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Neurofeedback in the workplace: From neurorehabilitation hope to neuroleadership hype?
Abstract
Brain-computer interface neurofeedback has rapidly become an engaging topic for occupational research at large. Notwithstanding some criticism, research and practice have begun converging on the efficacy of brain-computer interface neurofeedback as a part of holistic interventions in rehabilitation. Yet, its use in vocational contexts has recently blossomed into wider attributes, beyond rehabilitation practice per se, additionally targeting performance enhancements and leadership interventions in healthy individuals. By exploring this emerging scenario, this paper aims to provide an interdisciplinary forum of analysis on the deriving implications for rehabilitation professionals, signaling how these may invite both possible threats for the field and opportunities to engage in novel translational partnerships.
... Neuroscience emerges as a key tool in understanding business decisions, as well as in the identification and creation of opportunities (Massaro, 2015), supported by biometric techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) and galvanic skin response (GSR). It is essential to explore the role of emotions in business decisions since various systems influence risk-seeking and risk-avoidance. ...
... Although advances in neuroscience technology, such as wireless EEG, have gained popularity among management and entrepreneurship researchers, neuroscience, and functional neuroimaging are just beginning to open new opportunities to explore the neurophysiological substrates of mental processes and corresponding behaviours. Despite few empirical advances in the entrepreneurship literature, pilot testing and the use of more cost-effective imaging approaches, such as EEG-based studies, can be valuable to capture information about manipulated conditions and protocols used, as well as facilitate dialogue among research participants (Massaro, 2015). Clear challenges for entrepreneurship scholars seeking to research neuroimaging involve the interdisciplinary nature of the work, disparate knowledge bases, and asymmetric incentive systems for neuroscience and entrepreneurship academics. ...
This study aims to conduct a literature review and examine key research topics within the field of neuroentrepreneurship, categorizing works based on this classification and specifying different directions of research lines. Additionally, it seeks to compile definitions and their evolution regarding the concept of neuroentrepreneurship, contributing a new proposal. The methodology involves identifying keywords related to main themes and their direct relation to all research works encompassed in the entrepreneurship spectrum. Research articles matching the query are extracted from the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases, as they provide a comprehensive citation search and access to multidisciplinary research, adhering to established inclusion-exclusion criteria. Findings allow the classification of contributions to the literature into four themes: Neuroscience and entrepreneurship, the use of neurotechnologies in entrepreneurship research, the neurological profile of the entrepreneur, and ethics in neuroentrepreneurship. Lastly, this study emphasizes its originality by presenting a set of works directly related to neuroentrepreneurship, establishing a classification based on four thematic research lines in neuroentrepreneurship. This allows extracting a limited set of definitions for the concept, classifying them based on themes incorporated in the definition. Finally, the authors provide a comprehensive definition of neuroentrepreneurship, tailored to the four major research blocks in this discipline.
... It is essential not to overlook these variations and instead adopt a nuanced approach to support individuals' well-being and maintain team and organizational resilience. While traditional leadership theories have offered valuable insights into various leadership styles and approaches, there is a growing interest in the emerging field of neuroleadership [7]. ...
“The Emergence of Neuroleadership in the Knowledge Economy” explores the field of neuroleadership in today’s constantly changing economy, highlighting the transition from traditional leadership to neuroleadership. Neuroleadership renders itself as a novel approach to the leadership theory, which brings together insights from neuroscience, psychology, and leadership studies. It emphasizes understanding the workings of the brain and human behavior in order to drive leadership effectiveness, at individual, team, and organizational levels. Additionally, the knowledge economy is characterized by the significant role of knowledge and intellectual capital when it comes to driving economic growth and organizational development. It highlights the creation, dissemination, and sharing of knowledge as important pillars for productivity and competitive advantage, shaping industries and transforming leadership traditional models. Through an extensive literature review and by employing the Dulewicz and Higgs leadership model, the authors showcase what are the intellectual, managerial, and emotional competencies that make neuroleadership the next natural step in leading teams and organizations. This article proposes a comparative matrix between traditional leaders and neuroleaders, and highlights a novel framework for better understanding neuroleadership.
... Moreover, training regions associated with empathy and emotional processing potentially enhance an individual's capability to understand and connect with the feelings of others (Yu et al., 2021). In an organizational setting, enhanced EI will help build interpersonal relationships and foster positive workplace dynamics with trust and effective communication (Farahany, 2023;Massaro, 2015). ...
For years, Human Resource Development and Management (HRDM) has used behavioral assessments to gauge employee potential. However, advancements in cognitive behavioral neuroscience (CBN) have opened up new possibilities for understanding how the human mind works. This chapter explores the practical applications of neuroscience methods like EEG, ERP, MRI, and fMRI, as well as neurofeedback and biofeedback, in talent identification, leadership development, and employee well-being. Importantly, these insights can be directly applied in HRDM practices, leading to more effective talent management, leadership development, and improved employee well-being. While recognizing the ethical considerations involved with these technologies, the chapter presents a compelling vision for a future where HRDM practices are informed by a deeper understanding of the brain, enabling the workforce to reach its full potential.
... Therefore, cognitive neuroscience can explain explicit and implicit attitudes and behaviours that determine decision-making (González-Esteban, 2016). Neuroleadership studies have even advanced to brain-computer interface studies (Massaro, 2015). Neuro-leaders manage their institutions by establishing a management strategy based on brain-based findings. ...
In a post-pandemic era, managers and leaders have a role to enable the changes needed to make workplaces happier and more productive. This paper aims to analyse the role of neuroleadership in the application of happiness management. Two research questions are proposed: what do we know about neuroleadership? and what role can neuroleadership play in happiness management? A mixed methodology is applied. A bibliometric technique is used to identify the main topics studied in neuroleadership. An in-depth analysis and logical reasoning are applied to propose a neuroleadership research roadmap and to present some research pathways for neuroleadership for happiness management. A neuroleadership research roadmap is proposed, considering the approaches, practices/actions, and purposes. It is observed that the consideration of the management of emotions and cognitive processes in the work environment is attracting interest to develop a leadership focused on making better workplaces. A new line of action focused on the management of happiness is emerging. In addition, neuroleadership is presented as a new way of understanding management. Their combined application can mark a before and after in business management, and for that, a proposal of future research lines and questions is developed. This paper presents four future research pathways—perspectives, reasons, adoption and implementation, and results—for studying neuroleadership for happiness management.
