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LINGUACULTURE 1, 2014
FROM ADAPTATION TO APPROPRIATION: FRAMING
THE WORLD THROUGH NEWS TRANSLATION
ROBERTO A. VALDEÓN
Universidad de Oviedo and University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Abstract
Terminological issues are problematic in the analysis of translation processes in news
production. In the 1980s, Stetting coined the term “transediting”, which has been widely
used in the translation studies literature, but “translation” itself becomes contentious in
communication studies, a discipline closely related to news translation research. Only a
few communication scholars have specifically dealt with the linguistic and cultural
transformations of source texts, but they tend to regard translation as word-for-word
transfer, unusual news production. More productive for the study of news translation
seems to be the application of the concept of framing, widely used in communication
studies. Framing considers the linguistic and paralinguistic elements of news texts in the
promotion of certain organizing ideas that the target audience can identify with. In news
translation, this entails the adaptation of a text for the target readership, a process can
lead to appropriation of source material. Two examples are mentioned to illustrate this
point: the appropriation of the US Department of State cables by the Wikileak
organisation, and the pro-Romanian slogans produced by the Gandul newspaper as a
response to Britain’s anti-immigration campaigns. The final section relates news
adaptation to adaptation of other text types, such as literary and historical works.
Keywords: adaptation, transediting, appropriation, framing, news translation
In the 21st century news translation has attracted the attention of an important
number of translation scholars, who have published extensively on the
interlinguistic transformation processes present in news production (Bielsa and
Bassnett, Hernández Guerrero, Valdeón). However, there is no agreement on the
term to be applied to these processes, as they may involve translation but also
editing. In fact, in 1989 Stetting coined the term “transediting” to refer to the
changes that occurred when news producers receive texts in a given language
and transform them for a target readership, often using material from different
sources. In her view, transediting involves various types of adaptations:
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Adaptation to a standard of efficiency in expression:
“cleaning-up transediting”;
Adaptation to the intended function of the translated text
in its new social context: “situational transediting”;
Adaptation to the needs and conventions of the target
culture: “cultural transediting” (377).
Although Stetting applied the term to a number of different text genres,
including religious, literary and historical texts (374), transediting would later
become popular in news translation research, even though Stetting is an anglicist
rather than a translation scholar, and she was particularly concerned with
English language teaching at the time she introduced the term (Schäffner 866-
83). However, Stetting’s article has contributed to reveal the complex
relationship between news production and translation. Additionally, it reminds
us of the terminological and conceptual difficulties researchers are confronted
with when dealing with the linguistic and cultural transformation of media texts
in general, and news texts in particular. In this article, we aim to consider the
terminological conundrum characterizing news translation research. Then we
will move on to reflect on the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to
advance in this exciting subfield, focusing on the concept of framing, and will
discuss some examples to illustrate the significance of such an approach.
From translation to adaptation and back
The lack of consensus in the study of news translation is not unique to this sub-
discipline. Writing about theatre and film adaptation, Zatlin, a professor of
Spanish literature and a translator of Spanish and French theatre, has noted the
striking similarities between translation and adaptation theories (xi). “Thus,” she
claims, “I have routinely mentioned the parallels with translation when teaching
film adaptation and with film adaptation when teaching literary translation. I am,
of course, not alone in observing this connection” (x). Zatlin also observes that
translators of foreign drama usually prefer translation to adaptation (24) and
mentions John Clifford, who openly opposes the term adaptation (25). In this
context, translation tends to refer to faithful or literal renderings of a source text,
whereas adaptations “even ones that involve few textual changes, may radically
alter underlying meaning” (80). In fact, adaptation has been used by postcolonial
theorists to emphasize the appropriation of western texts in postcolonial contexts
(81), as shown by Chaudhury and Sengupta in their discussion of the Bengali
versions of Macbeth (6-18), and by Wong in her discussion of Chinese
adaptations of The Merchant of Venice (99-111).
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Adaptation has also been closely discussed in connection with filmic
versions of plays and novels. Research by authors like Naremore, Boozer and
Leitch (published by prestigious university presses) have demonstrated the
popularity of adaptation theories within academia. Boozer, for instance, relies on
structuralism and semiotics to relegate the role of the original author to a
secondary position (20-21), whereas Leitch insists on the existence of a
subliminal negotiation between the authors of original texts and screen adapters
(236-256). Here adaptation is “less an attempted resuscitation of an originary
word than a turn in an ongoing dialogical process” (64). This is related to the
work of Quebecois intellectual Michel Garneau, who, in the 1970s and 1980s,
adapted Shakespeare’s plays to the idiom of Canadian French in order to make a
statement against the dominance of the French used in France (Raw 106) and
coined the term “tradaptation.”
