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Foundations of Management, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2014), ISSN 2080-7279
DOI: 10.1515/fman-2015-0018 57
PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Jerzy KISIELNICKI
Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Management, Poland
e-mail: j.kisielnicki@wz.pw.edu.pl
Abstract: Implementation of R&D projects determines whether the organization is changing and becoming
fully competitive. R&D projects are the basis for innovation policy at the macro level the state and the
micro level the organization. Management of R&D projects requires not only high level of skills,
but knowledge of highly developed tools to support the development of the organization. In managing this
type of project, methods such as management competence, talent and knowledge, knowledge of modern in-
formation, and communication technology, stand out. In this study the following issues are presented: analy-
sis of decision-making processes of R&D projects, basic modeling methodology of R&D projects,
and analysis of communication systems in project management. The final part of the article presents
the problems of commercialization of results obtained from R&D projects.
Keywords: R&D projects, decision in R&D projects, modeling of R&D projects, the system of communica-
tion in the project, the project managers, the commercialization of the project results.
1 Proposals for research development,
characterization, and importance
In management science, different periods of research
proposal development can be distinguished. There are
calm periods of evolution, but also turbulent periods
of revolutionary change. Certainly, the present is situ-
ated in the latter. It consists of the fact that organiza-
tions that have, so far, been structured, orderly
(managed, objective, and hierarchical), and transferred
to a new type of flexible management. Such flexible
management, focused on objectives and results,
is called project management. R&D projects are in the
family category of both the hardest and most significant
projects in the development of organizations and socie-
ty. Managing this type of project requires commitment
and knowledge; an ambitious challenge for everyone
involved in the project. For R&D, each project has its
own area of research. Depending on the nature of the
project as a whole, the research part will have a differ-
ent contribution.
Implementation of R&D projects determines whether
an organization is changing and becoming fully com-
petitive. The state and its government, which does not
attach importance to such projects, is not an attractive
partner for other countries. Such a state is not innova-
tive. R&D projects are, in fact, the basis for innovation
policy at the macro level the state and the micro
level the organization.
Management of R&D projects requires not only high
level of skills, but knowledge of highly developed tools
to support the development of the organization.
In managing this type of project, some methods stand
out, such as management competence, talent
and knowledge, knowledge of modern information,
and communication technologies, as well as the ability
to use both Management Information Systems (MIS)
and Business Intelligence Systems (BIS).
R&D projects have a very broad meaning, including
the business of creating new objects and changing
the existing ones. The research carried out often ends
up suggesting that the intended changes do not pay to
be carried out. Procuring research projects tends to be
too political, with parties who are interested in research
because of public sentiment, especially after various
decisions modifying economic life. Such research often
results in a waste of public funds. Often parties imple-
ment projects as a first test of public sentiment,
and only then take positions on the case. For example,
a public opinion survey on the implementation of inno-
vative projects, such as the construction of a nuclear
power plant.
All organizations are interested in projects that will
enable them to become competitive. Projects may in-
clude, among others, organizational change, technolo-
gy, and marketing, including the introduction of new
products or services. The result of the project is to ob-
tain new products, e.g. different types of mobile phones
or devices for copying documents. R&D projects can
be as simple as writing a transition to college, or a
Bachelor's or Master's thesis, but they can also be com-
plex and require the cooperation of teams from many
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58 Jerzy Kisielnicki
countries (projects global), and the disposal of huge
financial resources. One example is an R&D project,
implemented in 2012: Flight to Mars, the purpose
of which was to take pictures of the Red Planet.
We conclude that a project is a system of activities
characterized by the following triad: project scope,
deadlines (time), and resources (human, capital, mate-
rial, technological, information needed for the project).
Sometimes the aforementioned parameters characteriz-
ing new projects are added, such as criteria for quality,
cost, or risk. In the literature it is written as the charac-
teristics of the project, such as uniqueness, complexity,
and traceability. These features in the case of R&D
projects are always present. Just as it is said, ‘do not
enter a second time into the same river,’ so a second
identical R&D project is never implemented. Condi-
tions change. The people are not the same. Sometimes
these changes are large, sometimes small. The com-
plexity of the problem is not unique.
Each project has a primary objective in the implemen-
tation and support of specific goals. The general terms
of a project, however, are not always congruent with
R&D projects. R&D projects are carried out in condi-
tions where it is often difficult to determine whether
a goal has been achieved. Therefore, there are frequent
cases of disagreement between reviewers reporting
on projects in various competitions. M. Trocki [45]
notes that there are high-risk technical, organizational,
and economic factors in projects. It is good if we can
determine the probability of achieving the project, ex-
penditures, and execution time. The consequences
of the absence or scarcity of research in the procedures
of the project make its costs grow, even to a very large
extent, such that sometimes it will not be realized at all.
