust in intimate relationships, emphasizing how its foundations are colored by the seminal experiences that mark different stages of interdependence
we will then consider the various states of trust that can evolve and their consequences for people's emotions and perceptions in established relationships (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested a theoretical model of interpersonal trust in close relationships with 47 dating, cohabiting, or married couples (mean ages were 31 yrs for males and 29 yrs for females). The validity of the model's 3 dimensions of trust—predictability, dependability, and faith—was examined. Ss completed scales designed to measure liking and loving, trust, and motivation for maintaining the relationship. An analysis of the instrument measuring trust was consistent with the notion that the predictability, dependability, and faith components represent distinct and coherent dimensions. The perception of intrinsic motives in a partner emerged as a dimension, as did instrumental and extrinsic motives. As expected, love and happiness were closely tied to feelings of faith and the attribution of intrinsic motivation to both self and partner. Women appeared to have more integrated, complex views of their relationships than men: All 3 forms of trust were strongly related, and attributions of instrumental motives in their partners seemed to be self-affirming. There was a tendency for Ss to view their own motives as less self-centered and more exclusively intrinsic than their partner's motives. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
trust in intimate and professional relationships / types of trust / dynamics of trust development / what causes trust to decline (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We report results from experiments analyzing trust and trustworthiness, which are components of social capital and have an impact on diverse economic phenomena. We conduct a within‐subjects experiment where subjects participate in both the trust game and the dictator game and find that transfers in the trust game are higher and are motivated by expected reciprocation. Subjects in our experiment exhibit positive reciprocity. We find that trustworthiness in the trust game implies trust but not vice versa. Trustworthy subjects are also more generous in the dictator game. Finally we explore gender differences in behavior and find that men are more trusting than women but there are no significant gender differences in reciprocal behavior.
Swift trust and temporary groups January 1, 1991. The Grand Kempinski Hotel, Dallas, Texas. 9:00 a.m. “Crew Call.” About 35 people gather. Some are local. Some flew in overnight from here or there. Some drove in. The 35 encompass almost that many different technical disciplines. Many are meeting each other for the first time. Ten and one-half hours from now they will tape a two hour lecture (given by the author), which will become the centerpiece of an hour-long public television show. They'll tape it again the next day. Then they'll disperse, never again to work together in the same configuration. This is the “Dallas Organization.” As Peters and others have noted, temporary groups of this sort are becoming an increasingly common form of organization (Kanter, 1989; Peters, 1992). In many respects, such groups constitute an interesting organizational analog of a “one-night stand.” They have a finite life span, form ...
Despite voluminous research indicating that women and minorities have limited access to or are excluded from organizational networks, two central questions remain unanswered: (a) In what specific ways, if any, do the interaction networks of men and women and whites and racial minorities differ? and (b) What mechanisms produce those differences? The central thesis of the article is that the organizational context in which interaction networks are embedded produces unique constraints on women and racial minorities, causing their networks to differ from those of their white male counterparts in composition and characteristics of their relationships with network members. Organizational context is hypothesized to affect personal networks directly, as well as through its impact on individuals' strategies for managing constraints. A theoretical perspective that views women and minorities as active agents who make strategic choices among structurally limited alternatives is offered.
This is a review of argument and evidence on the connection between social networks and social capital. My summary points are three: (1) Research and theory will better cumulate across studies if we focus on the network mechanisms responsible for social capital effects rather than trying to integrate across metaphors of social capital loosely tied to distant empirical indicators. (2) There is an impressive diversity of empirical evidence showing that social capital is more a function of brokerage across structural holes than closure within a network, but there are contingency factors. (3) The two leading network mechanisms can be brought together in a productive way within a more general model of social capital. Structural holes are the source of value added, but network closure can be essential to realizing the value buried in the holes.
We discuss our ethnographic research on personal social networks in the workplace, arguing that traditional institutional resources are being replaced by resources that workers mine from their own networks. Social networks are key sources of labor and information in a rapidly transforming economy characterized by less institutional stability and fewer reliable corporate resources. The personal social network is fast becoming the only sensible alternative to the traditional "org chart" for many everyday transactions in today's economy.
This study examined influences on the likelihood that directors of U.S. corporations will receive additional board appointments. We tested hypotheses with original survey data from 760 outside directors at large and medium-sized U.S. firms. Supplementary analyses assessed post-Enron era generalizability. Directors increased their chances of board appointments via provision of advice and information to CEOs and ingratiatory behavior toward peer directors. Ethnic minorities and women were rewarded less on the director labor market for such behaviors. Directors also increased their appointment chances by engaging in low levels of monitoring and control behavior, and demographic minorities were punished more for such behaviors.