... Although questions of the development of BCI for neurorehabilitation take the central place in current research [35], particular interest in recent years has been in the potential of BCI to enhance cognitive activity in specialists [29,72]. The current state of BCI technologies allows increases in the productivity of mental work and formation of leadership in healthy people to be addressed [70], and also opens up the possibility of creating cognitive BCI [1]. ...
We report here an analysis of studies in the last five years on a construction and management challenge in technogenic systems, i.e., neural interfaces and neurobiocontrol systems. Current approaches to the use of neural interfaces in medicine, engineering psychology, and cognitive rehabilitation of humans are addressed. The main focus of attention is on neural interfaces based on use of system-forming endogenous body rhythms – electroencephalogram (EEG) rhythms, heart rate, and the respiratory rhythm. The advantages, state of the art, and challenges in this line of research are discussed and potential pathways for answering its key questions are outlined. The results of the authors’ own developments in this direction are presented.
... Here, methods of signal analysis using Fourier transforms and time-frequency analysis are applied to EEG, focusing on patterns of activity such as phase synchrony and magnitude synchrony. The qEEG method has also found increasing use in neurofeedback applications (Massaro, 2015), wherein brain activity is monitored and applied to modulate certain sensorial stimuli apt to be controlled by the research participant or user. ...
Organizational neuroscience—a novel scholarly domain using neuroscience to inform
management and organizational research, and vice versa—is flourishing. Still missing,
however, is a comprehensive coverage of organizational neuroscience as a self-standing
scientific field. A foundational account of the potential that neuroscience holds to advance
management and organizational research is currently a gap. The gap can be addressed with a review of the main methods, systematizing the existing scholarly literature in the field
including entrepreneurship, strategic management, and organizational behavior, among
others.
... Neurofeedback techniques (Duan et al., 2013) provide an opportunity to train entrepreneurs' cognitive capacities, as such techniques enable direct stimulation to target brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, which is closely associated with attentional control and decision-making (e.g., Hadi Hosseini et al., 2016). More importantly, neurofeedback techniques may enable entrepreneurs to learn strategies or 'brain exercises', such that they can perform cognitive training themselves (for more discussions on neurofeedback in the workplace, see Massaro, 2015). For instance, Shepherd (2009) examined dynamic process of grief recovery from a business loss and emphasized a critical role of emotional intelligence at the individual level. ...
Emotion significantly affects strategic decision-making by entrepreneurs in family business organisations (FBOs). This paper proposes a cognitive framework of management in FBOs that emphasises the importance of emotion, based on a micro-foundational perspective: that is, an integrated hierarchy of cognitive processes underlying FBOs’ strategic decision-making and their interactions with external affective events. Previous studies that used traditional behavioural methodologies are reviewed with reference to the proposed cognitive framework to highlight importance of understanding effect of emotion-cognition interactions on entrepreneurs’ strategic decision-making process. New techniques using biological, physiological, and neuroscientific tools are then introduced as complementary methods for this line of research. Finally, future research directions are discussed with a focus on implicit cognitive processing, complex emotions, and cognitive interventions.
... Neuroleadership studies have even advanced to brain-computer interface studies (See, Massaro, 2015). ...
Interpreting findings in neuroscience by field experts and educators regarding educational processes and transferring them to a practical context is gaining importance. From this aspect, neuroleadership studies with the development of social cognitive neuroscience started to serve as a guide for making sense of educational leaders' behaviors at the biological level. In this study, the term of neuroleadership is analyzed conceptually and its implications for the educational leadership field are explored. To do so, a systematic literature analysis method was employed. Forty-four studies (published between January 2010 and May 2020) were examined as they relate to neuroleadership and its educational and managerial implications. In the light of these studies, the analysis of basic concepts related to neuroleadership has been made, and the neuro-educational leadership implications are listed. In those studies, it is seen that neuroleadership is generally conceptualized as “applying the findings of neuroscience to the leadership area.” In addition, the educational and managerial implications of neuroleadership, some of which are multi-tasking, emotion management, optimum learning, psychological basis are explained under the themes. The findings of this study can help schools take advantage of the opportunities offered by neuroscience and coordinate educational processes with evidence-based approaches.
... Recently, several new EEG-based research approaches have emerged. In leadership research, for example, quantitative EEG (qEEG) has been used in an increasing number of applications (Massaro, 2015;Waldman et al., 2017). ...
This paper advances current understandings of why and how neuroimaging can enrich the study of entrepreneurship. We discuss the foundations of this cross-disciplinary research area and its evolving boundaries, focusing on explaining and providing actionable insights on how two of the most widely used brain-imaging methods can be leveraged for use in entrepreneurship research. We provide guidelines aimed to equip entrepreneurship scholars with the fundamentals needed to design and evaluate research involving these neuroscience instruments. In so doing, we delineate examples related to entrepreneurial cognition and propose several ways in which this domain of research can be enhanced with neuroimaging.
... В НБУ эти биофизические характеристики организма человека преобразуются в информационные сигналы обратной связи для его обучения навыку произвольной регуляции различных функций [89]. В недавних публикациях показано, что с помощью нейроинтерфейсов можно подавлять болевые синдромы [77] и устранять стресс-вызванные расстройства [71], а при использовании на рабочем месте -осуществлять когнитивную реабилитацию специалиста [84]. ...