The task facing the implementers is often the analysis
of the relationships in the selected area of reality.
This is consistent with the principles of system analy-
sis, according to which the R&D project is an open
system of actions, in which we analyze all of its ele-
ments and the relationships between them. The over-
lapping relationships are diverse in nature. One of the
most important is feedback. The project, by obtaining
partial results, verifies earlier hypotheses that can be
corrected in the next stages of work. During this proce-
dure, hypotheses are put forward by other researchers.
You can also transfer results obtained during the im-
plementation of projects in the field of basic science
into practice. The earlier you check the correctness
of the results, the lower the potential costs in making
the necessary adjustments.
Due to the nature of the work and the final result, R&D
projects can be divided into:
1) Soft: those projects whose implementation is based
on the presentation of reports, or semantic comput-
er models, and other studies in the discovery
of new relationships, patents, or improvement
of techniques and technologies used. The result
of these projects, according to the value chain, can
be further researched.
2) Hard: projects in which the goal is defined as
a product presented in the form of a pattern or the
finished product. Here, too, there is a value chain,
which results in an improved prototype in future
projects.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) defines three
types of R&D, namely: basic research, applied re-
search, and R&D. Basic research is the primary aim
of acquiring better knowledge and understanding,
without a focus on practical application. According
to the terminology adopted by the Central Statistical
Office of Poland (http://definicja.net/definicja/Gus),
R&D is considered to be systematically conducted
creative work undertaken in order to increase the stock
of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture,
and society.
According to the presented ideas, we assume that R&D
projects are defined as the realization of a particular
purpose, not always precisely worded, allowing new
knowledge about the reality that surrounds us, to which
end we have the necessary resources, including a high-
ly qualified team of contractors. The project must be
achieved at a given time, while being aware of the risk
(sometimes high), and the assumed parameters. We are
also aware that at the beginning of the project, all is not
completely identified, and the parameters of the project
will only be clarified during the work. Management
of the project aims to develop the response posed
by the initiator (sponsor). The objective is to increase
the intellectual capital of individual researchers
and teams, and the result is the development of theoret-
ical and practical assumptions, plans to create a new
product or service, as well as the development of prin-
ciples of a new project. Often, the initiator is also
the manager of the team performing the project. Often
work organization is amorphous (i.e., sponsor, manag-
er, and producer are the same person).
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Project Management in Research and Development 59
R&D projects have a good chance of achieving suc-
cess, if they meet the following conditions:
the project is relatively new (no one had realized
such a project before),
there is a very clear goal of what needs to be
achieved,
researchers with appropriate expertise and strong
track record are involved in the project,
the project is consistent with the strategic approach-
es developed, depending on the context: organiza-
tion, region, state of the European Union, and the
world economy.
If these conditions are not met, it is likely that it will be
very difficult to achieve success in implementation.
2 Decisions in the implementation of R&D
projects the concept and typologies
In each phase of the research project, a number of deci-
sions are taken. Some of them are more important from
the point of view of the objectives, others less so. Ac-
tivities in this field are supported by the decisions
that are taken on their own, forced or taken by someone
on our behalf. The concept of ‘decision’ (Latin decisio)
has two basic meanings: result (narrow) and function
(wide). Decision making is understood as the non-
random selection of one of a set of possible options.
The decision in the second, broader sense is understood
as the process of deciding, which consists of: evalua-
tion of information, decision-making problem identifi-
cation, selection criterion decision, and determination
and registration information for its execution.
A common platform for decision-making problems is
derived from the work of the 1978 Nobel Prize winner,
Herbert A. Simon [40]. This is sometimes called the
Carnegie School approach from the name of the univer-
sity where Simon worked. His concept of bounded
rationality criticizes the concept of economic man (ho-
mo economicus), who decides only in his own interest.
The approach of the ‘homo economicus’ decision mak-
er is based on not having complete information about
the problem of decision making, as all the possible
options for solutions to the problem and the conse-
quences of their application are not known. Its objec-
tive is to maximize the utility and ability to rank
the options to be implemented according to the proba-
bility of success. H.A. Simon, like most of the people
involved in decision-making theory, believed that
the decisions are made by decision-makers with limited
opportunities to formulate a set of possible alternatives,
and the consequences of their discernment forms part
of its adoption. Hence the action makers project man-
agement here are not fully rational. In practice,
the first chosen course of action that meets the criteria
and the expected results, are good enough for the deci-
sion maker. The decision is a derivative of the objec-
tives pursued and the tools to reach it.
