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Beauty, Health and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985
Abstract
This is the first paperback edition of the book published in hardback in 1987 (ISBN 0 521 32428 9), and not abstracted at that time. By providing a wide perspective, it attempts to give insights into social, economic, and political ramifications of environmental affairs. Modern fields of environmental science, such as human health, landscape architecture, and the sociology of public values are considered in an integrated context such that environmental events can be discussed and understood as part of the process of history. With a continual emphasis on politics rather than policy, the author explores the transformation of values over the 30 year study period, the role of environmental experts, the importance of environmental experiences, and the further implications of the environmental politics described. -after Author
... This new policy also arose from a protracted attempt to reconcile a general cultural versus a specialized, utilitarian view of the environment (Bennett 1976). The ugliness of clearcutting and claims of what it belies about natural resource damage played a key role (Wood 1971;Hays 1987;Hirt 1994). Each side of the conflict attempted to enforce its values by institutionalizing them in law and practice. ...
... 4 Where clearcuts have been favored, the NFMA has had the pervasive effect of limiting their size, dispersing them, effecting more natural-appearing clearcut designs in more scenic and visually sensitive places, and excluding them from the most visually sensitive places. After the NFMA, the potential for major new controversy and policy change was largely exhausted (Hays 1987), and this new national forest landscape became the substrate for public opinion, nascent dissatisfactions, and local controversies (Hirt 1994). ...
... This assumption is problematic because, for example, the public may, over time, become accustomed to intensively managed landscapes and find more beauty in them (Palmer 1997;Northrop 1956). Other authors suggest aesthetic tastes are quite stable in this short a time frame (Hays 1987;Huth 1972). This uncertainty should be recognized in interpreting this study. ...
This is the same article as the other copy on Research Gate but with the color maps.
... In the early twentieth century, Americans' desire to enjoy the outdoors also bolstered support for the National Park Service and launched growing support for wilderness areas (Sutter 2002). Yet, the Page 4 of 18 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT -ERL-107107.R1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 5 political influence of outdoor recreation remained largely limited to national and state parks (Hays 1987). ...
... Following World War II, though, outdoor recreation became the major motivation for new open space acquisitions and a primary management objective. Widespread concerns about the country's rapid postwar urbanization and diminishing open spaces available for outdoor recreation proved an impetus for new land protections at state and local levels (Thomas 2009, Walker 2007, Hays 1987, just as debates about commercial extraction influenced new land designations and management plans on federal public lands. These efforts gained strong support from a public that was participating in outdoor recreation activities at record levels (Clawson & Knetsch 1966). ...
... Combined, these efforts help preserve large and iconic landscapes across the West (Thomas 2009). At the municipal level, outdoor recreation proved a major rationale for efforts to protect local open spaces (Hays 1987). ...
Public demand for outdoor recreation has proved a major impetus for land protection in the United States since the mid-twentieth century, particularly in the US West. Many federal, state, and municipal conservation tools—policies, management programs, and funding initiatives—aim to ensure recreation access to public lands in conjunction with natural resources protection. However, as recreation use increases, driven by amenity migration and economic development, land managers face a growing challenge in balancing the trade-offs between recreation access and other conservation objectives. Drawing on original archival research, we describe the strong policy ties between outdoor recreation and conservation that emerged in the post-World War II era in response to widespread urbanization. Through semi-structured interviews with land managers, we assess the implications of those policy decisions for today’s public land managers. Current management challenges include: poor visitor awareness of the cumulative impacts of recreation activity, resistance by local communities and user groups to restrictions on recreation access, insufficient scientific data to guide management decisions, and limited resources to manage recreationists and enforce regulations. We conclude by proposing strategies to promote sustainable management of multiple-use landscapes through targeted research, application of conservation planning principles, and enhanced cooperation among jurisdictions.
... Generations born after the end of World War II, who experienced adolescence and young adulthood in the 1960s and later, are widely thought to have experienced fundamentally different socialization processes in regard to environmental issues than earlier birth cohorts (Hays, 1987). Individuals entering adulthood in the postwar era are socialized into a culture that increasingly adheres to a new ecological paradigm (Catton & Dunlap, 1980) and that is immersed in the language of ecology (T. ...
... When age effects are theorized, analysts often speculate that age is a proxy for what are really cohort effects rooted in large-scale social change. The work of historian Samuel Hays (1987) has been particularly influential in building a theoretical explanation for enduring sentiment in favor of environmental protection that comports with cohort replacement models of social change. Hays's framework is compatible with the more general value-shift theories of Inglehart (1990), arguing that massive social change in post-World War II America led to a fundamental valueshift favoring concerns for environmental quality. ...
... Daniels, Krosnick, Tichy, & Tompson, 2013;Dietz et al., 1998;R. E. Dunlap, 1992;Guber, 2003;Hays, 1987;Inglehart, 1990;Kanagy et al., 1994;Mohai & Twight, 1987;Naisbett, 1982;Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980) and a great many more assume it. Children socialized in a cultural milieu where environmental issues are pervasive and recycling normative might reasonably be expected to have greater support for environmental issues than those born well before the term "environmental policy" was coined in the 1960s (Caldwell, 1963). ...
Cohort replacement is one widely implicated, but seldom studied, mechanism of long-term change in public opinion toward environmental protection. A key difficulty in extant research has been empirically distinguishing cohort effects from those of age. Applying recent methodological advances in age–period–cohort models, we examine the disaggregated effects of age, time period, and birth cohort on changes in Americans’ support of federal spending for environmental protection between 1973 and 2016. Results suggest that cohort replacement provides little explanatory power. Instead, we find large age effects, with the young more likely to be pro-environmental in their views, and substantial changes across time periods (but not steady rising support). These results suggest that there is no inexorable march toward greater environmentalism as younger cohorts with greater environmental awareness replace older ones, and highlight the relative lack of explicit theorizing about the relationship between age and the environment.
... The personal responsibility frame deemphasizes the collective political action necessary for interest groups and social movement organizations-including environmentalists-to build and exercise sustained power in American institutional politics. Indeed, a strong movement was key to early environmental successes in the USA (Andrews 1999;Hays 1987;Wellock 2007), and a lack of effective grassroots mobilization has been identified as one cause of more recent failures (Skocpol 2013). More generally, robust efforts by organized groups are crucial for overcoming the status quo bias of US political institutions (Han et al. 2021). ...