The goal of the paper is to reveal the peculiarities of the autonomous nervous system responsiveness under emotiogenic video content in students with different initial vegetative tones. Materials and Methods. The authors examined 33 volunteers, their average age was 21.4±1.5. According to the stress index (SI), the subjects were divided into two groups: in the 1st group (n=14) a sympathetic tone of the autonomic nervous system prevailed (SI>140); in the 2nd group (n=19) initially, there dominated a parasympathetic tone (SI<140). Viewing video content with emotiogenic fragments served as a model for emotion induction. The responsibility of the autonomic nervous system was determined according to the change of indicators in temporal (RRNN, SDNN, RMSSD, pNN50) and mathematical analysis (heart rate, M, Mo, AMo, index of vegetative balance, vegetative rhythm indicator, tension index) of the cardiac rhythmogram. The cardiac rhythmogram was divided into successive analysis steps, which lasted 100 cardiac cycles synchronized with each episode of the stimulus video. Results. Regardless of the video valency, the indicators of a temporary RMSSD and pNN50 analysis are sensitive indicators of heart rate variability under emotiogenic video content in individuals with initial parasympathetic tone; in individuals with initial sympathetic tone these are the indicators of mathematical analysis – the index of vegetative balance and index of tension while watching a video evoking negative emotions. The revealed peculiarities of the vegetative body support at the stages following the exposure to the emotiogenic factors characterize stress-reactive thinking or rumination. The authors registered significant increase in heart rate in individuals with initial parasympathetic tone, whereas in individuals with initial sympathetic tone, there was a certain increase in vagal activity associated with SDNN and pNN50 increase. Conclusion. While evaluating the emotiogenic factor influence on the organism, evident in the autonomic nervous system responsiveness, one should consider the initial autonomic tone of the subjects, the degree of variability, the intensity of changes, and the sensitivity of heart rate variability. Keywords: reactivity, autonomic nervous system, heart rate variability, emotiogenic factor, video content, rumination, students. Цель работы. Выявить особенности реактивности автономной нервной системы при воздействии эмоциогенного видеоконтента у студентов с различным исходным вегетативным тонусом. Материалы и методы. На основании добровольного согласия обследовано 33 чел., средний возраст которых составил 21,4±1,5 года. В зависимости от величины индекса напряжения (ИН) обследуемые были разделены на две группы: 1-я группа (n=14) – с преобладанием симпатического тонуса автономной нервной системы (ИН>140 ед.); 2-я группа (n=19) – с исходным преобладанием парасимпатического тонуса (ИН<140 ед.). Моделью индукции эмоций являлся просмотр видеоконтента, содержащего эмоциогенные фрагменты. Реактивность автономной нервной системы определялась по степени изменения показателей временного (RRNN, SDNN, RMSSD, pNN50) и математического анализа (ЧСС, M, Mo, AMo, ИВР, ВПР, ИН) кардиоритмограммы. Кардиоритмограмма делилась на последовательные этапы анализа, длительность которых составляла 100 кардиоциклов, синхронизированных с каждым фрагментом стимульного видеоряда. Результаты. Чувствительными показателями вариабельности сердечного ритма при воздействии эмоциогенного видеоконтента у лиц с исходным парасимпатическим тонусом являются показатели временного анализа RMSSD и pNN50, независимо от валентности видеоролика; у лиц с исходным симпатическим тонусом – показатели математического анализа – индекс вегетативного равновесия (ИВР) и ИН при восприятии видеоролика, индуцирующего отрицательные эмоции. Выявленные особенности вегетативного обеспечения организма на этапах, следующих после воздействия эмоциогенного фактора, характерны для состояния стресс-реактивного размышления, или руминации. У лиц с исходным парасимпатическим тонусом регистрировалось значимое увеличение ЧСС, у лиц с исходным симпатическим тонусом – характерное увеличение вагусной активности на фоне увеличения показателей SDNN и pNN50. Выводы. Эффекты воздействия эмоциогенного фактора на организм, выраженные в особенностях реактивности автономной нервной системы, должны оцениваться с учетом исходного вегетативного тонуса обследуемых, степени вариативности, интенсивности изменений, а также чувствительности показателей вариабельности сердечного ритма. Ключевые слова: реактивность, автономная нервная система, вариабельность сердечного ритма, эмоциогенный фактор, видеоконтент, руминация, студенты.
... That said, less intrusive methods of brain activity alteration, programs based on EEG-guided neurofeedback, are already in use. 17,18 In such programs, participants watch a display of their EEG activity and are taught behavioural strategies to maintain this activity in desired patterns. Although an extensive discussion is outside the scope of this article (see Sitaram et al.'s recent review), 19 we note a few important points: (1) the behaviours trained with neurofeedback should be chosen carefully to reflect skills needed within a real workplace environment, (2) resulting neuroplasticity can be reversible or may not always couple to desired behavioural changes, and (3) clinical and business applications of expensive and advanced technologies are particularly susceptible to placebo effects, rendering them easily exploitable. ...
The relationship between brain and behaviour has perplexed philosophers and scientists since the time of the ancient Greeks. Recent technological advances have allowed neuroscience to flourish, alongside growing romanticism that reductionist studies will allow us to understand complex interpersonal behaviours. Organizational cognitive neuroscience and neuroleadership are newly established interdisciplinary fields that use neuroscientific techniques to answer questions about behaviours within organizations. Neuroleadership aims to discover screening tools for good leaders, to improve leadership skills, and to identify unconscious factors affecting behaviour in hopes of improving management and leadership practices. Although proponents of neuroleadership are optimistic, if we know anything about the functions of the human brain and our interpersonal behaviours, it is that they are exquisitely complex and context dependant. Here, we briefly discuss the major themes emerging in the new field of neuroleadership and the limitations and potential consequences of applying findings from the field prematurely and with blind optimism.
... Indeed, interest in using neuroscience methods to inform business applications in decision making is an area of application that is rapidly expanding (Waytz & Mason, 2013). For one, despite known limitations and caveats (see Massaro, 2015), neurofeedback represents one of the most auspicious opportunities to convert neuroscience research into business practice. Added to this, increasing news of brain-computer interfaces and "neuroscience-informed" approaches in the workplace are becoming regular headlines in the media, showing an increasing demand from the "real-world" of academics enabled with expertise ready to address and inform novel business opportunities. ...