The decision-making process (DMP) can be divided
into seven elements such as:
decision-making situation (decision problem)
a situation in which an entity (decision maker) is
faced with the need to select one of at least two pos-
sible options for action where appropriate decision
making is a set of options or conditions affecting
the pursuit of the decision,
decision maker individual or group of individuals
who decides or selects the final variant of decisions,
the reason for the decision perceived by the deci-
sion maker as a threat or as an opportunity; general
situation that requires a decision,
the purpose the desired state intended, which is
achievable through the implementation of the deci-
sion,
the subject of the decision with what is the deci-
sion concerned, which spheres of activity,
user decision person(s) for whom the changes
caused by a decision may be relevant.
The decision in R&D projects is to select one of a set
of capabilities to achieve the objective, related to all
phases of the project, which consist of at least two
competing elements. This process of selection is called
DMP. Decisions affect a variety of factors such as tra-
dition, convenience, experience, State guarantees, etc.
From a formal point of view, the DMP in R&D can be
represented by the following:
PD = {P, S, W, H}
where:
P = the decision-making body, which must decide
on the establishment of the project and decisions re-
garding its implementation; decision-maker has the
right to decide, bears the responsibility for it and is
interested in its implementation,
S = a set of decision-making situations, i.e. a set
of conditions; these are the conditions within the organ-
ization or in its surroundings, where a particular deci-
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sion is taken by considering the so-called terms of deci-
sion-making in accordance with the principles of the
golden triangle: scope, time, and budget,
W = a set of results, to be able to select and determine
whether the right decision has been taken, we need
to know how it will end; the results depend on both
the company's decision-making, as well as certain con-
ditions (the conditions),
H = a set of hypotheses about future situations involv-
ing both the terms of the project, as well as influencing
decisions on its implementation.
In DMP, one should have knowledge not only of the
existing conditions, but also about how they will shape
the future. We can distinguish the following situations:
1) Decision making under conditions of uncertainty.
2) Decision making under risk. Risk for the condition
is considered to be a situation in which the ele-
ments influencing the decision are known with
a certain probability.
3) Decision making under uncertainty. This is very
much the situation occurring in projects, especially
if they relate to strategic issues.
In practice, this also concerns deterministic and sto-
chastic situations in decision making. The last two
situations mentioned above define a common term:
stochastic decision. The decision must be remembered
in the existence of competition. Competitive projects
can be changed at any time, and the rival can modify its
earlier decisions and try to anticipate the decisions
to be made by his competitors.
The implementation of many R&D DMPs are evaluat-
ed, controlled, and supervised. Function is performed
by the evaluators. The natural way is to become their
sponsors (stakeholders).
Evaluators use different evaluation criteria. The variety
of decisions often leads to groups, classified by identi-
fying some common characteristics and conditions.
With the separation of the different types of DMP, it is
easier to manage the project, train and improve deci-
sion makers, build specific procedures to assist manag-
ers, and rank performers. The classification of a
decision for a particular type allows a more effective
search algorithm, or heuristics, as well as highlighting
decision risks, errors or traps specific to the type.
The extent of the impact of the decision can be: eco-
nomic, technical, information, personnel, production,
and organization.
Because of the seriousness of the case and place in the
hierarchy of project management, decisions can be
strategic, operational, and tactical. Traditional man-
agement functions are distinguished by planning deci-
sions, organizational, coordination, order giving,
control, and motivation. Decisions may be taken both
by individuals as well as by groups of people.
Their specificity, often called psychological and socio-
logical considerations, can distinguish several types
of decisions that could significantly affect the operation
of the project management system. These are often
described as balanced, impulsive, passive, risky,
and cautious.
To take the best decision from a set of possibilities
requires the use of a variety of tools. They have a dif-
ferent form. Some are complex, while others are quite
simple, such as, the model of a garbage can. It is used
to make decisions in a situation of high time pressure
and high complexity. The model name suggests
the disorder, the lack of clear rules, and randomness
(chaos) refers to the principle of trash in physical terms.
The author of the theory is M.D. Cohen [34].
A contemporary tool to assist DMP is Information
and Communication Technology (ICT). The problem
of tools to support decision making is a wider problem,
influenced by the type of decisions for which they are
to be useful. In the DMP in the course of the project we
have to deal with the chain of decisions. In making
the first decision, we should consistently take all sub-
sequent related decisions.
The results obtained after the first decision affect
the next. Such models are called decision-making dy-
namic models. In contrast, the studies of specific indi-
vidual decisions include static models. DMP, in which
all stages of the design are strictly defined, is called
algorithmic, and the method of its implementation is
defined as an algorithm.
Heuristics is defined as the discipline dealing with
methods of solving problems under conditions of in-
complete information. The heuristic approach is offset
by the lack of information, intuition, and experience.