“Tradaptation” or transadaptation takes us back to Stetting’s transediting,
where translation went beyond word-for-word replacements and suggested more
fundamental transformations. In fact, adaptation was discussed even in the more
linguistic approaches to translation (Vandal-Sirois and Bastin 22). Vinay and
Darbelnet, for instance, stressed that it was necessary to adapt the source text if
the translator wanted to produce a good version, and they included adaptation as
a valuable procedure. The importance of translation as adaptation has only
increased in the globalized world of the late 20th and early 21
st centuries, as
organisations release information to an international audience (Vandal-Sirois
and Bastin 22). Additionally, in news production the process remains far more
invisible than in the case of canonical texts. News consumers are rarely aware of
any translation processes, let alone of any ideological shifts aimed at infusing the
target versions with new meaning. If, as Cherrington claims, “most translations
and adaptations are carried out by non-professionals; those who visit, or live,
work, or study in another country or another culture” (Cherrington 210), in news
writing translation becomes invisible as it is often regarded as a small part of the
production process. That is, translation does not exist as a relevant activity. And,
even though journalists often translate, they reject their role as translators of
news originally written in other languages. Journalists view this process as part
of an editing process, or, to put it differently, of the adaptation of the source
news texts and/or events to the expectations of the target audience.
Thus, like in the case of more canonical text types, the complexity of
news translation should encourage researchers to consider other disciplines and
epistemological approaches. As film adaptation theory can engage with literary
text analysis, communication studies can provide tools to understand the news
transediting process. However, in a first approach to communication studies we
are likely to be baffled by the conceptual challenge posed by terms like
translation and adaptation. A cursory look at some of the most recent work on
news production published by communication scholars only serves to increase
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the conceptual and terminological confusion. Let us consider the following
extract:
Framing news in terms of its economic consequences for the audience is a
translation of the journalistic news values proximity (De Vreese 190).
As can be seen, communication scholars use the term translation, albeit with
different implications. Translation tends to have a more generic use, it is akin to
transformations of any kind. Occasionally it may also refer to linguistic changes
into a target language. In 2011, Baumann, Gillespie and Sreberny guest-edited a
special issue of Journalism devoted to translation and the BBC. It is probably
the first time that communication scholars have delved into translation as a
process characteristic of news translation: here translation is understood as
linguistic transfer from a source language into a target language. In the
introduction to this special issue, they argue that “The long-standing reputation
of the BBC World Service (BBCWS) among the world’s pre-eminent
broadcasters and its credibility have depended on the largely undocumented and
unexplored everyday transcultural encounters and translation practices that have
taken place in the diasporic and cosmopolitan contact zones of Bush House”
(135). For their analysis of textual transformation practices, these authors devise
a framework that consists of four distinct processes:
By (1) transporting, we mean all processes involved in feeding information into
the BBC World Service’s [former headquarters][…] at Bush House, London,
and/or its regional desks and hubs around the globe, a unique and unequalled
infrastructure of global news coordination […]
By (2) translating, we mean the techniques, crafts, and possibly grafts, of
language-to-language transformations. Even the seemingly simplest linguistic
transformations are evidently transformative in journalistic practice, be it by
contents or by the discursive tone implied or smuggled in. Examples abound in all
our contributions.
By (3), transposing and trans-editing, we refer to implicit, and often silent,
discursive re-intonations, while trans-editing emphasizes the simultaneity of
translating and editing processes. The two, however, belong together, and go
hand-in-glove at most instances that we could research in detail.
Finally, processes of (4) transmitting were examined for converging or
conflicting patterns which often determine which audiences and users get which
news and BBC commentaries in which areas and at which, accessible or
inappropriate, times (137).
It is indeed a commendable attempt to provide a working framework for
the analysis of news production, including translation, for a discipline that, as
they point out, has largely neglected transcultural and translinguistic encounters.