... Recently, several new EEG-based research approaches have emerged. In leadership research, for example, quantitative EEG (qEEG) has been used in an increasing number of applications (Massaro, 2015;Waldman et al., 2017). ...
... The accepted rationale is that by modulating the activity at the cortical level, neurofeedback training can by extension modulate subsequent behavior (e.g., Gruzelier, 2014aGruzelier, , 2014b. The implication is that by repeating such training over a period of time, the cortical response would become trained to respond to specific stimuli and then adapt the pattern of responses, and subsequent behavior, to subsequent presentations of that particular stimulus (Bagdasaryan & Quyen, 2013; but see Massaro, 2015). Thus, neurofeedback is effectively operant conditioning at a cortical level. ...
The dominant view in neuroscience, including functional neuroimaging, is that the brain is an essentially reactive system, in which some sensory input causes some neural activity, which in turn results in some important response such as a motor activity or some hypothesized higher-level cognitive or affective process. This view has driven the rise of neuroscience methods in management and organizational research. However, the reactive view offers at best a partial understanding of how living organisms function in the real world. In fact, like any neural system, the human brain exhibits a constant ongoing activity. This intrinsic brain activity is produced internally, not in response to some environmental stimulus, and is thus termed endogenous brain activity (EBA). In the present article we introduce EBA to organizational research conceptually, explain its measurement, and go on to show that including EBA in management and organizational theory and empirical research has the potential to revolutionize how we think about human choice and behavior in organizations.
... Indeed, encouraged by clinical evidence, neurofeedback represents one of the most promising opportunities to translate ON research into real-world practice (e.g., Waldman et al., 2011). Because research on neurofeedback in the workplace is fairly recent and still in need of further validation on its long-term effects, we believe it is also important to highlight that neurofeedback in ON should be best understood and practiced as one component of more holistic behavioral change programs rather than a one-stop definite intervention (Massaro, 2015). ...
Recently, the application of neuroscience methods and findings to the study of organizational phenomena has gained significant interest and converged in the emerging field of organizational neuroscience. Yet, this body of research has principally focused on the brain, often overlooking fuller analysis of the activities of the human nervous system and associated methods available to assess them. In this article, we aim to narrow this gap by reviewing heart rate variability (HRV) analysis, which is that set of methods assessing beat-to-beat changes in the heart rhythm over time, used to draw inference on the outflow of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). In addition to anatomo-physiological and detailed methodological considerations, we discuss related theoretical, ethical, and practical implications. Overall, we argue that this methodology offers the opportunity not only to inform on a wealth of constructs relevant for management inquiries but also to advance the overarching organizational neuroscience research agenda and its ecological validity.
... Findings from neuroscience make it clear that there is no silver bullet or simple answers when it comes to other-focused justice. Indeed, in the quest to better understand and eventually manipulate justice, only interdisciplinary research performed at the highest scientific standard will balance the 270 SEBASTIANO MASSARO AND WILLIAM J. BECKER hope and hype currently surrounding neuroscience research in the workplace (Massaro, 2015;Waldman, 2013). ...
This chapter advocates the use of neuroscience theoretical insights and methodological tools to advance existing organizational justice theory, research, and practice. To illustrate the value of neuroscience, two general topics are reviewed. In regard to individual justice, neuroscience makes it clear that organizational justice theory and research needs to integrate both emotion and cognition. Neuroscience also suggests promising avenues for practical individual justice interventions. For other-focused justice, neuroscience clarifies how empathy provides a mechanism for deontic justice while again highlighting the need to consider both emotion and cognition. Neuroscience research into group characterizations also suggests promising explanations for deontic justice failures. We also show how other-focused justice interventions are possible, but more complex, than for self-focused justice. We conclude that interdisciplinary research has great potential to advance both organizational justice and neuroscience research.
BACKGROUND: Neuroleadership in nursing is a specialized leadership approach that integrates insights from social neuroscience with nursing leadership practices, aiming to proficiently lead healthcare teams to enhance patient care, staff productivity, and organizational outcomes. Yet, the exploration of neuroleadership in nursing remains limited. AIM: The aim of this study was to provide an analysis of the concept of neuroleadership and its implications in the nursing context. METHODS: Walker and Avant's 8-step methodology was used for this concept analysis, including identifying the concept, clarifying the purpose of the analysis, exploring the uses of the concept, and defining its attributes, model and contrary cases, antecedents and consequences, and its empirical referents. A comprehensive search included PubMed, CINAHL, and ERIC, between 2000 and 2023. RESULTS: This concept analysis significantly contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive overview of neuroleadership as a distinct form of nursing leadership. It covers key aspects such as definition, attributes, uses, cases, antecedents, consequences, and empirical evidence, and highlights the importance of specialized education, practical experience, and leadership attributes in this domain. The findings could serve as determinants for establishing a neuroleadership framework and developing a structured questionnaire to measure neuroleadership among nurses and nurse leaders, thereby addressing existing empirical reference gaps. CONCLUSION: Nurse leaders adopting a neuroleadership approach can gain insights into how cognitive processes shape nurses' behaviors and motivation, which directly impact patient outcomes and care quality. Further research is needed to assess the practical impact of neuroleadership and validate its factors and model case in clinical nursing practice.