... The success of environmental legislation in the early 1970s predictably produced a counter-strategy from the business lobby in the late 1970s. As business sought to curtail environmental regulations, Republican politicians responded to a political opportunity by falling into close alignment with corporate supporters (Hays 1987). This all occurred alongside the fraying of the New Deal coalition. ...
When did the personal responsibility frame enter environmental politics? Many Americans take voluntary actions—e.g., recycling waste or buying “green” products—to reduce their carbon footprints. Environmentalist organizations have long promoted this behavior through their communications. Experts, meanwhile, have debated the effects of this framing choice, as individual action alone is insufficient for addressing the climate challenge. Some even suggest that emphasizing personal action depoliticizes environmental issues, weakening the capacity for collective action. Little is known, however, about when and where the personal responsibility frame emerged. We begin to fill this gap by (1) developing a theory about why a personal responsibility frame is expected to have deleterious consequences for environmental organizations like the Sierra Club, (2) tracing the over-time development of the frame by analyzing a multi-decade corpus of Sierra Club magazines, which shows that the emphasis on voluntary individual action accelerated rapidly in the 1980s, and (3) offering some potential explanations for the timing of this shift.
... 'Sustainable development' historically emerged as a diplomatic term. Since the Rio Conference in 1992, this term has, to varying extents, been used to refer to economic growth and environmental protection, business efficiency and ecological sufficiency, as well as technological fixes and convivial lifestyles (Dryzek 2013;Hays 1989;Torgerson 1995). More recently, we argue that, similarly to the broader sustainability literature, both deliberative and technocratic notions of research and policy also pervade the transdisciplinary literature: One strand in sustainability debates can be seen as technocratic (Fischer 2017;Luke 1999), or as Dryzek (2013) states, as an 'administrative rationality.' ...
... During the rise of environmental research agendas in the 1980s and '90s, Samuel Hays (1989) and others observed how professionalized environmentalism became 'a middle ground […] to control the focus of the discourse' of sustainability (Torgerson 1995). From our analysis, this struggle to assume an in-between position persists in current sustainability studies literature. ...
This article discusses the role of language in the collaboration between science, policy, and society. Combining computational methods of corpus linguistics (manifold learning) with sociological field theories, we analyze approximately 30,000 articles that were published in the field of transdisciplinary sustainability studies. We show that the field oscillates between deliberative and technocratic vocabularies and can therefore be characterized as a transversal field. We conclude that researchers who collaborate in science–society interstices are thrown into a semantic pluralism that cannot be boiled down to a common language. For transdisciplinary research practice and corresponding science policies, this involves trade-offs between generating a homogenous language and a collaborative appeal; between creating a stable creole and a situated semantic
plurality. A corresponding theoretical viewpoint and science policy approach should be based on a pluralist view on the science–society–policy interplay.
... The concept of environmentalism, that is, the concern for the reciprocal impact of humans and nature, was not established as a mainstream idea until the 1970s. Prior to the 1960s, environmental concerns were limited to the passionate writings of conservationists (Leopold 1949), and the issue had not gained the status of a movement (Hays 1987;Sale 1993). Environmentalism was seen by the mainstream public as a concern of sportspeople, naturalists, and the affluent not connected to everyday life (Sale 1993;Tucker 1990;Worster 1993). ...
... Much of the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of the extant laws and regulations suggested indeterminate success, at best, and failure, at worst. Coupled with the growth of conservative politics and a shift in political power, the rationale and approaches of the traditional environmental regulations were increasingly viewed by scholars as inefficient and inadequate (Adler 1995;Hays 1987). Free market environmentalism shifted the emphasis of the regulations from what was an input or activity orientation to an output or results orientation. ...
Environmental concerns have begun to reshape the landscape in which global organizations compete. The demands and influences of the environmental movement are evident in the dollar value size of the environmentally conscious marketplace. In addition, the growing regulatory concerns over the environmental impact of corporate practices have begun to influence corporate strategies. The authors discuss the concept of an enviropreneurial marketing strategy, which reflects the confluence of social performance goals, corporate entrepreneurship orientations, and marketing strategy by integrating environmental concerns when developing marketing policies and practices. They provide a brief overview of the emergence of the enviropreneurial strategy paradigm, identify three types of enviropreneurial marketing strategies, and develop a model of the antecedents and consequences of an enviropreneurial marketing strategy. Finally, they conclude with a brief discussion of future research needs.
... The irony behind this emerging ideological struggle is that it was the prosperous and leisurely suburban lifestyle enabled by rapid development that allowed more people to have the time and space to interact more with the natural environment, and especially the picturesque 'nature' that they could grow in their gardens and visit in the big outdoors in their cars. As a number of historians have noted, the development of a greater interest in both preserving and more safely managing natural landscapes and resources paralleled the rise of the car, the suburb, and the 'discovery' (or rediscovery) of travel as middle-class leisure activity, especially towards the picturesque, whether 'in the woods', 'by the sea', or 'somewhere far away from the city' (Hays, 1987;Harvey, 2012;Rome, 2013). The car, paradoxically, let more people discover and see for themselves the natural and often unique beauties of their own nations. ...
... Thus, the environmental movement which developed in both America and Western Europe after the Second World War was closely tied to the rising living standards of the 1950s and 1960s, and started initially as a relatively conservative reaction to rapid urban, agricultural and industrial development, but became in time increasingly linked to more radical calls for social and economic change (Formia, 2017). The many perceived threats to the 'good life' to be found in an increasing array of environmental dangers was first identified and publicized by a new generation of post-war ecologists and 'nature writers' (Hays, 1987;Turner, 2006;Kirk, 2007). These dangers and the fears they provoked also paralleled those presented by the nuclear threat of the Cold War, and the global spread of communism (McNeill, 2010). ...
... Previous studies have argued that the long-term changes in environmental concern result from the replacement of older generations of Americans with significantly different environmental attitudes (reflecting cohort-based changes), or because environmental viewpoints change among the population as a whole (reflecting a period-based effect). For example, past studies suggest that the surge in environmental concern among younger birth cohorts, the so-called "ecological generation" may have been a consequence of their unique socialization experiences during their formative years (Buttel, 1979;Hays, 1987). Conversely, Kanagy, Humphrey, and Firebaugh (1994) contend that although cohort replacement contributed to the increase in expressed concern for the environment between 1980 and 1990, these changes are modest compared with period-based contributions to rising ecological concern. ...