This article proposes a solution to the problems facing management education. The solution proposed is a body of thought called critical management education (CME). CME is that body of educational practice arising from a research tradition known as critical management studies (CMS). One barrier to the consideration of CME is that CME has mostly arisen and been most widely discussed and practiced not in the United States but in Europe, possibly because that is where a large number of new business schools have been founded in recent decades. Yet it is in the U.S. that the bulk of business schools, and the bulk of prestigious schools as well, are to be found. CME does require that one accepts the core claim of CMS of the unavoidable presence of values. It does not require that we all agree with CMS on what those values are. In view of implications for management education, they suggest that management needs always be taught in ways that explicitly acknowledge the political, ethical, and philosophical nature of its practice.
We argue that while the male to female ratio in business school has not changed drastically, the mind-set in relation to gender has shifted in significant ways. Our study examines how MBA students talk about gender. We identify two main discursive repertoires that students use to make sense of gender. The first centers on accepting the status quo as "the way the world is," and the second insists that gender does not matter. We argue that a postfeminist climate is operating in management education, so that gender is no longer seen as salient, even while it continues to shape the culture in significant ways. In this context, the gender culture in business schools can only be changed by adopting more subtle strategies for challenging the masculine norms that persist in spite of gender's "disappearance.".
This research uses the network-analytic concepts of homophily, tie strength, and range to explore gender differences in characteristics of middle managers' information and career support networks. When the effects of position and potential for future advancement were held constant, women's netwotks were less homophilous than men's. Women high in advancement potential, however, relied to a greater extent than both high-potential men and less high-potential women on close ties and relationships outside their subunits. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that different types of networks may provide alternative routes to similar career resources for men and for women.
In this paper we explore the validity of a survey question commonly used for measuring generalized trust. Trust has become a key variable in a variety of fields, including sociology, social psychology, political science, and economics; therefore the accuracy with which it is measured has profound implications for many studies. We suggest that ambiguous wording on this survey item has led to misinterpretations concerning actual trust levels, especially in a cross-cultural context. To test this claim, we conduct an extensive survey of students at UCLA and at Hokkaido University, Japan. Results strongly suggest that the survey question measures differences in caution levels rather than in trust. Implications of this research are discussed.
This article tests a key hypothesis of the social capital literature: voluntary memberships and generalized trust reproduce one another. Panel data from the Michigan Socialization Studies from 1965 to 1982 are used to test the contemporaneous and lagged effects of interpersonal trust on joining groups and the contemporaneous and lagged effects of joining groups on interpersonal trust. We find no evidence supporting the hypothesis that interpersonal trust encourages group memberships and only limited evidence suggesting that belonging to groups makes individuals more trusting.
This is a review of argument and evidence on the connection between social networks and social capital. My summary points are three: (1) Research and theory will better cumulate across studies if we focus an the network mechanisms responsible for social capital effects rather than trying to integrate across metaphors of social capital loosely tied to distant empirical indicators. (2) There is an impressive diversity of empirical evidence showing that social capital is more a function of brokerage across structural holes than closure within a network, bur there are contingency factors. (3) The two leading network mechanisms can be brought together in a productive way within a more general model of social capital. Structural holes are the source of value added, but network closure can be essential to realizing the value buried in the holes.
This article explores problems caused by nonrespondents in sociometric studies of organizational communication and describes how networks that include nonrespondents can be analyzed. An illustrative example is used to conceptualize the problems and issues in analyzing such networks. An empirical study is described that operationalizes the decision criteria for choosing a method of analysis. Suggestions are offered for the design of communication network studies that may enhance response rates and provide the information needed to justify how incomplete network data sets may be analyzed.
This article argues that a common organizational practice - the hiring of new workers via employee referrals - provides key insights into the nation of social capital. Employers who use such hiring methods are quintessential "social capitalists," viewing workers' social connections as resources in which they can invest in order to gain economic returns in the form of better hiring outcomes. Identified are three ways through which such returns might be realized: the "richer pool," the "better match," and the "social enrichment" mechanisms. Using unique company data on the dollar costs of screening, hiring, and training, this article finds that the firm's investment in the social capital of its employees yields significant economic returns.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
This paper presents a model of trust and its interaction with information flow, influence, and control, and reports on an experiment based on the model to test several hypotheses about problem-solving effectiveness. The subjects were managers and the independent variable was the individual manager's initial level of trust. Groups of business executives were given identical factual information about a difficult manufacturing-marketing policy problem; half the groups were briefed to expect trusting behavior, the other half to expect untrusting behavior. There were highly significant differences in effectiveness between the high-trust groups and the low-trust groups in the clarification of goals, the reality of information exchanged, the scope of search for solutions, and the commitment of managers to implement solutions. The findings indicate that shared trust or lack of trust apparently are a significant determinant of managerial problem-solving effectiveness.