Resumo Acadêmicos e gestores há muito discutem o melhor perfil para uma liderança bem-sucedida, que pode influenciar o desempenho dos funcionários e o crescimento organizacional. Apesar da liderança ser o foco de muitos estudos e treinamento contínuo, ainda não está claro o que explica a eficácia dos líderes dentro das instituições e empresas. Para entender melhor esse fenômeno, realizamos uma revisão abrangente de estudos empíricos e ensaios teóricos (N = 93) explorando a aplicação da neurociência nas práticas e desenvolvimento de liderança e organizacionais. Realizamos uma revisão sistemática utilizando essas referências e construímos argumentos narrativos organizando as subáreas estudadas e definindo um processo através do qual é possível classificar e integrar tendências. O estudo se diferencia de pesquisas anteriores ao identificar grupos de áreas de pesquisa como as abordagens biológica, cerebral, psicológica, gerencial, emocional e cognitiva, bem como temas de pesquisa como cultura, tomada de decisão, engajamento, ética e desenvolvimento humano. Além disso, sugerimos um referencial teórico compreendendo essas abordagens e os principais tópicos de pesquisa para estimular o avanço do campo. Este artigo contribui para a literatura organizando o estado a arte da pesquisa e apresentando a neuroliderança como um construto. Concluímos com sugestões para pesquisas futuras que esperamos abordar as lacunas existentes e contribuir para a construção de recomendações relevantes para políticas de teorias.
Scholars and managers have long discussed the best profile for successful leadership, which can influence employee performance and organizational growth. Despite leadership being the focus of many studies and continuous training, what explains leaders’ effectiveness within institutions and companies remains unclear. To better understand this phenomenon, we perform a comprehensive review of empirical studies and theoretical essays (N = 93) exploring the application of neuroscience in an organization’s practices and leaders’ development. We conducted a systematic review using these references and built narrative arguments organizing understudied areas and defining a process to classify and integrate trends. The study is different from previous research in identifying groups of research areas such as the biological, brain, psychological, management, emotional, and cognitive approaches, as well as research topics such as culture, decision-making, engagement, ethics, and human development. Moreover, we suggest a theoretical framework comprising those approaches and the main research topics to stimulate the move of the field forward. The article contributes to the literature by organizing the state of the art of research and presenting neuroleadership as a construct. We conclude with suggestions for future research that we hope will address existing gaps and contribute to building relevant theories and policy recommendations.
Recent advances in the field of neuroscience can significantly add to our understanding of leadership and its development. Specifically, we are interested in what neuroscience can tell us about inspirational leadership. Based on our findings, we discuss how future research in leadership can be combined with neuroscience, as well as potential neurofeedback interventions for the purpose of leadership development. We also consider ethical implications and applications to management-related areas beyond leadership.
It has been known that stroke constitutes a major source of acquired disability, with nearly 800,000 new strokes each year in the USA alone. While advances in public and preventative health have helped reduce stroke incidence in high-income countries in recent decades, growth of the aging population, increasing stroke rates in low- to middle-income countries and medical advances that have reduced stroke mortality are all contributing to an increase in stroke survivors worldwide. Large numbers of stroke survivors have residual motor deficits. This editorial will provide an introduction to a class of new therapies being investigated with the aim of improving motor outcomes in stroke patients that uses what is known as brain–computer interface technology.
A re-emergence of research on EEG-neurofeedback followed controlled evidence of clinical benefits and validation of cognitive/affective gains in healthy participants including correlations in support of feedback learning mediating outcome. Controlled studies with healthy and elderly participants, which have increased exponentially, are reviewed including protocols from the clinic: sensory-motor rhythm, beta1 and alpha/theta ratio, down-training theta maxima, and from neuroscience: upper-alpha, theta, gamma, alpha desynchronisation. Outcome gains include sustained attention, orienting and executive attention, the P300b, memory, spatial rotation, RT, complex psychomotor skills, implicit procedural memory, recognition memory, perceptual binding, intelligence, mood and well-being. Twenty-three of the controlled studies report neurofeedback learning indices along with beneficial outcomes, of which eight report correlations in support of a meditation link, results which will be supplemented by further creativity and the performing arts evidence in Part II. Validity evidence from optimal performance studies represents an advance for the neurofeedback field demonstrating that cross fertilisation between clinical and optimal performance domains will be fruitful. Theoretical and methodological issues are outlined further in Part III.
Written to educate both professionals and the general public, this article provides an update and overview of the field of neurofeedback (EEG biofeedback). The process of assessment and neurofeedback training is explained. Then, areas in which neurofeedback is being used as a treatment are identified and a survey of research findings is presented. Potential risks, side effects, and adverse reactions are cited and guidelines provided for selecting a legitimately qualified practitioner.
For two decades, EEG-based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) systems have been widely studied in research labs. Now, researchers want to consider out-of-the-lab applications and make this technology available to everybody. However, medical-grade EEG recording devices are still much too expensive for end-users, especially disabled people. Therefore, several low-cost alternatives have appeared on the market. The Emotiv Epoc headset is one of them. Although some previous work showed this device could suit the customer's needs in terms of performance, no quantitative classification-based assessments compared to a medical system are available.
This paper aims at statistically comparing a medical-grade system, the ANT device, and the Emotiv Epoc headset by determining their respective performances in a P300 BCI using the same electrodes. On top of that, a review of previous Emotiv studies and a discussion on practical considerations regarding both systems are proposed. Nine healthy subjects participated in this experiment during which the ANT and the Emotiv systems are used in two different conditions: sitting on a chair and walking on a treadmill at constant speed.
The Emotiv headset performs significantly worse than the medical device; observed effect sizes vary from medium to large. The Emotiv headset has higher relative operational and maintenance costs than its medical-grade competitor.
Although this low-cost headset is able to record EEG data in a satisfying manner, it should only be chosen for non critical applications such as games, communication systems, etc. For rehabilitation or prosthesis control, this lack of reliability may lead to serious consequences. For research purposes, the medical system should be chosen except if a lot of trials are available or when the Signal-to-Noise Ratio is high. This also suggests that the design of a specific low-cost EEG recording system for critical applications and research is still required.
Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs) enable one to control peripheral ICT and robotic devices by processing brain activity on-line.