However, it is a taxonomy that brings us back to the traditional view of
translation as linguistic transfer, as they reserve the term for “seemingly simplest
linguistic transformations”, whereas they borrow Stetting’s transediting for more
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complex practices where translation is modulated by editing processes. Thus,
Baumann, Gillespie and Sreberny are clearly unaware of the evolution of
translation studies publications, which have largely moved away from earlier
definitions of translation in terms of its faithfulness to an original text. However,
by adding editing and transposing to the equation, with its many re-intonations,
they also hint at adaptation as a key element in the interplay between linguistic
transfer and news writing.
On the other hand, translation and adaptation are key terms in van
Leeuwen’s enlightening discussion of the rewriting characteristic of The
Vietnam News, an English language daily funded by the Vietnamese government
as a part of its market reform policies. Van Leeuwen analyses 100 translations
from the Vietnamese press authored by forty translators who also acted as
proofreaders (and, on the other hand, wrote their own articles too. This is a
common situation within the trade, as journalists may start as translators and
gradually work on their own stories). In the study, van Leeuwen claims that
translators worked with six to eight sub-editors who corrected the translated
English and wrote headlines and captions. This is a typical feature of news
writing, as headlines are often authored by other journalists. Within this context,
van Leeuwen identified three types of decisions: translation decisions affecting
the language; translation/adaptation decisions affecting journalistic style (226-
230); and translation/adaptation decisions affecting cultural and ideological
references in the source texts (230-234). The title of the article is also highly
indicative of the content: “Translation, adaptation, globalisation,” where
translation is applied to linguistic choices whereas adaptation is related to the
modulations (or re-intonations in Baumann, Gillespie and Sreberny’s terms)
necessary to cater for an international audience with a strong Anglo-Australian
bias.
The Anglo-Australian features of the target text are explained in terms of
the globalizing strategy of the Vietnamese government and the attempt to reach
an international readership. In order to do this, translators and editors imitate the
practices of their Western counterparts and avoid the peculiarities of the local
models. In this sense, the resulting texts are very much target-oriented (van
Leeuwen 235). This is achieved by means of adaptations strategies.
Paradoxically, while the adaptation of plays mentioned above localizes the
product for regional audiences, the adaptation of Vietnamese news globalizes the
text for a wider Anglo-Australian readership that cuts across nations and
continents.
Framing the news through translation
By translating/adapting Vietnamese news for international audiences, the editors
of this news medium contribute to create news texts that meet the expectations
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of the target readers in terms of format, and, above all, content. In
communication research the concept of framing has provided a fruitful basis for
the study of news content. However, framing is not free from controversy. In
fact, during the 20th and 21st centuries it has been used in several disciplines:
from psychology to linguistics, from sociology to communication. Its long
tradition in academia has given way to a “fractured paradigm” (Entman 51).
From a sociological perspective, frames have been defined as “principles of
organisation which govern events – at least social ones – and our subjective
involvement in them” (Goffman 10), and as a “central organizing idea” that
contributes to make sense of relevant events (Gamson and Modigliani 3).
Similar definitions have been used in communication studies where Reese refers
to “organizing principles that are socially shared and persistent over time, that
work symbolically to meaningfully structure the social world” (Reese 150).
Framing can be realized by means of various strategies, including
selection and deselection of information, as well as careful use of the various
components of news texts, including headlines and subheads, leads and the
selection of quotes. Equally relevant is the use of graphs and photographs
(Tankard 100). To these, translation can contribute to the framing processes of
news production by combining selection and deselection of news events and
reports, as well as linguistic transfer and adaptation of other elements such as
headlines and quotes. As a matter of fact, headlines are the most likely
components of a source text to change, as conventions vary from language to
language. However, they are not necessarily the most relevant. We can use the
case of the so-called Wikileaks as a case in point. Although the term Wikileaks
refers to an online journalistic organisation that posts classified documents
considered of public interest by its promoters, the word has been widely used in
connection with the release of the US Department of State wires in five major
international media, the New York Times, UK’s The Guardian, Spain’s El País,
France’s Le Monde and Germany’s Der Spiegel.