... In the cohort explanation, growing environmentalism happened with the replacement of older, more materialistic generations with younger cohorts who tend to have a more postmaterialistic outlook, and thus, exhibit more ecofriendly tendencies than adjacent older birth cohorts (Buttel, 1979;Hays, 1987;Kanagy et al., 1994). Therefore, we can hypothesize that reflecting a value shift in society toward postmaterialist concerns, younger cohorts of Christians will be more proenvironment than older cohorts (H1a). ...
Previous research demonstrates that religion plays a significant role in understanding attitudes and behavior regarding the environment. In addition, studies also demonstrate value change across cohorts and time in postmaterialist attitudes. However, limited empirical evidence exists that considers both simultaneously. The advantage of the approach relied on here is that the model can estimate “true” change in “proenvironmental” attitude levels within each religious group by cohort and period while also testing the role of compositional effects on these trends. Our analyses demonstrate that support for environmental spending is the result of period effects rather than cohort-based change. Moreover, although support for environmental spending differs among religious denominations, changes are the result of periodic shifts that are experienced by all denominations. Thus, without any unique denominational shifts in support for environmental spending, the so-called “greening” of Christianity is not supported here.
... In the 1940s and 1950s, environmental policy-makers, managers, and decision-makers (hereafter decision-makers) recognized a need for easy and rapid assessments of water quality and pollution to enact effective water management legislation (Parran 1947;Weiss 1951;Hays 1987;Colten 2005). Initially, assessment methods were focused on measuring water chemistry and the impact of pollution on economic utility (LeBosquet 1950;Doudoroff and Warren 1957;Seabloom 1958;Smallhorst 1960). ...
Incorporating paleontological data into the methods and formats familiar to conservation practitioners may facilitate greater use of paleontological data in conservation practice. Benthic indices (e.g., Multivariate-AZTI Marine Biotic Index; M-AMBI) utilize reference conditions for monitoring ecological conditions. However, reference conditions from monitoring records are limited in temporal scope and often represent degraded conditions, which can cause inaccurate assessments of ecological quality. Paleontological data, such as molluscan death assemblages, have potential to provide long-term, location-specific reference conditions, which are otherwise inaccessible to decision-makers. Here we use simulations of living communities under constant and changing environmental conditions to evaluate the capacity of death assemblage reference conditions to replicate M-AMBI values when used in place of reference conditions from the living communities. Reference conditions from all death assemblage scenarios successfully replicated correct remediation decisions in most simulation runs with environmental change and stability. Variations in M-AMBI values were due to overestimated species richness and Shannon entropy values in the death assemblages and effects of changes to these parameters varied across scenarios. Time averaging was largely beneficial, particularly when environmental change occurred, and short-term observations of the living communities produced incorrect remediation decisions. When the duration of time averaging is known, death assemblages can provide valuable longer-term perspectives with the potential to outperform temporally constrained baseline information from monitoring the living community.
... Modernization and industrialization first appeared in Europe and North America, so environmental problems and waste problems caused by industrialization were first observed in societies on these continents (Hays, 1987;Hildebrand, 1992;Judge, 1992). For these societies, a new social stage has been mentioned since the 1950s and the concepts of post-modernism/post-industrialism have been used to express this stage (Baudrillard, 1998). ...
... Others suggest around 1970 was the beginning of the movement with the first celebration of Earth Day (Santora, 2020). A decade later, and in response to environmental pressure (e.g., increased pollution, oil spills) and post-World War II economic growth, the United States created the Environmental Protection Agency and the Council on Environmental Quality (Dunlap & Mertig, 1991;Hays, 1987). As American citizens' prosperity increased, so was their concern for the quality of life over materialism (Dunlap & Mertig, 1991). ...
There is a consensus among scientists that climate change is an existing, growing, and human-made threat to our planet. The topic is a divisive issue worldwide, including among people of faith. Little research has focused on the relationship between (non)religious belief and climate change. Hence, in Studies 1 and 2, the authors explore the impact of religious/non-religious orientations: intrinsic (religion as an end in itself), extrinsic (religion as a means to an end), quest (a journey toward religious understanding), and non-religious orientation (i.e., atheistic) on consumer attitudes toward the environment, focusing on recycling advertisements with (non)religious cues. Further, in Study 3, we examine the underlying causal mechanism of environmental identity and the moderating effect of political views on consumers’ lack of belief in climate change. The results show that religious people are less committed to the environment and climate change and that atheism positively affects recycling and climate change identity. The findings offer practical implications in that advertising campaigns need to be endorsed by religious leaders and channeled within the confines of the religious institutions they represent.
... Sin embargo, el movimiento ecologista de los 60 enfatizó el fracaso de estas corrientes y la necesidad de hablar de los problemas ambientales de una manera más directa y práctica, reclamando autenticidad contra muchos de estos discursos vacíos y fallidos a la hora de actuar (Carmichael, Jenkins y Brulle, 2012). Esta orientación dio lugar a la aparición de discursos alternativos, que suponen una concreción, y evolución, respecto de los anteriores: justicia ambiental, ecoespiritualismo, ecofeminismo, antiglobalización/anticapitalismo/anarquismo, ecología profunda y derechos de los animales (Hays, 1987;Brulle, 2000;Mertig et al., 2002). Pellow y Brehm (2015) analizan cómo el periodo posterior a los años 60 vio la emergencia de un nuevo paradigma ecológico, el de la liberación total, que combina una perspectiva de interdependencia entre especies y un paradigma de justicia ambiental, que pone en primer plano la relación entre la desigualdad social y el medio ambiente. ...
El surgimiento de Fridays for Future (FfF) ha supuesto cambios en los discursos tradicionales en torno al cambio climático. Esto viene acompañado de nuevas estrategias comunicativas a través de las redes virtuales que han tenido bastante repercusión social, con un importante componente emocional basado en el concepto de emergencia climática. El objetivo de este artículo es el análisis de esta dimensión comunicativa a través de sus marcos discursivos y su uso en las redes, utilizando una metodología mixta basada en el trabajo etnográfico y un análisis de redes del movimiento (Twitter). Los resultados reflejan tres aspectos de su discurso que destacan respecto a lo que había recogido la literatura sobre marcos ecológicos anteriores: el énfasis en la emergencia climática frente a la sostenibilidad, el paso de las conductas individuales a la necesidad de transformación sistémica y, por último, su igualitarismo radical. Twitter se utiliza sobre todo para la información de movilizaciones recurriendo a los marcos del cambio de sistema y la emergencia climática, lo que consigue una repercusión menor que los mensajes sobre denuncia o divulgación de información ecológica. Estos últimos remiten con más frecuencia a marcos de justicia ecosocial, cambio climático y futuro en riesgo.