The use of heuristic methods needs the ability to locate
and detect the facts and relations between them. Most
of the discoveries, inventions, and unconventional
methods of operation are achieved by heuristic tech-
niques to solve problems.
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Project Management in Research and Development 61
Table 1. Selected project management features supported by formal models
Management
Features Mathematical Quantitative Models
Optimization Simulation Econometric Predictive
Theory
game
Theory
graphs
Forecasting X X X X X
Programming X X X
Planning X X X X X X
Coordinating X X
Monitoring X X
Note: X indicates that the function is particularly often assisted by quantitative methods
The general characteristics of the situation seem to be
useful for programmable decisions only. Programmable
decisions are taken in relation to projects with a clear
structure, in which the problem is clearly defined.
In practice, a hybrid approach is required, that incorpo-
rates both algorithmic and heuristic elements.
Mistakes, or the existence of new reasons, make it nec-
essary to change the decision. If these are seen after
the implementation of the project, then assume a much
higher repair cost than shown in the initial steps. It is
also assumed that the cost of repairing errors grows
in an exponential manner depending on the time
of their discovery.
3 Modeling of R&D projects methodological
basis
Decisions before they are implemented in the real
world should be checked in the virtual world, i.e. mod-
eled. What is the model? According to W. Findeisen
[10], it is an ambiguous concept. Typically, the model
is understood as a certain image or pattern. Sometimes
the model is identified with a very broadly defined
course of action. The project model and implementa-
tion process is a simplified picture of reality, because
it focuses on what is most important. Its construction is
based on system analysis, or a set of elements and rela-
tions between them. The costs of mistakes in the world
of models are much lower than those in the real world.
We take care of a particular class of models, namely
models of managerial decision making. Decision mod-
els have different designs and are both mathematical
models and structured. The specific practical situation
requires modification of the base model and its adapta-
tion to the real situation. It could be argued that,
in practice, no two models are ever the same.
A decision model is a concept in the theory and prac-
tice of management. It shows the mapping of the whole
or part of the reality that synthetically describes the
decision problem (see Table 1). Its task is to define
a set of permissible decisions, evaluation criteria,
and the conditions of implementation, to be able
to select a set of optimal decisions, if such solutions
exist. In practice, the project management of R&D
strives to create models with the greatest possible par-
ticipation of formal elements. Due to the interdiscipli-
nary nature of the decision-making processes in the
implementation of R&D projects, it happens that the
applied models are statistical, econometric, economic,
and semantic. There are also models that can be classi-
fied as psychological and philosophical.
Before we start to build the model, we need to formu-
late the decision problem. The conditions that were
adopted in the formulation of this problem, also be-
come the DMP assumptions. Sometimes, there are two
types of DMP models, conventionally called classical
and managerial. In the classical model, there is a belief
in the possibility of optimizing the decision. It is be-
lieved that rational, reasoned, and systematic actions
are conducive to finding relevant solutions to problems.
The managerial model explains that it is practically
impossible to make optimal decisions, but you must
strive for such a solution. Therefore, the project man-
ager and his team should seek to obtain full information
about the decision situation and seek to minimize risk.
Such activities need to have a broad set of information.
This form of decision making uses the experience
of the expert team and tools such as mind mapping
and brainstorming.
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The hard approach, which we call engineering, seeks
to ensure the model is accurate and unambiguous. It is
created using modeling languages and computer pro-
gramming, as well as formal techniques. In practice,
the packages used are computer-specific, such as, ‘Sta-
tistica’.
The basis of the modern approach to project manage-
ment, irrespective of its use, are mathematical or other
models, which also seek formal analysis of the project
at all stages, but they have a slightly different structure
and other features. We call them structural models.
The name of this type of model comes from a focus on
the presentation of project structure, in order to present
them according to the existing system approach.
As a result of analyses, hierarchical or network struc-
tures are created, which are data elements, features, and
the relationships between them. This approach is cur-
rently dominant in project management.
The construction of structural models uses a number
of techniques detailed in the literature and recommend-
ed design methodologies. Often, their job is the most
accurate presentation of the situation and the decision
provided to the project. To serve this purpose, specific
techniques are included, such as: block diagram data
flow, entity relationship modeling, and UML models
used in the approach of ARIS [11] and ADONIS [48].
To build the model, it is necessary to use a specific
notation record. Just as the semantic model is written
using a specific language, using a dictionary and cor-
rect grammar, structural models for the description
of the project also use a variety of notations for their
construction. The simplest and probably oldest model
used in the presentation of the processes occurring
in the implementation of R&D projects is a block dia-
gram.
In practice, we use hybrid models. In these types
of models, there are both formal and heuristic elements.
Such models are used in advanced projects. Two ex-
amples are given below, each model having different
uses and structure. Both can be assigned to the class
of structural models.