The publication of the wires involved a careful selection of texts by those
companies, as some of the material was considered inappropriate. Another factor
taken into account was the large number of cables, which made it impracticable
for the newspapers to publish them all or post them in their online versions. It
also meant that translation acted as a gatekeeping mechanism and as an
adaptation strategy, which allowed the media to select what to publish, when and
how. In the end globalisation and localisation acted as two complementary
forces (Castells 84), and translation contributed to adapt the bulk of the original
texts to the target readerships: on the one hand, the combined economic and
political power of these five media turned the Wikileaks into a global issue, but,
on the other, their own local interests limited the scope of possible themes to be
published. For instance, the online version of El País made a world map
available to its readers with a specific number of wires for each country. The
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number one country is, of course, the United States with 600, with Spain coming
second with a total of 292 texts (“Las Revelaciones de Wikileaks”). The
numbers of papers with information about other countries is usually well below
ten, with the notable exceptions of Cuba and Venezuela in Latin America, and
Iran in the Middle East. The number of papers about China is also high,
highlighting the interest of the US in the Asian giant. However, it should be
noted that many of the cables are available only in English, whereas a smaller
number of them has been adapted into news articles.
On the other hand, The Guardian also offers its international readers a
virtual map of the cables that can be accessed by clicking on the appropriate
link. As can be expected, the number of cables is much larger for the Unites
States, with a total of 232 wires, and the UK, with 72 texts in total (“US
Embassy Cables”). The map also provides easy links to articles based on the
leaked texts, 48 and 29 respectively. Adaptation here is not available in terms of
interlinguistic translation but rather in the number of news articles available
based on the original material, as well as on the selection and deselection
processes of the original texts. In other words, we are dealing with intralinguistic
translation and/or adaptation processes. Thus, adaptation plays a key role in the
writing and publication of the original papers in English. However, it is the
efforts of the five media at play that makes the Wikileaks issue so unique: the
combined use of appropriation, adaptation and translation turn the release of the
papers into a global venture. Additionally, these processes have expanded as the
texts reach other markets and cultures, which, in turn, needed to adapt and
translate them for their own target audiences.
In other cases, though, adaptation plays a subtler role, especially when the
abuse of national stereotypes becomes a contentious issue for certain media and
nations. The current economic crisis, for instance, has promoted a rhetoric of
exclusion and fear that is present in European media as well as in the voices of
many politicians. In 2013, following the announcement of the lifting of all
restrictions of movement within the European Union, allowing the citizens of
Bulgaria and Romania to move to other EU nations in search of jobs, the tabloid
press in the UK abuse the image of Eastern Europeans as pickpockets and
scroungers in an attempt to encourage the British government to oppose the
measure. The institutionalized response came soon afterwards in what was a
controversial abuse of stereotypes of the self, in this case the UK: the
government announced that it would use the image of Britain as an
unwelcoming and rainy nation. The less conservative media criticized the
announcement and even called their readers to send slogans to dissuade
foreigners from visiting the country. The readers of The Guardian came up with
ideas such as
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The sky in the UK is this colour [grey] for 8 months of the year. Try Miami
instead […]
UK? YUK!
Come Here and Clean the Loo (“US Embassy Cables”)
The controversy reached Bulgaria and Romania, where the media published the
information conveniently translated into their languages. In an unexpected turn
of events, Gandul, one of the major newspapers in Romania adapted the idea to
promote a pro-Romanian campaign, in which the writers used similar lines but
with a very different aim: to attract UK citizens to the country.
Bunicul meu e vecin cu printul Charles, al tau este?
[My grandfather is Prince Charles’s neighbour, what about yours?]
Noi il avem pe Dracula voi pe David Cameron!
[We have Dracula, you have David Cameron!]22
In this case, Romanian media appropriated a frame of exclusion, selected the
information that wanted to publish and produced new poignant slogans
parodying the original discourse.
The Wikileaks and the Gandul slogans exemplify the forms in which
adaptation and translation work together in the age of globalisation. Orengo has
pointed out that localisation in news production involves a process of adaptation
of a text so that it “has the feel and look of a nationally-manufactured piece of
news” (170). However, the examples mentioned above do not only have the feel
and look of a local product: they do not hide their international origin, but rather
they preserve it by adapting the material to meet the expectations of the target
readership in the case of the Wikileaks, or by appropriating a news event (the
anti-Romanian campaign jokingly turned anti-British by The Guardian) and a
textual typology (advertising slogans) in order to create a new and more positive
stereotype, as in the case of the Gandul campaign. In this sense, the producers of
these texts are not just translating, they are not merely adapting the source
documents; they are appropriating the texts in order to manufacture ways of
looking at the Other that the readers can identify and even feel more comfortable
with. Leo Chan argues that “adaptations are like domesticated translations,
where target values, conventions and norms are superimposed on the source text
(…) and the foreign becomes palatable for the local audience” (415), but in these
cases the foreign becomes more palatable by preserving its origin.