This article describes how a research team used feminist organization theory in its work with organizational change agents to further gender equity in their organizations. We describe the theoretical framing that initially informed this action-research project, what we learned in the early encounters inside the organization and the framework we ultimately developed to help bridge the gap between feminist theory and practice. The framework outlines four approaches to the `gender' problem in organizations and their respective implications for organizational change. We also describe our early attempts to translate this frame-work into knowledge that change agents could use.
Public policy which controls and seeks to correct employment discrimination is now in its fourth decade in the USA. Organizations have made strides in complying with such policies through their hiring practices and in employee development and training programmes. While laws such as the Civil Rights Act and programmes such as EEO and AA have high aims and lofty claims, in practice they miss the mark in organizations. Research indicates that the nature of the work relationship is constrained by both network and hierarchical forms of organization. Suggests that policy is predicated only on the latter and that innovation may lie in the former. Finds that understanding and managing the networks in organizations may be used to augment existing programmes in achieving non-discriminatory or “fair” employment practices.
Despite voluminous research indicating that women and minorities have limited access to or are excluded from organizational networks, two central questions remain unanswered: (a) In what specific ways, if any, do the interaction networks of men and women and whites and racial minorities differ? and (b) What mechanisms produce those differences? The central thesis of the article is that the organizational context in which interaction networks are embedded produces unique constraints on women and racial minorities, causing their networks to differ from those of their white male counterparts in composition and characteristics of their relationships with network members. Organizational context is hypothesized to affect personal networks directly, as well as through its impact on individuals' strategies for managing constraints. A theoretical perspective that views women and minorities as active agents who make strategic choices among structurally limited alternatives is offered.
Men's and women's personal networks often differ in composition, with women's more focused on family and men's on nonkin, especially coworkers. Using data from the 1985 General Social Survey, I find that these gender differences arise in part from dissimilar social structural locations of men and women, which lead to distinct opportunities for and constraints on the formation of close personal ties. Most gender differences in network composition disappear or are considerably reduced when variables related to employment, family, and age are controlled. However, some gender differences remain. Women have a larger number, higher proportion, and greater diversity of kin ties in their personal networks than men, even when compared with men in similar social structural positions.
Describes an exploratory study to examine the interpersonal
networks of managerial women and men. Women and men indicated all
potentially supportive relationships they had both inside and outside
their organizations. Data were collected from 57 women and 55 men using
questionnaires. Includes also potential antecedents of such
relationships (individual demographic, work environment), consequences
(job satisfaction, career success, job involvement) and network
characteristics (number of individuals, frequency of interactions,
development functions provided). Finds that all respondents indicate
having network members both inside and outside their organizations.
Insiders are more numerous than outsiders. Finally hierarchical
regression analyses indicate few effects of developmental functions from
network members on work and career outcomes when personal and work
setting characteristics are controlled.
Purpose
To show how companies that address gender diversity issues as business issues, not just as human resources issues, will reap rewards both inside and outside the company. Also, to show how business schools can make a significant contribution toward the understanding of diversity as a business issue.
Design/methodology/approach
First, women's corporate managerial roles are examined: the economic and social reasons to focus on gender diversity and the costs of companies’ failure to address diversity issues, specifically, turnover and retention. Next, women's roles as consumers are studied. Finally, women's roles as business students are looked at, specifically, the negative stereotypes reinforced in business school and carried into the workplace. The study concludes with examples of programs developed by Avon Products and Deloitte and Touche, LLP, to address diversity issues.
Findings
Provides statistics on women's workforce participation, costs of corporate turnover, women's earned college and graduate degrees. Identifies the key barriers to female career advancement; discusses the role of female consumers and business owners; provides company examples and case studies that illustrate the successful integration of women into academic and corporate life.
Research limitations/implications
Only Stanford and Harvard Business school cases are looked at, although the latter is the largest producer of case studies used in business schools. One of the two longer corporate examples discusses diversity strategies in Avon Mexico which may limit its relevance to other US companies.
Practical implications
Good source for bibliography on corporate and academic diversity. Particularly useful for corporate human resources professionals and women about to enter business school or start their first corporate job. Also useful for researchers/academics writing business school case studies.
Originality/value
Presents a strong case for the retention and development of corporate women as well as the need for business school cases to model behavior and modify negative attitudes toward women in business.