In the first of them Mind Mapping principles
of graph theory are applied, while the second uses
a tool to support applied statistics and econometrics.
Mind Mapping is used for a variety of work-related
R&D projects, especially for creating documents
in procedures and formulation of decision problems.
The result of the application of the model is accord-
ing to its creators to work together to increase
the efficiency of the system and to improve communi-
cation among teams.
Another representative of hybrid models is the Tech-
nology Acceptance Model (TAM). This model has
an advantage over quantitative quality tools. We use
the TAM to investigate causal relationships that occur
in the project. The author of the TAM is F.D. Davis [7].
This model is used in the explanation of technological
solutions adopted in R&D projects. Theory and models
have been developed based on the Theory of Reasoned
Action (TRA) [3]. TRA assumes that the final user’s
behavior is the result of his beliefs, fears, and hopes.
This means that the more a person is convinced of the
rightness of the selection tools, and hopes that it will
help them work better, faster, or with less effort,
the easier it will be to accept new technologies for pro-
ject management.
In the process of analysis models used in projects,
we would like to draw attention to the models used
in the management of selected stages of this type
of project. One of the most important steps is to define
the R&D project. Two of the most useful models used
in this stage of project management are the Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS) and the logical frame-
work. The use of this type of model is required in the
majority of R&D projects, whose creators seek funding
from the European Union.
The stage of the project can recommend the implemen-
tation of these models to support the implementation
schedules, determine the critical path, designate mile-
stones, and allow for resource management, as well as
optimize the duration of the project.
Scheduling is a common tool for project management
support. Basic information contained in the schedule
shows the relationship between the activities carried
out in the project. Schedules for R&D projects have
their own specifications. The applications can be dis-
tinguished as follows:
static models, such as an illustration of a graph
(model) using a Gantt chart, is a graphic representa-
tion of the steps of planning and control of the pro-
ject, often referred to as a technique of beam
diagrams,
dynamic models, also called network diagrams;
the term covers models such as Program Evaluation
and Review Technique (PERT) and the Critical Path
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Project Management in Research and Development 63
Method (CPM), developed by the company DuPont
for control of large and complex industrial projects.
Regardless of the model presented previously, business
models have a special place. In fact, in the business
model, analysis should begin with the presentation
of the selected item within the sequence of models used
in the management of R&D projects. Implementation
of the project always requires resources, and thus,
we need to look at the R&D of the business side.
This is an important but difficult problem.
We agree with D.J. Teece [43, p. 175], who says that
‘good design is the art of business models.’ The popu-
lar definition of the business model proposed by
A. Afuaha and C.L. Tucci [2, p. 20] is that the ‘busi-
ness model is adopted by the method of zooming in and
use of resources in order to provide customers with
products and services whose value exceeds the offer
of competitors and while ensuring the profitability
of the company.’ In simple terms, we can say that
the business model describes the way in which R&D
projects are to make money or be financed.
In most of the analyzed types of projects, maintenance
problems occur in the initial stage, then depending
on the result, come issues of commercialization of the
results. The issue of commercialization will be
the subject of the last section.
4 The project managers and their role
in the project
Building a team to carry out an R&D project, we create
(cf. [22]) human capital organization or intellectual
capital, which are basically the same thing. If we used
morphology success factors of projects, in the first
place we would find a man. Therefore, it is reasonable
to say that one of the most important factors affecting
the success of any project is the human factor. Human
resources policy depends on whether the project will be
implemented in an efficient and economical way. In the
literature, there are many books and monographs
on social potential management, management of social
capital, and intellectual resources of the organization.
All management schools devote a special place to this
problem.
The specificity of the action of project management
happens in a constantly changing environment, where
decisions are risky. Human Resources management
policy in research and development should follow some
basic rules:
volatility of the situation and the need for permanent
modification of assumptions and behaviors,
work in specific time intervals (or stable employ-
ment dilemma to some extent uncertain),
special role of the project manager often the crea-
tor in the project.
Management of and work to implement projects carry
a wide variety of challenges. Many contemporary pro-
jects have been created in a multicultural environment.
Traditional procedures, such as management, recruit-
ment, selection, conflict resolution, and talent man-
agement require a slightly different perspective than is
given in the traditional monographs in this field.
The work of the project manager has many features
in common with the typical work of the team leader
in the traditional functioning of the organization.
His work, however, differs from that of the traditional
head of the organization in several key aspects. First
of all, the work of the project manager is to implement
a unique project, involving a temporary working group.
Employees are recruited from an organization that is
interested in the results of the project, or from other
organizations, often through the activities of recruit-
ment of cells of different organizations. The aim of the
project is to create something new, unique, and there-
fore, to achieve these objectives requires very good
cooperation between the principal, the contractor,
and the beneficiary of the project. Thus, the project
manager should be both a politician and negotiator.