22 I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Rodica Dimitriu for translating these into
English.
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Final discussion
Writing about literary and historical texts, Vandal-Sirois and Bastin have noted
that adaptation and appropriation usually go hand in hand. Adaptation has been a
very problematic concept within translation studies, as the more purists tend to
regard it as an extreme form of free translation. Historic texts usually provide
good examples not only of adaptation, which Sanders defines as a journey form
the source text to a new cultural milieu, but of appropriation, understood as “a
more decisive journey away from the informing source into a wholly new
cultural product and domain” (26). Sanders, who focuses on literary works,
stresses the difficulties of distinguishing between homage and plagiarism (32-
41), but pays little attention to translation (Chan 415). However, the connection
between translation, adaptation and appropriation emerges as we become aware
of two facts, regardless of whether we are looking at literature, history or news.
First, the adapted works take on new “meanings, applications and resonance”
and, two, “appropriation does not always make its founding relationships and
interrelationships as clear” (Sanders 32). Vandal-Sirois and Bastin relate this to
Chesterman’s telos, the personal goal of the translator (Vandal-Sirois and Bastin
23). We can take this further and extend it to the ideological stance of the target
readership. The Spanish chronicles of the conquest and their translations into
English provide us with excellent examples of the adaptation and, eventually,
appropriation of source texts to support personal and national agendas (Valdeón,
“Retranslation”). Bartolomé de las Casas’s Brevísima relación de la destrucción
de las Indias offers itself as an example of the appropriation of a text that was
meant to convince the future Spanish king to take action against the
misdemeanors of the conquerors with a careful combination of facts and fiction.
The English translators of the 16th century and beyond not only appropriated the
text for their purposes, they also increased the fictional elements of the book and
claimed that these fictional elements were as truthful as possible (Foster 121).
Understood this way, journalistic texts mentioned above provide an
excellent opportunity to study these complex interrelationships. For example, the
Gaceta de Caracas, a pro-independence periodical in the nineteenth century
Venezuela, used English, French and Spanish source texts in order to produce
articles that would support the ideological positions of the target journalists and
their readers: “All are deliberate interventions motivated by the target journalists
and their readers, and even though sources are often quoted, they still represent
appropriations” (Vandal-Sirois and Bastin 37). Two centuries later news
appropriation and adaptation still characterizes news production, although in
most cases the invisibility of the process does not allow the readers the work of
the journalist as a translator. The US Department of State cables made available
by Wikileaks and five Western media offer an example of appropriation of texts,
their adaptation to the needs and interests of the target audience and the selective
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translation and adaptation of some of them. Here readers are more likely to
become aware of the fact that the target texts are instances of appropriation,
translation and adaptation.
However, in the majority of the cases this relationship becomes far more
shadowy, and the influence upon the audience is less obvious and, yet,
unescapable. This implies that research into how these transformations are
shaped, by whom and why would help us take a more critical view of how
information is fed onto us in the age of globalisation, as a small minority of the
population now controls mainstream media, and news has become another
component of the consumerist society (Castells 118). In this sense, a term like
transediting may have become obsolete or even useless (Schäffner 881) because
the original emphasis on language transfer and edition is of lesser importance
than the political, economic and social implications of processes like adaptation
and appropriation. For this reason, the analysis of news texts requires an
interdisciplinary approach that takes advantage of the research carried out in
disciplines such as communication studies, where concepts like framing have
contributed to advance our knowledge of news production practices and
agendas. Thus, it might be necessary to consider whether concepts like
localisation and globalisation are enough. Adaptation studies has suggested the
term relocation to refer to the recontextualisation of a source text (Sanders 63-
64), although in a more positive way that we would like to suggest here.
Finally, it should be pointed out that, even though transediting may not
be the right term to define the strategies characteristic of news translation, it
seems reasonable to differentiate between translation and other practices. While
this does not imply that we should return to translation as a more or less faithful
linguistic transfer between languages, it might valuable to make a distinction
between translation and other processes such as adaptation and a more violent
and disruptive one: appropriation.
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Zatlin, Phyllis. Theatrical Translation and Film Adaptation. A Practitioner’s View.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2005.
Unauthenticated
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