The potential usefulness of BCI systems, initially demonstrated in rehabilitation medicine, is now being explored in education,
entertainment, intensive workflow monitoring, security, and training. Ethical issues arising in connection with these investigations
are triaged taking into account technological imminence and pervasiveness of BCI technologies. By focussing on imminent technological
developments, ethical reflection is informatively grounded into realistic protocols of brain-to-computer communication. In
particular, it is argued that human-machine adaptation and shared control distinctively shape autonomy and responsibility
issues in current BCI interaction environments. Novel personhood issues are identified and analyzed too. These notably concern
(i) the “sub-personal” use of human beings in BCI-enabled cooperative problem solving, and (ii) the pro-active protection
of personal identity which BCI rehabilitation therapies may afford, in the light of so-called motor theories of thinking,
for the benefit of patients affected by severe motor disabilities.
In recent years, new research has brought the field of electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain–computer interfacing (BCI) out of its infancy and into a phase of relative maturity through many demonstrated prototypes such as brain-controlled wheelchairs, keyboards, and computer games. With this proof-of-concept phase in the past, the time is now ripe to focus on the development of practical BCI technologies that can be brought out of the lab and into real-world applications. In particular, we focus on the prospect of improving the lives of countless disabled individuals through a combination of BCI technology with existing assistive technologies (AT). In pursuit of more practical BCIs for use outside of the lab, in this paper, we identify four application areas where disabled individuals could greatly benefit from advancements in BCI technology, namely, “Communication and Control”, “Motor Substitution”, “Entertainment”, and “Motor Recovery”. We review the current state of the art and possible future developments, while discussing the main research issues in these four areas. In particular, we expect the most progress in the development of technologies such as hybrid BCI architectures, user–machine adaptation algorithms, the exploitation of users’ mental states for BCI reliability and confidence measures, the incorporation of principles in human–computer interaction (HCI) to improve BCI usability, and the development of novel BCI technology including better EEG devices.
Effective rehabilitative therapies are needed for patients with long-term deficits after stroke.
In this multicenter, randomized, controlled trial involving 127 patients with moderate-to-severe upper-limb impairment 6 months or more after a stroke, we randomly assigned 49 patients to receive intensive robot-assisted therapy, 50 to receive intensive comparison therapy, and 28 to receive usual care. Therapy consisted of 36 1-hour sessions over a period of 12 weeks. The primary outcome was a change in motor function, as measured on the Fugl-Meyer Assessment of Sensorimotor Recovery after Stroke, at 12 weeks. Secondary outcomes were scores on the Wolf Motor Function Test and the Stroke Impact Scale. Secondary analyses assessed the treatment effect at 36 weeks.
At 12 weeks, the mean Fugl-Meyer score for patients receiving robot-assisted therapy was better than that for patients receiving usual care (difference, 2.17 points; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.23 to 4.58) and worse than that for patients receiving intensive comparison therapy (difference, -0.14 points; 95% CI, -2.94 to 2.65), but the differences were not significant. The results on the Stroke Impact Scale were significantly better for patients receiving robot-assisted therapy than for those receiving usual care (difference, 7.64 points; 95% CI, 2.03 to 13.24). No other treatment comparisons were significant at 12 weeks. Secondary analyses showed that at 36 weeks, robot-assisted therapy significantly improved the Fugl-Meyer score (difference, 2.88 points; 95% CI, 0.57 to 5.18) and the time on the Wolf Motor Function Test (difference, -8.10 seconds; 95% CI, -13.61 to -2.60) as compared with usual care but not with intensive therapy. No serious adverse events were reported.
In patients with long-term upper-limb deficits after stroke, robot-assisted therapy did not significantly improve motor function at 12 weeks, as compared with usual care or intensive therapy. In secondary analyses, robot-assisted therapy improved outcomes over 36 weeks as compared with usual care but not with intensive therapy. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00372411.)
The differential diagnosis of disorders of consciousness is challenging. The rate of misdiagnosis is approximately 40%, and new methods are required to complement bedside testing, particularly if the patient's capacity to show behavioral signs of awareness is diminished.
At two major referral centers in Cambridge, United Kingdom, and Liege, Belgium, we performed a study involving 54 patients with disorders of consciousness. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess each patient's ability to generate willful, neuroanatomically specific, blood-oxygenation-level-dependent responses during two established mental-imagery tasks. A technique was then developed to determine whether such tasks could be used to communicate yes-or-no answers to simple questions.
Of the 54 patients enrolled in the study, 5 were able to willfully modulate their brain activity. In three of these patients, additional bedside testing revealed some sign of awareness, but in the other two patients, no voluntary behavior could be detected by means of clinical assessment. One patient was able to use our technique to answer yes or no to questions during functional MRI; however, it remained impossible to establish any form of communication at the bedside.
These results show that a small proportion of patients in a vegetative or minimally conscious state have brain activation reflecting some awareness and cognition. Careful clinical examination will result in reclassification of the state of consciousness in some of these patients. This technique may be useful in establishing basic communication with patients who appear to be unresponsive.
Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) affords the opportunity to explore the feasibility of self-regulation of functional brain networks through neurofeedback. We localised emotion networks individually in thirteen participants using fMRI and trained them to upregulate target areas, including the insula and amygdala. Participants achieved a high degree of control of these networks after a brief training period. We observed activation increases during periods of upregulation of emotion networks in the precuneus and medial prefrontal cortex and, with increasing training success, in the ventral striatum. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of fMRI-based neurofeedback of emotion networks and suggest a possible development into a therapeutic tool.