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This paper argues that two network mechanisms operate to create and reinforce gender inequalities in the organizational distribution of power: sex differences in homophily (i.e., tendency to form same-sex network relationships) and in the ability to convert individual attributes and positional resources into network advantages. These arguments were tested in a network analytic study of men's and women's interaction patterns in an advertising firm. Men were more likely to form homophilous ties across multiple networks and to have stronger homophilous ties, while women evidenced a differentiated network pattern in which they obtained social support and friendship from women and instrumental access through network ties to men. Although centrality in organization-wide networks did not vary by sex once controls were instituted, relative to women, men appeared to reap greater network returns from similar individual and positional resources, as well as from homophilous relationships.
In 1992 the Australian Federal Government established an Industry Task
Force on Leadership and Management Skills to make recommendations for
improving the skills of managers. The task force commissioned the
production of a core MBA curriculum unit on Effective Organizations:
Gender Issues in Management. Although gender stereotyping has not
traditionally been considered as a strategic business issue within MBA
programmes, this topic was considered a critical component of the
development of leadership and management skills, and a fundamental
element in the drive towards greater organizational effectiveness. In
developing the unit, the researchers identified both a reluctance and
lack of preparedness on the part of both academics and industry
management to deal with these issues. The resulting package therefore
recognizes the sensitivities associated with the subject, and the
difficulties of addressing gender issues in management. It also offers a
range of delivery options, and has potential for uptake in countries
other than Australia. Briefly describes the origins, focus and content
of the package produced for the task force in 1994, and discusses the
implications of the material for the career development of women
managers.
Purpose – Social capital has been widely accepted as an important asset for creating and maintaining healthy communities, robust organizations and vibrant civil societies. This paper explores the relevance of social capital to management development in the workplace and, more specifically, the importance of gender in the formation of social capital and the distribution of its benefits.
Design/methodology/approach – The pertinent scholarly literature is reviewed to explore the role of social capital in organizational behavior and its relationship to gender. Findings – Although the numbers of women entering the workplace have risen steadily in the last half century and strides have been made in attaining economic parity with men, statistics reveal that women continue to lag behind men in career advancement and in levels of compensation and achieved status. It is argued in the literature that women are hindered in their efforts to achieve career advancement and its associated benefits due to their inability to access social capital, a valuable organizational commodity and source of the knowledge, resources, and networks that are essential for career development and maturation. Originality/value – This review reveals that untold benefits and rewards may be generated once workplaces are democratized and equalized so that women – and men – may contribute equally to the growth and development of private and public sector organizations. However, few practical solutions are included, as the available literature only cursorily addresses possible remedies.
The MBA as the top management qualification has enjoyed a
considerable increase in popularity. However, doubts exist about the
accessibility and success of the course for women managers. Describes a
research project which aimed to make a comparison of the potential
returns of an MBA for men and women. Also aims to explore the barriers
which exist for women in the labour market and how far the MBA overcomes
these. Based on a sample of 128 male and 55 female students from
part-time courses, looks at management roles, management functions and
salary levels. In addition identifies men's formal and informal networks
as a significant barrier. Concludes that the MBA is less successful for
women than for men in terms of career advancement and salary levels.
Increasingly, researchers from a variety of business disciplines are finding that trust can lower transaction costs, facilitate interorganizational relationships, and enhance manager-subordinate relationships. At the same time, we see a growing trend toward globalization - in establishing alliances, managing and hiring employees, and entering new markets. These trends suggest a need to view the concept of trust from the perspective of national culture. Drawing on theories from several disciplines, we develop a framework that identifies and describes five cognitive trust-building processes that help explain how trust develops in business contexts. We include a series of research propositions demonstrating how societal norms and values influence application of the trust-building processes, and we discuss implications for theory and practice.
Legitimacy affects returns to social capital. I begin with the network structure of social capital, explaining the information and control benefits of structural holes. The holes in a network are entrepreneurial opportunities to add value, and persons rich in such opportunities are expected to be more successful than their peers. Accumulating empirical research supports the prediction. However, women here pose a puzzle. The entrepreneurial networks linked to early promotion for senior men do not work for women. Solving the gender puzzle is an occasion to see how network models of social capital can be used to identify people not accepted as legitimate members of a population, and to describe how such people get access to social capital by borrowing the network of a strategic partner.
Discusses the positive and potential negative consequences of being high or low in interpersonal trust in current social life, particularly in interacting with ordinary people. A summary and analysis of previous investigations led to the following conclusions: People who trust more are less likely to lie and are possibly less likely to cheat or steal. They are more likely to give others a second chance and to respect the rights of others. The high truster is less likely to be unhappy, conflicted, or maladjusted, and is liked more and sought out as a friend more often, by both low-trusting and high-trusting others. When gullibility is defined as naiveté or foolishness and trust is defined as believing others in the absence of clear-cut reasons to disbelieve, then it can be shown over a series of studies that high trusters are not more gullible than low trusters. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)