J. Szaban [42] and R.A. Webber divide the power as:
legitimate: derived from the belief that to hold pow-
er you just have to listen, because the manager has
the legitimacy to exercise authority and has the ap-
propriate qualifications,
traditional: resulting from customs not always
stored in the work regulations and other legal acts,
expert: listening to someone because of their
knowledge and the skills by which they exercise au-
thority over others; this type of power is the most
desirable for the project manager,
charismatic: resulting from the specific qualities
of a person having authority, such as having a vision
and ideas.
The head of a R&D project should have all of these
types of powers, but the most important is expert
and charismatic authority. Charismatic leaders are
sometimes referred to as transformational leaders.
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64 Jerzy Kisielnicki
These leaders should also have such features as: intelli-
gence, social skills, persuasiveness, prone to domi-
nance, ambition, and aggressiveness. Use of the term
‘transformational leader’ highlights the role of the pro-
ject manager in inspiring, marking out new ambitious
goals, motivating people to their implementation,
and leadership.
Each R&D project is an ‘unknown’; its implementation
requires courage. The project manager is the person
who is aware that not everything can be foreseen
and that project management is associated with the risk
of losing a professional position, embarrassment,
and sometimes even their own lives. Ideally, it is
demonstrated in experimental projects, which could
include those aimed at the study of new types of air-
craft, parachutes, or nuclear reactors.
The project manager is trained for times of crisis, be-
cause they have a chance to show their charisma
and skills. R.K. Merton [24] made the following dis-
tinction among project managers:
people who have an impact on the team at the mo-
ment, and their social position are fixed,
people potentially affected (rising stars, climbing up
the social ladder),
people whose influence gradually disappears (after
reaching the summit, they descend the social lad-
der),
people whose influence is ‘hidden’ (the person ex-
erting influence has objective qualities, but does not
use them).
Using this typology, we can conclude that the project
manager of R&D is from one of the first two groups
of people. He is head of the project team. According
to H. Schelle [39], the project manager is the person
responsible for the project; organizing the team, and for
the management, planning, and monitoring of the pro-
ject. His task is to create the conditions to achieve
the goal or goals.
Tasks and services performed by the project manager
are different from those carried out by other members
of the project team. The project manager directs the
work of others. They also perform the tasks as instruct-
ed, teach, or give directions. In this way, they develop
the skills of employees. The manager-staff relationship
is basically that of a coach, where the manager shares
his experience with the person to be trained.
H. Mintzberg [47] developed a system that, even after
many years, is still termed ‘according to Mintzberg's
managerial roles.’ Under this system, all managers
implementing the project have a triple role, namely:
interpersonal,
informational, and
decision making.
The project manager works in an ever-changing situa-
tion, both internal and external. Theories of manage-
ment science are termed scientific management,
behavioral management, including the psychology
of work, and system management. The use of all ap-
proaches to solve a particular problem is defined as
integrated management.
The project manager must be sensitive to this, in order
to create favorable conditions in which the project is
carried out as efficiently as possible. In most cases,
the worker is working in order to meet specific needs.
W. Kieżun [13] states that the minimum management
skills needed are: intelligence, mental strength, a cer-
tain level of morality, as well as a predisposition syn-
drome called managerial talent and sense of organi-
zation.
As pointed out by M. Romanowska [37], the manager
shapes a new profile. The complexity of management
causes a significant increase of demands on him.
This new situation creates increasing difficulties, re-
quiring an increase in the skills and competencies
of managers and non-traditional systems to fulfill their
leadership roles.
5 The system of communication in the project
The basic task of every project manager is to answer
the question: How do you organize teams performing
R&D to create the conditions for strengthening effects
of working together, to allow full flow of information
and knowledge within the team? Successes and failures
of many projects depend on various factors. The most
important is communication. It has a very large impact
on the final effects.
One also has to deal with the mutual relations between
internal and external communication systems.
The advantage of the research presented in the litera-
ture concerns the analysis of external communication
systems, usually the design team’s relationships with
the environment.
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Project Management in Research and Development 65
Fig. 1. Hierarchical communication system
Figure 2. Relationship between individual employees in the project team
An analysis of publications in the field of building
design and effective systems deserve special attention,
since tests involve the analysis of the basic contradic-
tions inherent in project teams (O. Stawnicz, K. Kurbel
[41], D. Wehrenfennig [46]). L. Mullins [26] points out
that the leaders of project groups of employees require
both willingness to compromise and subordination,
as well as high level of individualism and creativity.