There have been many claims regarding the possibilities of performance enhancement training. The aim of such training is for an individual to complete a specific function or task with fewer errors and greater efficiency, resulting in a more positive outcome. The present review examined evidence from neurofeedback training studies to enhance performance in a particular area. Previous research has documented associations between specific cortical states and optimum levels of performance in a range of tasks. This information provides a plausible rationale for the use of neurofeedback to train individuals to enhance their performance. An examination of the literature revealed that neurofeedback training has been utilised to enhance performance from three main areas; sport, cognitive and artistic performance. The review examined evidence from neurofeedback training studies within each of these three areas. Some suggestive findings have been reported with regard to the use of neurofeedback training to enhance performance. However, due to a range of methodological limitations and a general failure to elicit unambiguous changes in baseline EEG activity, a clear association between neurofeedback training and enhanced performance has yet to be established. Throughout, the review highlights a number of recommendations to aid and stimulate future research.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect that electromyographic biofeedback (EMG-BFB), used in conjunction with occupational therapy (OT) and functional electrical stimulation (FES), has on spasticity, range of motion, and upper extremity function in hemiplegic patients. A total of 59 patients treated at a university-based rehabilitation centre were studied. Of those 59 patients, 31 received twice-weekly sessions of OT+FES, together with weekly sessions of EMG-BFB, and 28 received only the twice-weekly sessions of OT+FES. The patients were evaluated at baseline, at 6 months, and at 12 months, using the hand function test, the Minnesota manual dexterity test, the joint range of motion scale, and the modified Ashworth scale. At 6 months, the patients receiving EMG-BFB presented significantly greater improvement in upper extremity function than those receiving only OT+FES. Incorporating EMG-BFB into the treatment regimen had a positive effect on the range of motion and on the recovery of upper extremity function in hemiplegic patients. Biofeedback training might represent an important therapeutic tool for the rehabilitation of stroke patients.
While traditional management science has been criticized for being slow to adopt findings from psychological research, an emerging movement seeks to incorporate cognitive and neuroscience research and perspectives into workplace applications and leadership development. In the present chapter, social, cognitive, and affective neuroscience findings are discussed in the context of topics related to leadership development. These topics include workplace stress and stress management, emotional regulation, social interaction, and emotional intelligence. I then review efforts to understand and promote cognitive health in the workplace with a particular focus on organizational skills, decision making, and reasoning. These topics are subsequently considered in the context of executive coaching interventions and future directions that may bolster research and applications in this area. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013. All rights are reserved.
This is multi-case presentation describing promising rehabilitation results of Z-score LORETA neurofeedback therapy of patients suffering from prior stroke. Potential benefits include improved cognitive function and motor performance.
Background and purpose:
Despite the findings that motor imagery and execution are supposed to share common neural networks, previous studies using imagery-based rehabilitation have revealed inconsistent results. In the present study, we investigated whether feedback of cortical activities (neurofeedback) using near-infrared spectroscopy could enhance the efficacy of imagery-based rehabilitation in stroke patients.
Methods:
Twenty hemiplegic patients with subcortical stroke received 6 sessions of mental practice with motor imagery of the distal upper limb in addition to standard rehabilitation. Subjects were randomly allocated to REAL and SHAM groups. In the REAL group, cortical hemoglobin signals detected by near-infrared spectroscopy were fed back during imagery. In the SHAM group, irrelevant randomized signals were fed back. Upper limb function was assessed using the finger and arm subscales of the Fugl-Meyer assessment and the Action Research Arm Test.
Results:
The hand/finger subscale of the Fugl-Meyer assessment showed greater functional gain in the REAL group, with a significant interaction between time and group (F(2,36)=15.5; P<0.001). A significant effect of neurofeedback was revealed even in severely impaired subjects. Imagery-related cortical activation in the premotor area was significantly greater in the REAL group than in the SHAM group (T(58)=2.4; P<0.05).
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that near-infrared spectroscopy-mediated neurofeedback may enhance the efficacy of mental practice with motor imagery and augment motor recovery in poststroke patients with severe hemiparesis.
Regaining motor function is of high priority to patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). A variety of electronic devices that interface with the brain or spinal cord, which have applications in neural prosthetics and neurorehabilitation, are in development. Owing to our advancing understanding of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, new technologies to monitor, decode and manipulate neural activity are being translated to patient populations, and have demonstrated clinical efficacy. Brain-machine interfaces that decode motor intentions from cortical signals are enabling patient-driven control of assistive devices such as computers and robotic prostheses, whereas electrical stimulation of the spinal cord and muscles can aid in retraining of motor circuits and improve residual capabilities in patients with SCI. Next-generation interfaces that combine recording and stimulating capabilities in so-called closed-loop devices will further extend the potential for neuroelectronic augmentation of injured motor circuits. Emerging evidence suggests that integration of closed-loop interfaces into intentional motor behaviours has therapeutic benefits that outlast the use of these devices as prostheses. In this Review, we summarize this evidence and propose that several known plasticity mechanisms, operating in a complementary manner, might underlie the therapeutic effects that are achieved by closing the loop between electronic devices and the nervous system.
Stress and burnout are widely acknowledged as major causes of societal and individual problems in the Western world. In order to reduce material and immaterial expenses, increased efforts are made to enhance relaxation and stress reduction. Based on neuropsychological findings, alternative ways have been explored, one of them being the application of so-called brain wave synchronizers, which are said to induce a relaxation response by entraining alpha brain-wave activity (8–13 Hz) through audiovisual stimulation. A double blind, quasi-experiment was conducted among employees at a Dutch addiction care center to investigate the possible effects of two distinct brainmachine programs on burnout and anxiety. Subjects in both conditions showed a significant, immediate decrease in state anxiety as assessed by Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and reported a range of subjective effects. However, a long-term effect on burnout, as measured with Maslach's Burnout Inventory (MBI-NL), could not be established. A long-term effect on anxiety (STAI), as investigated by interrupted time-series measurement, could not be established either. These and other findings suggest that the major claims with respect to these machines cannot hold over time, although pleasant short-term effects do occur. Individual differences in baseline responsivity, the stable character of burnout dimensions, or the ill-defined nature of relaxation, or a combination of these, may account for these results.