... Sin embargo, el movimiento ecologista de los 60 enfatizó el fracaso de estas corrientes y la necesidad de hablar de los problemas ambientales de una manera más directa y práctica, reclamando autenticidad contra muchos de estos discursos vacíos y fallidos a la hora de actuar (Carmichael, Jenkins y Brulle, 2012). Esta orientación dio lugar a la aparición de discursos alternativos, que suponen una concreción, y evolución, respecto de los anteriores: justicia ambiental, ecoespiritualismo, ecofeminismo, antiglobalización/anticapitalismo/anarquismo, ecología profunda y derechos de los animales (Hays, 1987;Brulle, 2000;Mertig et al., 2002). Pellow y Brehm (2015) analizan cómo el periodo posterior a los años 60 vio la emergencia de un nuevo paradigma ecológico, el de la liberación total, que combina una perspectiva de interdependencia entre especies y un paradigma de justicia ambiental, que pone en primer plano la relación entre la desigualdad social y el medio ambiente. ...
El surgimiento de Fridays for Future (FfF) ha supuesto cambios en los discursos tradicionales en torno al cambio climático. Esto viene acompañado de nuevas estrategias comunicativas a través de las redes virtuales que han tenido bastante repercusión social, con un importante componente emocional basado en el concepto de emergencia climática. El objetivo de este artículo es el análisis de esta dimensión comunicativa a través de sus marcos discursivos y su uso en las redes, utilizando una metodología mixta basada en el trabajo etnográfico y un análisis de redes del movimiento (Twitter). Los resultados reflejan tres aspectos de su discurso que destacan respecto a lo que había recogido la literatura sobre marcos ecológicos anteriores: el énfasis en la emergencia climática frente a la sostenibilidad, el paso de las conductas individuales a la necesidad de transformación sistémica y, por último, su igualitarismo radical. Twitter se utiliza sobre todo para la información de movilizaciones recurriendo a los marcos del cambio de sistema y la emergencia climática, lo que consigue una repercusión menor que los mensajes sobre denuncia o divulgación de información ecológica. Estos últimos remiten con más frecuencia a marcos de justicia ecosocial, cambio climático y futuro en riesgo.
... The amount and type of media coverage of environmental disasters and conflicts has helped transform many specific problems into a major public issue. "Journalistic preference for the negative and the dramatic," combined with the conflictive nature of debate between environmentalists and non-environmentalists, shapes the overall message delivered to the public (Lowe & Morrison, 1984;Hays, 1987). As Lowe and Morison (1984) pointed out, stories about environmental problems also carry with them powerful cultural symbols related to nature as well as a strong emotive and moralistic appeal. ...
As the high-tech industry evolves at a rapid pace, vast amounts of hazardous materials are used in fuelling its global expansion. These rapid changes in production processes are significantly depleting natural resources. With the surge of popular interest and awareness pertaining to environmental issues, organisations may be in peril if consumers' attitudes towards their products are ignored. This study intends to understand consumers' environmental attitudes towards electronic green products and to identify the effect of three factors, namely, media exposure, safety and health concerns, and self-efficacy, on this attitude. Data were collected via a self-administered questionnaire among 170 respondents in a public university. The results of the study indicated that safety and health concerns as well as self-efficacy had significant positive impacts on consumers' environmental attitudes. Surprisingly, however, media exposure did not exhibit any significant influence on consumers' environmental attitude. It is recommended that campaign and awareness projects focus on safety and health issues. Additionally, media should play a more active role in increasing environmental awareness among consumers.
... Vgl.Hays, Samuel (1987): Beauty, Health, and Permanence. Environmental Politics in the United States 1955. ...
... They wanted basics such as clean air and water, but also opportunities to commune with nature in the suburbs and convenient access to 'wild' places. Thus, a striking feature of the postwar period is how environmentalism was blended with consumerism and by the 1970s became an integral part of American culture (Hays, 1989;McCarthy, 2010). This coupling fragmented the modern environmental movement, compromised it moral stance, and tamed its radical nature. ...
Moral hazards are ubiquitous. Green ones typically involve technological fixes: Environmentalists often see ‘technofixes’ as morally fraught because they absolve actors from taking more difficult steps toward systemic solutions. Carbon removal and especially solar geoengineering are only the latest example of such technologies. We here explore green moral hazards throughout American history. We argue that dismissing (solar) geoengineering on moral hazard grounds is often unproductive. Instead, especially those vehemently opposed to the technology should use it as an opportunity to expand the attention paid to the underlying environmental problem in the first place, actively invoking its opposite: ‘inverse moral hazards’.
... In their dispute over DDT, they also played out one of the "many clashes between older commodity and newer environmental values [that] occurred in the Environmental Era" described by Hays. 2 Jukes's environmentalism indeed tended to view nature as a resource to be managed scientifically. Wurster's own letters suggest a view that held nature as something to be preserved untouched, in a state whose purity was viewed as conducive to a better-indeed, more healthpromoting-existence. Jukes, meanwhile, considered such demands profoundly impractical. ...
... In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring focused concern on the dangers of agents such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and synthetic chemicals in industrial pollution-hazards to both human health and wildlife. Historians have documented how the influence of this one book drew on many other developments and public movements such as the debates over radioactive fallout from atomic weapons testing, the loss of native plants and animals in association with suburbanization and pollution, worries about carcinogenic food additives, and the fouling of rivers and landscapes with noxious industrial waste (Whorton 1974;Lutts 1985;Hays 1987;Sellers 2012). Carson's book, in other words, was the crest of a wave that had been building for some time and which gained strength in the 1960s. ...