J. Chaffe [6] says that most people in the course of their
work lose creativity and individualism in favor of con-
formity and mediocrity. Therefore, you will notice
the tendency to form teams made up only of young
workers, despite the absence of their professional expe-
rience. Consequently, you should reconcile to these
contradictory tendencies and choose the most compe-
tent employees in order to minimize the risk of failure.
J. Adair [1] points to the three criteria that should be
taken into account when selecting the design team:
competence, motivation to work, and personal attrib-
utes. More specifically, before the task of organizing
the communication system, the following question
should be asked: What conditions should be created
for the functioning of project teams to:
minimize the negative effects of working in a team,
strengthen the positives of this cooperation.
In fulfillment of tasks by project teams, different styles
of management can be applied, and within them differ-
ent systems of delegation of tasks and assessment
methods for their implementation. Many project teams
have used a traditional, hierarchical communication
system as shown in Fig. 1. The communication system
in the project team is made up of different types
of ‘bricks’ or work stations. Basic types of connections
are shown in Fig. 2.
Information System efficiency is dependent on the
operation of the bricks, as well as the deformation as-
sociated with the operation of various types of noise
in an information channel.
a) Hierarchic
b) Hierarchical
coupled
c) Multi‐levelhierarchical
d) Parallel
HeadofR&Dproject
TaskmanagerN
Taskmanager1
Employee 1
Employee MEmployeeK
Employee N
Figure
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66 Jerzy Kisielnicki
The deformation is caused by factors such as:
technical or computer, where existing infrastructure
is unable to cope with the form and content of the
transmitted information,
semantic, that is when our recipient, usually with
inadequate qualifications, cannot read or interpret
the transmitted information,
pragmatic, when the information received does not
give anything new to him, and the recipient has lost
time and resources to its acquisition.
Inefficient systems, shown in Fig. 2c, are characterized
by long-term communication and the relatively large
losses in the channels of information. Also, a system
in which the employee receives only commands with-
out feedback, illustrated in Fig. 2a, is not to be recom-
mended. Such a situation does not occur in practice.
There is always a feedback loop in which the subordi-
nate employee provides information on the progress
of the resulting task. However, as shown in previous
works by J. Kisielnicki [14, 15], the relationship
of dependency makes it difficult to absorb knowledge.
The employee is usually very reluctant to transmit
knowledge to his leader. We can say that the employee
considers it his duty to provide information only, rather
than transfer his knowledge of the project. G. Morgan
[25] writes that, in the organization, hierarchy is
a source of various types of competition between work-
ers. The game is played on the position of workers
in the organizational structure. Based on surveys
(J. Kisielnicki [14, 15]), it can be stated that the situa-
tion is different if employees work together, and the
evaluation of their work is related to the evaluation
of completed tasks together. Cooperation in such cir-
cumstances becomes a necessity. Between employees
there may be a significant transfer of knowledge
(J. Kisielnicki [16]).
Tasks that occur in projects can be divided into two
categories:
1) The implementation of tasks on technology pur-
chased or installed software needed for research,
as, for example, Statistica Data Warehouse.
The most important is the strict implementation
of so-called ‘good’ procedures. As practice shows,
there is variability in business processes and pro-
ject environments. This requires research projects
to modify existing applications or existing process-
es to fit the reality.
2) Research tasks that require working in new
and unique conditions, in which we have to use
creativity and knowledge.
Therefore, keeping in mind the mentioned limitations,
a network communication system is effective when it is
determined by the performance of each point of the
procedure
A network communication system is a system in which
the relationships between the design team participants
are direct. In such a situation, the role of the project
manager is to build the system of information
and knowledge, as well as the construction of a system
of mutual trust between team members.
In practice, as shown in Fig. 3, network communication
systems are used in a more complex form. Such situa-
tions are possible in small, five to seven person systems
design.
Employee1Employee2
Employee3EmployeeM
HeadofR&Dproject
Figure 3. Network communication system in small teams carrying out research
and development projects
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Project Management in Research and Development 67
The team implementing a specific task design
Head of the team performing a specific task design
Team member performing a specific task design
Relationship information and organizational subordination
The share of the employee performing the tasks in the Team M in the work
of another team, for example, the Team N
This system was tested by the study author in the im-
plementation of several complex R&D projects in the
Information Technology (IT) industry. It has been well
received by the persons carrying out the project,
and what is most important, it has proved to be effec-
tive and efficient.
Organizational structure of network communication,
as shown in Fig. 4, can be characterized as follows:
1) Division into task forces that change dynamically
during the execution of the research project.
2) The only person coordinating the whole process is
the project manager (Fig. 4). Persons acting as in-
dividual task managers have a dual role: being the
task manager and the designer (clerical).