Current evidence suggests that productivity in biomedical research depends on the support that the research group enjoys from its parent institution, the composition of the group and the personal attributes of its members and leader. Supportive institutions provide adequate physical resources and allow substantial uninterrupted time for research. The effectiveness of the research group asa whole is also strongly influenced by the group's structure, the professional competence of the group leader, his leadership style and his ability to foster collaboration with other research groups and organizations. There is a good case for a flexible leadership style that is modelled on the situational theory of leadership. In addition, the personal characteristics of the individual members of the research group influence the quality and quantity of the research output. Effective groups are made of motivated individuals with research training and skills that are relevant to the objectives of the research group. Rehabilitation research is fundamentally different from traditional biomedical research. This study discusses how the factors that influence productivity of biomedical research relate to rehabilitation science and practice and examines the conditions that are necessary to create and maintain an academic environment that is conducive to large volume,high-quality research in rehabilitation medicine.
Most of the research devoted to BMI development consists of methodological studies comparing different online mathematical algorithms, ranging from simple linear discriminant analysis (LDA) (Dornhege et al., 2007) to nonlinear artificial neural networks (ANNs) or support vector machine (SVM) classification. Single cell spiking for the reconstruction of hand movements requires different statistical solutions than electroencephalography (EEG)-rhythm classification for communication. In general, the algorithm for BMI applications is computationally simple and differences in classification accuracy between algorithms used for a particular purpose are small. Only a very limited number of clinical studies with neurological patients are available, most of them single case studies. The clinical target populations for BMI-treatment consist primarily of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and severe CNS damage including spinal cord injuries and stroke resulting in substantial deficits in communication and motor function. However, an extensive body of literature started in the 1970s using neurofeedback training. Such training implemented to control various EEG-measures provided solid evidence of positive effects in patients with otherwise pharmacologically intractable epilepsy, attention deficit disorder, and hyperactivity ADHD. More recently, the successful introduction and testing of real-time fMRI and a NIRS-BMI opened an exciting field of interest in patients with psychopathological conditions.
Recent advances in analysis of brain signals, training patients to control these signals, and improved computing capabilities have enabled people with severe motor disabilities to use their brain signals for communication and control of objects in their environment, thereby bypassing their impaired neuromuscular system. Non-invasive, electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain-computer interface (BCI) technologies can be used to control a computer cursor or a limb orthosis, for word processing and accessing the internet, and for other functions such as environmental control or entertainment. By re-establishing some independence, BCI technologies can substantially improve the lives of people with devastating neurological disorders such as advanced amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. BCI technology might also restore more effective motor control to people after stroke or other traumatic brain disorders by helping to guide activity-dependent brain plasticity by use of EEG brain signals to indicate to the patient the current state of brain activity and to enable the user to subsequently lower abnormal activity. Alternatively, by use of brain signals to supplement impaired muscle control, BCIs might increase the efficacy of a rehabilitation protocol and thus improve muscle control for the patient.
Alpha, theta and alpha-theta enhancements are effective treatments of the anxiety disorders (Table 1). Alpha suppression is also effective, but less so (Table 2). Perceived success in carrying out the task plays an important role in clinical improvement. Research is needed to find out how much more effective they are than placebo, and which variables are important for efficacy. Variables needing study are: duration of treatment, type and severity of anxiety, number and type of EEG waveforms used, pretreatment with other kinds of feedback, position and number of electrodes, and presence of concomitant medication.
For many years people have speculated that electroencephalographic activity or other electrophysiological measures of brain function might provide a new non-muscular channel for sending messages and commands to the external world – a brain–computer interface (BCI). Over the past 15 years, productive BCI research programs have arisen. Encouraged by new understanding of brain function, by the advent of powerful low-cost computer equipment, and by growing recognition of the needs and potentials of people with disabilities, these programs concentrate on developing new augmentative communication and control technology for those with severe neuromuscular disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, brainstem stroke, and spinal cord injury. The immediate goal is to provide these users, who may be completely paralyzed, or ‘locked in’, with basic communication capabilities so that they can express their wishes to caregivers or even operate word processing programs or neuroprostheses. Present-day BCIs determine the intent of the user from a variety of different electrophysiological signals. These signals include slow cortical potentials, P300 potentials, and mu or beta rhythms recorded from the scalp, and cortical neuronal activity recorded by implanted electrodes. They are translated in real-time into commands that operate a computer display or other device. Successful operation requires that the user encode commands in these signals and that the BCI derive the commands from the signals. Thus, the user and the BCI system need to adapt to each other both initially and continually so as to ensure stable performance. Current BCIs have
Stroke is a leading cause of long-term motor disability among adults. Present rehabilitative interventions are largely unsuccessful in improving the most severe cases of motor impairment, particularly in relation to hand function. Here we tested the hypothesis that patients experiencing hand plegia as a result of a single, unilateral subcortical, cortical or mixed stroke occurring at least 1 year previously, could be trained to operate a mechanical hand orthosis through a brain-computer interface (BCI).
Eight patients with chronic hand plegia resulting from stroke (residual finger extension function rated on the Medical Research Council scale=0/5) were recruited from the Stroke Neurorehabilitation Clinic, Human Cortical Physiology Section of the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (n=5) and the Clinic of Neurology of the University of Tübingen (n=3). Diagnostic MRIs revealed single, unilateral subcortical, cortical or mixed lesions in all patients. A magnetoencephalography-based BCI system was used for this study. Patients participated in between 13 to 22 training sessions geared to volitionally modulate micro rhythm amplitude originating in sensorimotor areas of the cortex, which in turn raised or lowered a screen cursor in the direction of a target displayed on the screen through the BCI interface. Performance feedback was provided visually in real-time. Successful trials (in which the cursor made contact with the target) resulted in opening/closing of an orthosis attached to the paralyzed hand.
Training resulted in successful BCI control in 6 of 8 patients. This control was associated with increased range and specificity of mu rhythm modulation as recorded from sensors overlying central ipsilesional (4 patients) or contralesional (2 patients) regions of the array. Clinical scales used to rate hand function showed no significant improvement after training.
These results suggest that volitional control of neuromagnetic activity features recorded over central scalp regions can be achieved with BCI training after stroke, and used to control grasping actions through a mechanical hand orthosis.
Neurological rehabilitation
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