When the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was passed by the US Congress in 1976, its advocates pointed to new generation of genotoxicity tests as a way to systematically screen chemicals for carcinogenicity. However, in the end, TSCA did not require any new testing of commercial chemicals, including these rapid laboratory screens. In addition, although the Environmental Protection Agency was to make public data about the health effects of industrial chemicals, companies routinely used the agency’s obligation to protect confidential business information to prevent such disclosures. This paper traces the contested history of TSCA and its provisions for testing, from the circulation of the first draft bill in the Nixon administration through the debates over its implementation, which stretched into the Reagan administration. The paucity of publicly available health and environmental data concerning chemicals, I argue, was a by-product of the law and its execution, leading to a situation of institutionalized ignorance, the underside of regulatory knowledge.
... Theory and empirical research suggest that progressing affluence and education (Inglehart, 1997), urbanization (Bell, 1973;Hays, 1987), and diminishing residential security (Eriksen, 2001;Smith, 1997) initiative value shift. A shift from materialist values (focused on physical security and economic well-being) toward post-materialist values (focused on the quality of life, self-expression, and self-esteem). ...
The intent and purpose of this document is to summarize and synthesize preceding research and analysis providing a comprehensive policy analysis of Yellowstone grizzly bears, the Endangered Species Act and 2016 Conservation Strategy for Grizzly Bear in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The goal for this document is: (a) to provide a policymakers with a complete but succinct overview and background on the Yellowstone grizzly bears, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Conservation Strategy of 2016, and (b) provide convincing evidence that our proposed alternative and management recommendations are the best course of action.
... This was evident in the articulation of a new environmental worldview, an alternative way of viewing nature-society relations. Cosmology served as a translation process and popularised systems ecology to the extent that the process of studying ecology became a discourse in the public arena and was used as a process for social and political action (Eyerman & Jamison 1991;Hays, 1987). It was from the work of Carson (1962), Commoner (1972), Bookchin (1974Bookchin ( , 1993 and Goldsmith (1992) that ecology was transformed into a kind of social philosophy, or as Eyerman and Jamison wrote in 1991 (Malone, 1996): ...
Drawing on a posthuman lens we walk — with Deborah Bird Rose and her conceptual framing of shimmer . We explore shimmering as incorporating a sensorial richness, as beauty and grandeur, as constantly in flux, moving between past, future and back again. Shimmering has potentiality in a posthuman context in its encompassing of spiritual and ancestral energies and illumination of the human (settler) story of exceptionalism. By theorising shimmer with this posthuman lens, we acknowledge and honour the eco-ethico consciousness raised by Australian ecophilosophers and ecofeminists such as Deborah Bird Rose and Val Plumwood, and the social ecologists who have continued to walk with them. In order to disrupt anthropocentricism and present a moral wake-up call that glows from dull to brilliance in these precarious times, we bring to environmental education the potential of holding the shimmering past tracings of theory along with us on our journeys.
... First, student environmental activists did not need to fight for legitimacy on campus as African American student activists did because many professors and campus administrators already supported the cause. If the civil rights movement was fostered in African American churches (Morris 1984), the early US environmental movement was nurtured in college and university lecture halls, with faculty-appointed scientists counted among the environmental movements' most ardent supporters and leading voices (Bocking 2004;Hays and Hays 1989). Barry Commoner, a professor of plant physiology at Washington University, played a starring role in the first Earth Day (Rome 2013). ...
What accounts for the remarkable growth of environmental sciences and studies (ESS) in US higher education over the past 50 years? This paper focuses on institutional characteristics to explain this ‘long green wave’ of expansion. Drawing on data from 1345 US higher-education institutions from 1980–2010, we employ three-level hierarchical models to assess institutional and state-level factors associated with the presence of environmental studies and sciences. Findings indicate that environmental studies majors are most likely to be present at liberal arts schools and in states more inclined to adopting environmentally friendly policies, and less likely to exist at schools with large minority enrollments. Environmental sciences majors are less likely to be present at schools with large female enrollments. Two case studies of early adopters highlight the role of faculty, rather than student activists, as change-agents pushing for the development of ESS on college campuses in the 1960s and 70s.
... In this context, urbanization and modernization may lead urban residents to be more tolerant of wildlife, because they view wildlife as beings with rights rather than as a food source. This is consistent with literature showing less anthropocentric tendencies in urban residents (e.g., Huddart-Kennedy, Beckley, McFarlane, & Nadeau, 2009) and describing an association between urbanization and increased concern about animal welfare (e.g., Hays, 1987;Mertig, Dunlap, & Morrison, 2002). ...
As a consequence of increasing human-wildlife encounters, the associated potential for human-wildlife conflict rises. The dependency of conservation management actions on the acceptance or even the participation of people requires modern conservation strategies that take the human dimension of wildlife management into account. First of all, conservationists therefore need to understand how people perceive wildlife. In the present study we examined how wildlife perception varies with people’s socio-demographic backgrounds in terms of age, gender and education as well as the settlement structure of people’s living environment and their general life satisfaction, using the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as a model species. We used an interview-based survey of 2,646 participants, representative for the German population, for investigating their knowledge about, risk perception of, and attitude toward red foxes. We found a negative correlation between age and the risks perceived regarding foxes. Moreover, men held a more positive attitude and perceived less risk than women. Higher education was also associated with lower risk perception and a more positive attitude. The results further indicated that people who live in rural areas perceived higher risks regarding foxes and showed a less positive attitude than people in urban or suburban areas. Finally, people who perceived higher risks and held a less positive attitude supported lethal population management actions more often. However, we also found that perceived risks decreased with participants’ general life satisfaction. Hence, wildlife perception is affected by various factors. Understanding the factors affecting wildlife perception is crucial for environmental communication and for fostering acceptance of conservation measures to improve conservation strategies.
... Conservation activities in the USA continued into the 1950s (Jarrett 1958), including the landmark conference on Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Thomas 1956). These activities were tributary to the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which was more radical in nature and supported by grassroots (Fox 1981;Gottlieb 2005;Hays 1987;Meine 2009a). 17 A litany of environmental issues and the 1968 "Earthrise" image by NASA (Lazier 2011;Poole 2008) led to a groundswell of environmental consciousness and observance of the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970(Rome 2013. ...
Since its publication in 1949, Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac, especially “The Land Ethic” essay, has been influential in conservation and environmental circles. In this wide-ranging but limited review, I discussed Leopold’s life and work, including the important concepts he had written about, and briefly survey the secondary literature he inspired in the realms of science, environmental history, environmental ethics, and ecocriticism.