The projects examined by the author (J. Kisielnicki [18,
19]) changes in rotational job as a manager of the pro-
ject, if the situation was announced at the beginning
of the construction team and met with understanding.
Financial rules have also been fixed so that the position
of the head of the project was treated as a kind of duty,
with rewards, but not as an additional source of in-
come. Decisions about team changes were difficult due
to two reasons: differences in the implementation
of individual tasks and the time of formation of inter-
personal relationships between employees. Getting
used to work in a stable team is treated as an important
element in promoting communication systems within
the task force.
6 The commercialization of the project results
R&D projects should be applied in practice and benefit
both the sponsors and the implementers. For this pur-
pose, we use existing business models. Some projects
bring economic or social benefits directly to others over
time, some projects may produce patents, and others
professional empowerment of the manager and project
participants, through degrees or promotions.
Team1
E
E
L
TeamM
E
E
L
TeamN
E
E
L
HeadofR&Dproject
L
E
Figure 4. Organizational structure and communication scheme
in an organized network-large project team
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68 Jerzy Kisielnicki
Of course, getting degrees does not preclude advance-
ment and often strengthens the competitive position
of the project team and its members. Therefore, we
need to consider this, as the results transform into mon-
ey, or commercialization.A milestone in the commer-
cialization of research was the Bayh-Dole Act, adopted
on December 12, 1980 by the US Congress. This Act
gave universities intellectual property rights to inven-
tions and discoveries. (N. Kirov, A. Kuśmierz, [49]).
Commercialization is defined as all activities related
to the transfer of technical or organizational knowledge
and related know-how to economic practice. So, it can
be defined as the process of market power of new tech-
nologies (in our results of R&D projects). Often, com-
mercialization is deferred over time, because
to commercialize, the project must first be implement-
ed. In this part we deal with the problem of commer-
cialization more, because we want to show the
proposed arrangements for financing the implementa-
tion of R&D projects. The starting point of the com-
mercialization process is usually an invention
or produced results. This opens up new technical possi-
bilities and research, by itself, has no market value.
E. Rasmussen believes that the approach to the com-
mercialization of research can be divided into two
types: the American and Canadian-European. The dif-
ference between them lies not in legal regulations,
but on the specific national markets.
In the US, there are some great companies interested
in the results of research projects carried out in univer-
sities, but in Canada and Europe, this demand is not
there. As a result, in these countries, scientific
and research entities establish spin-off companies, thus
creating a company to create and finance such projects.
Spin-off companies are created in order to develop
and commercialize the results of creative works, with
the right to acquire and use of intellectual property
and its protection among public universities. The capi-
tal of such a company often comes from different
sources.
There are three basic ways to commercialize the results
of research and development:
direct sales results of R&D, which is the simplest,
but also the least profitable form of marketing,
license sharing of the results obtained, which is
a more advanced method of commercialization
and requires more effort due to the long-term nature
of the relationship between the licensor and the li-
censee,
bringing the results of R&D to the company, which
is the most advanced form of commercialization;
bringing the results of the project to contributions
in kind which may be held in an existing company,
as well as the newly formed, spin-off company (Pie-
trusiński R., Zawalonka-Cegielska J. [32]).
As the Ministry of Science and Higher Education notes
in its documents, the sale of R&D is the least labor-
intensive and least risky method of commercialization.
It is also the method with the least potential to generate
revenue. At the other end of the spectrum is a method
that involves the input of a test facility to the company
commercializing the results of R&D (or the establish-
ment of the company). This is the most laborious and
risky method, but has the greatest potential to generate
long-term benefits.
The key problem is to decide on the legal form of or-
ganization, which is to commercialize the results.
The form chosen should be linked to:
determination of the number of entities involved
in the project commercialization, such as state uni-
versities and private research institutes and research
centers, and other similar type,
choice of sources and funding model to implement
the project,
adoption of the most favorable tax arrangements
for the activity in question,
determination of the subject and form of manage-
ment implementation process.
Selected legal forms should correspond to the assump-
tions and parameters of the target business model. Lim-
iting the options of possible solutions of the many legal
forms, we present the following forms: a government
agency (state), a research unit, a foundation, or a com-
pany (joint-stock).
The aforementioned E. Rasmunssen [36] distinguishes
two periods of commercialization of research in Eu-
rope. The first the start of the 1990s was the so-
called development of technology parks. The second
period, which continues to this day, was the creation
of spin-off companies, the sale of patents and licenses,
and the involvement of students. In some Polish uni-
versities, for example, in the University of Warsaw,
Warsaw University of Technology, Medical University
of Warsaw, there are spin-off companies. A description
of some of the types of companies as well as the prob-
lems they create together with the literature are given
by J. Kisielnicki [19].
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Project Management in Research and Development 69
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