... In the US the "closing of the American frontier" and the devastating overproduction of agricultural goods, industrial goods and capital tied to the depression of the 1890s intensified the impetus for scientific management in the form of Progressive state intervention/reform as a means of restructuring the re/production of communal, personal, and ecological conditions, as well as broader political economic conditions (the Spanish-American war, bimetallism, anti-trust legislation, Jim Crow, immigration restrictions etc.) to restore national profitability. From any number of political histories we know that Progressive reforms were generally translations of agrarian populist and socialist industrial policies in terms amenable to capital, efforts at scientific management that fostered capital's gospel of efficiency, and/or political reforms ostensibly pushed by the professional classes but prioritizing the rationalization of economic development over and against local democratic politics (see Hays 1959Hays , 1964Hays , 1987Williams 1969). ...
James O’Connor’s “second contradiction” thesis is widely misunderstood as an ecological crisis theory. Most of the criticisms of the theory derive from this misreading, including those which ignore relations between ecological, personal and communal conditions and those which see the “first” and “second” contradictions as materially distinct. O’Connor himself is partially responsible for the misreading, however. His writings tended to put the ecological out front, and his use of Polanyi’s romantic idea of “fictitious commodities” reinforced that tendency. The defense developed here rejects ecologistic readings, ties the second contradiction thesis backwards and forwards in O’Connor’s work, unpacks the meaning of “conditions” for Marx and O’Connor, and suggests that Neil Smith’s argument that capitalist second natural relations generate qualitatively new processes by which nature, human nature and space are produced would have served O’Connor better.
... In light of prior research, the absence of cohort effects is surprising, and raises serious doubts about narratives that see changes in environmental concern as originating from generational replacement. Previous studies suggest that the swell in environmental concern among younger birth cohorts, the so-called 'ecological generation,' is a result of their unique socialization experiences (Buttel 1979, Hays 1987. Other scholars (Kanagy et al. 1994) contend that the effect of cohort replacement is present and non-trivial, but more modest than a period effect. ...
In the past, support for environmental protection in the United States was relatively nonpartisan. That situation began to change in the late 1970s with partisanship playing an increasing role in attitudes and behavior regarding the environment. Despite the growing importance of environmental issues, Republicans, especially conservative Republicans, express greater skepticism about climate change, global warming, and environmentalism in general. We take advantage of a new method of estimation to gauge the degree of partisan and ideological variability in environmental concern across birth cohorts and time, while also testing the role of compositional and contextual causes of this variability. This contributes to our understanding of large-scale changes in environmental attitudes, and the degree to which partisan identification and political ideology is to blame for lack of environmental concern and efforts to promote a green agenda.
... Previous studies have argued that large-scale changes in environmental concern are evident across birth cohorts with the replacement of older and more materialistic generations with younger cohorts who tend to have a more postmaterialist outlook, and thus, exhibit more eco-friendlier tendencies than adjacent older birth cohorts (Buttel 1979;Hays 1987;Kanagy, Humphrey, and Firebaugh 1994). According to this view, the surge in environmental concern among younger birth cohorts, the so-called "ecological generation," is a consequence of their unique socialization experiences during their formative years. ...
Although mass opinion on many political issues is generally stable, Americans’ beliefs about environmentalism have undergone dramatic changes in recent decades. Many studies of attitudinal change identify cohort- or period-based effects as contributing to large-scale opinion changes. However, limited research exists that considers both explanations simultaneously. This study estimates variability in environmental spending support across cohort and periods while also testing the role of compositional and contextual causes of this variability. Our findings contribute to understanding mass opinion change, as well as variations in the American public’s concern about the environment. Furthermore, the modeling approach addresses the question of which macro- and micro-level characteristics are influential for pushing forward a green agenda. The evidence presented casts doubt on studies that see pro-environmentalism as dependent on personal or national wealth as well as findings that view shifts in concern as stemming from generational replacement. Yet, among the major explanations identified in public opinion research, we find support for elite cues and, to a lesser degree, subjective economic security as important factors that drive shifts in public concern about the environment. Given these results, we argue that theories of postmaterialist environmentalism and theories of global environmentalism are incomplete on their own.
... Led by such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot, the conservationists focused on the wise and efficient use of natural resources. Modern environmentalism arose not out of a productionist concern for managing natural resources for future development, but as a consumer movement that demanded a clean, safe, and beautiful environment as part of a higher standard of living (Hays & Hays, 1987;Worster, 1994;Rosenbaum, 2002). The expanding post-World War II economy raised consciousness about the environmental costs of economic progress, but it also led increasingly affluent Americans to insist upon a better quality of life. ...
... From its very epistemic foundations, the ESA frames nature itself in terms of the science of ecology (Delaney 2003). The prominence of the ecosystemic understanding of the environment owes itself in large part to the ESA's emergence as a central piece of environmental law in the United States at the moment when the discipline of ecology was becoming the primary lens through which scientists, regulators, and the general public viewed nature (Bocking 1997;Hays 1987). Outside the regulatory arena, words ''ecology,'' ''environment,'' and ''nature'' have become synonymous, belying the highly scientized understanding of nature in everyday life (see, e.g., McKibben 1999). ...
This article examines how the authorization of scientific discourses in the US Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 has influenced the ways people make claims about culturally significant animals. In it, I focus on struggles over the management of two endangered fish species among a federally recognized Native American tribe, state resource managers, and other actors. I discuss how the requirements of the ESA, namely that decisions regarding the protection of endangered species must be made based “solely on the basis of the best scientific…data available,” have pushed people to reframe their cultural claims about the environment as scientific claims in order to gain legal authority. I argue that these animals span the social worlds of indigenous hunters and fishers, regulators, and ecological scientists. As such, they offer the opportunity to interrogate the relationships among ways of knowing the environment. I suggest that strict divisions among “types” of knowledge as well as hard-and-fast bonds between groups and “their” knowledge become problematic. Instead, people assemble eclectic articulations of knowledge to make the most authoritative claim possible in a given context, contradicting the assumption that certain people know the world only, or primarily, in a particular way.
... Autorzy, tacy jak np. Hays (1987), Guha (2000) zgadzają się, że ekologizm w latach sześćdziesiątych i siedemdziesiątych był nowym ruchem społecznym, mającym poważne znaczenie dla kształtowania się idei rozwoju. Czy dzisiejsza teoria i praktyka "rozwoju zrównoważonego" dowodzą zmiany paradygmatu w myśleniu o rozwoju, czy też jest to retoryka, znakowanie, nadawanie ekologicznej orientacji statusu "świeckiej religii"? ...
An initial period known as America’s ‘environmental decade’, spanning the 1960s and 1970s, saw the enactment of far-reaching environmental initiatives by Presidents from both Parties, supported by large bipartisan majorities in Congress. These initiatives operated under a framework of ‘cooperative federalism’, whereby certain minimum environmental standards were established at the federal level, with states enjoying broad autonomy in the implementation process. The rise of neoliberalism as a dominant ideology within the Republican Party has led to gridlock on environmental issues since the 1980s, providing an opportunity for lobbying groups to increase their influence over the US political system. President Obama’s election in 2008 led to hopes of a potential change in paradigm. While Obama succeeded in enacting a number of notable climate initiatives during his first and especially his second term mostly via executive action, Republicans were able to thwart several of his more far-reaching proposals. As a point of contrast, Trump’s Presidency led to drastic climate policy rollbacks involving unfettered fossil fuel development, failed attempts to launch a ‘coal renaissance’, the suppression of climate science and the undermining of clean energy development. Likewise, Trump’s actions ushered in an extreme version of ‘cooperative federalism’, leaving states to do mostly as they pleased.KeywordsUS environmental historyUS environmental politicsMultilevel governanceUS federalismPresident ObamaPresident Trump
The American federal system possesses distinctive characteristics, which impact multilevel climate governance and shape the nature of interactions between US states and municipal echelons. The city of New York has acted as a green pioneer over the last few decades, implementing one of the most ambitious municipal climate policy agendas in the world, especially in the buildings sector. The state of New York has tended to lag behind the city in terms of its commitment towards climate action, initially leading to partial multilevel coordination. Yet, the state has been spurred by the municipal echelon into gradually raising its level of ambition, improving the articulation of multilevel climate governance over time, including via the enactment of their respective ‘Green New Deals’.This highlights several elements leading to an effective articulation of multilevel climate governance between the city and state of New York concerning timing and policy objectives, with each echelon adopting different approaches that are complementary and mutually reinforcing. Yet, there remain a number of shortcomings in terms of synchronization, involving issues of potential overlap in different sectors, as well as alignment for temporal objectives. Overall, the examples of the city and state of New York highlight a number of advantages and disadvantages regarding the US federal system, as well as different patterns in the articulation of multilevel climate governance.KeywordsUS climate politicsUS federalismNew YorkMultilevel governanceCities and states
This article provides a conceptual framework of global climate leadership and an analytical framework for further investigating the drivers behind taking climate leadership by comprehensively reviewing relevant literature.
In the late 1960s, strong federal government action was needed in the U.S. due to concerns about dire environmental harms and public demand for environmental protection. The National Environmental Policy Act’s (NEPA) preface was a policy statement about the importance of the “productive harmony between environment and man”. The statute created the Council on Environmental Quality which would implement this vision through Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). The EIA process has not stopped development, albeit some of the most environmentally abusive projects were stopped or redirected. The process has also added time and cost to proposed actions, but with profound benefits for the environment. An evaluation of what has worked and has not is needed in order to reshape the existing law and accompanying rules and regulations into an even more useful process. However, such enhancements have been hindered by polarization in U.S. politics.
This chapter is on power and resistance centering around the Sardar Sarovar project (SSP). Therefore, the chapter details resistance in the valley as it manifested in three levels: (1) the government domain, (2) the affected peoples’ domain (pre- and post-rehabilitation), and (3) the action groups’ domain. The government domain argues the ability of the state to provide better rehabilitation through the implementation of sustainable (people-centric) R&R policy. On the contrary, the affected people’s and action groups’ domains demonstrate the inability of the state to provide the former. The economic marginalization created by the SSP was further aggravated by the unevenness in compensation packages and ad hoc implementation of the resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) policies.KeywordsPowerResistanceTacticsStrategiesNarmada Bachao AndolanSocial Movements
Taking the St. Lawrence River watershed as a study area, this paper examines grassroots protests that emerged during the 1970s in Québec, New York State, and Ontario. At issue in all three cases was a reaction to large-scale energy projects that many local people believed threatened human health and economic well-being. The essay draws upon what Barry Weisberg termed the “politics of ecology” (1970), in analyzing the strategies and outcomes evident in the three cases. This paper argues that rural people in the watershed employed new and innovative human-nature paradigms as they opposed large public utilities. Across the international boundary, the groups supported one another’s campaigns by sharing information and expertise in their common quest to protect their shared environment.
We argue that environmental legislation and regulation of more developed countries reflects significantly their moral values, but in less developed countries it differs significantly from their moral values. We examined this topic by using the keywords “sustainability” and “sustainable development”, studying web pages and articles published between 1974 to 2018 in Web of Science, Scopus and Google. Australia, Zimbabwe, and Uganda were ranked as the top three countries in the number of Google searches for sustainability. The top five cities that appeared in sustainability searches through Google are all from Africa. In terms of academic publications, China, India, and Brazil record among the largest numbers of sustainability and sustainable development articles in Scopus. Six out of the ten top productive institutions publishing sustainable development articles indexed in Scopus were located in developing countries, indicating that developing countries are well aware of the issues surrounding sustainable development. Our results show that when environmental law reflects moral values for betterment, legal adoption is more likely to be successful, which usually happens in well-developed regions. In less-developed states, environmental law differs significantly from moral values, such that changes in moral values are necessary for successful legal implementation. Our study has important implications for the development of policies and cultures, together with the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations in all countries.
The concern for environment is not new; only the demonstration of that grief came late when we had lost a lot already. With the passing year the expression for conserving the nature and the resources have increased. The roots of the modern environmental movement can be traced back in 19th-century Europe and North America to expose the costs of environmental degradation, notably disease, as well as extensive air and water pollution. The ignorance towards these issues only added fuel to the fire, but only after the Second World War did a wider awareness begin to emerge. India had a rich history of social movements, protest, agitation and campaign. If we walk down to the corridor of past few decades then we would realize that all the significant changes and important revolution had born from these social movements from time to time. Also the pre and post independence era of India exhibits the impacts of such movements for social causes. The objective of the paper is to bring forward the revolutionary movements and incidents in the history of India and abroad, to develop strategies, protocol and policies today so that nature & development co-exist together. "A point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and wiser action, we can achieve for ourselves and our posterity a better life in an environment more in keeping with human needs and hopes …" "To defend and improve the human environment for present and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind." from the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). NEED OF ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT During the past several decades, there has been an increasing concern over environmental problems throughout the world involving depletion of ozone layer, acid rain, green house effect, soil erosion, deforestation, water pollution, air pollution, etc. The severity of these problems is in large part related to each nation's quest for development, technological advancement, industrialization and urbanization which causes unprecedented demands on the regenerative capacity of ecosystems and jeopardizes conservation of the environment. Nature has given enough to mankind to live for several thousand years till today and hundred thousand years to come but something drastically went wrong in the past with the evolution of mankind, development and industrialisation that has put a question mark on our very existence. With the rapid depleting resources, green cover, dying and dirty rivers, toxic and polluted air, increasing disasters both natural and man-made today the concern for environmental protection has increased and not only at national level but globally also. The thought of planet being extinct and so is the human races, the environmentalists, the policy makers of different countries and European Union have join hands to save NATURE. Social and Environmental movements are among those important tactics that helped to achieve such herculean tasks. To make people aware of things going wrong or vice versa it equally becomes important to make people participate in and for such causes like protection and identification of their
This article describes and explains why the state of California has long played a leadership role in adopting innovative and stringent environmental standards. It argues that critical roles have been played by the state’s attractive natural environment, the extent of threats to its environmental quality, the material interest of citizens in protecting the natural environmental around where they lived, and the support of business interests who stood to benefit from protecting the state’s many environmental amenities. These dynamics are illustrated by several historical examples, which have laid the basis for the state’s current environmental policy initiatives. It concludes by generalizing from the experiences of California in order to explore the role of politics and public policies in promoting more sustainable business practices.
Recent scholarship has noted the increased visibility of journalism that is subsidized or outright produced by non-governmental organizations, often tying the phenomenon to the post-millennial economic decline of news organizations and the digital revolution. This study demonstrates that non-governmental organizations engaged in communicative logics relying on norms and practices of journalism as early as 50 years ago. In the 1960s and 1970s, the National Audubon Society’s long-running magazine, Audubon, evolved from a bird-watching journal that relied on non-journalists as writers and value-laden personal narratives to a crusading example of advocacy journalism. The publication won a National Magazine Award for reporting excellence in 1976, signaling its acceptance into the journalistic establishment.
Current debates over the role of coal-fired power plants in US energy production focus on the environmental consequences of these plants. The difficult social consequences of shuttering power plants are rooted in decades of progress and operation of these plants, and the reliance of local communities on property taxes and jobs from those plants. During the 1970s, technology and investment enabled coal-fired power plants to grow in the Ohio Valley, and specifically in the state of Ohio’s riverfront. Growing regulation in this decade, including state-level organizations like the Ohio Power Siting Commission (now Board), did not reverse the growth of large-scale power plants nor permanently change the conversation around fossil fuel-based energy production in the Valley. The complexities of current arguments over the coal energy industry are rooted in its continued growth in the 1970s, despite increased regulation and space for public comment. Continued growth of the largely rural complex of power plants meant environments adapted to, and relied upon, the benefits, some of which are only now being removed with plant retirements.
Shafer focuses on the interplay between party balance, ideological polarization, and central issue domains across four eras of American politics since the Great Depression to present a vivid account of dynamic political transformations.
The natural beauty of Austin, Texas, has always been central to the city's identity. From the beginning, city leaders, residents, planners, and employers consistently imagined Austin as a natural place, highlighting the region's environmental attributes as they marketed the city and planned for its growth. Yet, as Austin modernized and attracted an educated and skilled labor force, the demand to preserve its natural spaces was used to justify economic and racial segregation. This effort to create and maintain a "city in a garden" perpetuated uneven social and economic power relationships throughout the twentieth century. In telling Austin's story, Andrew M. Busch invites readers to consider the wider implications of environmentally friendly urban development. While Austin's mainstream environmental record is impressive, its minority groups continue to live on the economic, social, and geographic margins of the city. By demonstrating how the city's midcentury modernization and progressive movement sustained racial oppression, restriction, and uneven development in the decades that followed, Busch reveals the darker ramifications of Austin's green growth. © 2017 The University of North Carolina Press. All rights reserved.
This academic review of more than 200 articles, books and reports sheds light to why and how do communities resist mining and how do their forms of resistance change over time. The literature reveals that local communities react not only to perceived environmental impacts but also to their lack of representation and participation in decisions concerning their development path, lack of monetary compensation and distrust with the mining company and the state. Several authors explore the objectives and discourses of these movements that range from compensation and market embedded demands to the articulation of post-material values and the emergence of socio-ecological alternatives. Cross-scalar alliances have emerged as a crucial factor in the formation of discourses and strategies; local narratives and alternatives are being combined with global discourses on rights (to clean water, to take decisions, indigenous rights) and environmental justice. Cross scalar alliances have also allowed local groups to increase their knowledge about the projects, give them visibility, and comprehend and act against their weak position in the global commodity chain. These alliances have also contributed to the emergence or consolidation of a diverse set of resistance strategies such as legal court cases, activist-scientist collaborations and local referendums or "consultas" at community level to reject mining projects. This review also explores the response of the state and the mining companies to these conflicts, exploring responses such as regulatory changes or Corporate Social Responsibility programs.
A Companion to the History of American Science offers a collection of essays that give an authoritative overview of the most recent scholarship on the history of American science. Covers topics including astronomy, agriculture, chemistry, eugenics, Big Science, military technology, and more. Features contributions by the most accomplished scholars in the field of science history. Covers pivotal events in U.S. history that shaped the development of science and science policy such as WWII, the Cold War, and the Women's Rights movement.
Upon entering the public scene, environmentalism disturbed the established discourse of advanced industrial society. While technically focused discourse could usually overwhelm concerns about the morality of dominating nature, doubt about the human ability to dominate nature was more worrisome. The future was dramatically thrown into question, and the doubt proved especially troubling when expressed through the scientistic idiom of technical discourse.
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