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American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America
... Generally Purepecha is classified as a language isolate (Campbell 2014(Campbell , 1997Kaufman 2007) although a number of other, more or less controversial, classifications have also been proposed (see Section 2). Two major classifications merit more detailed discussion: first, Swadesh (1967Swadesh ( , 1956 linked Purepecha to Quechua in South America and Zuni in the southwest USA. ...
... In this paper I focus on testing the classification proposals put forward by Swadesh and Greenberg, which are often criticised or dismissed, but have not been expanded or updated (McClaran 1977, Campbell 1997. I do this in two ways. ...
... Purepecha an isolate (e.g. McQuown, 1955McQuown, , 1956Greenberg, 1956;Tax, 1960;Longacre, 1967;Hoijer, 1969; all cited in Arana de Swadesh, 1975;Kaufman, 1974Kaufman, , 1977Landar, 1977;McClaran, 1977;Suárez, 1983;Campbell, Kaufman & Smith-Stark, 1986;Campbell, 1997Campbell, , 2016, two notable alternative classifications also emerged. I turn to these proposals in Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2. ...
This thesis considers Purepecha from the perspectives of genealogy and contact, as well as offering insight into word formation processes. The genealogy study re-visits the most prominent classification proposals for Purepecha, concluding on the basis of a quantitative lexical comparison and a typological comparison of affix ordering that there is no signal of relatedness between Purepecha and any other sampled language. The two language contact studies address possible interaction between Purepecha and other languages at long-distance, regional and local levels. The lexicon of metallurgy, the most convincing archaeological evidence for long-distance interaction, does not support this contact scenario although the lack of observable loanwords in this domain may reflect the largely non-verbal nature of technology transmission. At the regional and local levels Purepecha also displays very few borrowings from the prehispanic period. This paucity of borrowings is reversed in the modern period, with Spanish exerting a heavy influence in all domains. The shift in borrowing pattern is explained by huge socio-political change since the imposition of Spanish. The word formation studies focus on the varying semantic transparency of roots and suffixes, with a specific emphasis on olfactory language. They also introduce the notion that roots may be precategorial in nature.
... The languages of the Pano and Takana families exhibit a considerable number of lexical and structural affinities that cannot be ascribed to mere chance and are not readily detectable instances of borrowing. After the comparative studies by Key (1968) and Girard (1971) the proposal of a genetic relationship between these two families was generally accepted (e.g., Loos 1973Loos , 2005Suárez 1973; Kaufman 1990;Campbell 1997). Without providing further sound evidence, however, this classification was later put into question (Fabre 1998;Loos 1999;Fleck 2013) and, even today, there is no full consensus as to whether the observed similarities are due to genetic inheritance or long-term language contact. ...
... Después de los estudios comparativos de Key (1968) y Girard (1971), la propuesta de una relación genética entre estas dos familias fue generalmente aceptada (e.g. Loos 1973Loos , 2005Suárez 1973; Kaufman 1990;Campbell 1997). Sin embargo, sin aportar nueva evidencia convincente, esta clasificación fue posteriormente cuestionada (Fabre 1998;Loos 1999;Fleck 2013) y, aún hoy, no existe un consenso total sobre si las similitudes observadas se deben a la herencia genética o al contacto lingüístico a largo plazo. ...
The languages of the Pano and Takana families exhibit a considerable number of lexical and structural affinities that cannot be ascribed to mere chance and are not readily detectable instances of borrowing. After the comparative studies by Key (1968) and Girard (1971) the proposal of a genetic relationship between these two families was generally accepted (e.g. Loos 1973, 2005; Suárez 1973; Kaufman 1990; Campbell 1997). Without solid argumentation, however, this classification was later put into question (Fabre 1998; Loos 1999; Fleck 2013) and, even today, there is no full consensus as to whether the observed similarities are due to genetic inheritance or long-term language contact. The present paper offers lexical and grammatical evidence in support of the hypothesis that Pano and Takana are genetically connected. Comparing for the first time what can be considered Proto-Pano and Proto-Takana reconstructions, it is shown that 18 of the 40 items in the basic vocabulary list proposed by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (asjp) (Holman et al. 2008) might be cognate; this includes 9 body-part terms. Also, a set of alleged grammatical cognates are assembled, and shared constructions involving motion verbal morphology, intransive and transitive auxiliaries, transitivity harmony restrictions, and switch-reference are discussed.
... El mixteco es un subGrupo de variedades que pertenece a la rama amuzgo-mixtecana de la familia lingüística otomangue (Jiménez Moreno 1962;Josserand 1983;Campbell 1997;iNali 2008), el tronco lingüístico más diverso e intrincado de Mesoamérica dada la complejidad de sus sistemas lingüísticos (Josserand 1983). El subgrupo está integrado por el mixteco (o el conjunto de variedades mixtecas), junto al triqui y cuicateco (Jiménez Moreno 1962;Josserand 1983;Campbell 1997;iNali 2008). ...
... El mixteco es un subGrupo de variedades que pertenece a la rama amuzgo-mixtecana de la familia lingüística otomangue (Jiménez Moreno 1962;Josserand 1983;Campbell 1997;iNali 2008), el tronco lingüístico más diverso e intrincado de Mesoamérica dada la complejidad de sus sistemas lingüísticos (Josserand 1983). El subgrupo está integrado por el mixteco (o el conjunto de variedades mixtecas), junto al triqui y cuicateco (Jiménez Moreno 1962;Josserand 1983;Campbell 1997;iNali 2008). El mixteco y el zapoteco son las ramas más diversificadas de las lenguas otomangues. ...
El presente trabajo expone las descripciones hechas para 25 variedades mixtecas en el nivel segmental. Se retoman 70 años de investigaciones sobre el funcionamiento de las gramáticas de diversas lenguas mixtecas, desde que tuvo lugar la tradición descriptiva iniciada por Pike (1944). En ese sentido, el texto tiene el objetivo de describir la complejidad fonológica de las lenguas del subgrupo a partir de la revisión de sus inventarios y el modelamiento de sus procesos fonológicos desde la perspectiva Autosegmental jerárquica de Clements & Hume (1995). De esta forma, es posible entrever propiedades y patrones fónicos generales y específicos entre las distintas variedades de mixteco a partir de la afectación de nodos en la geometría.
... However, methodological problems such as inaccurate data analyses, and false etimological characterizations, led Greenberg's work to be critically considered as lacking scientific evidence. In recent years, researchers have explored the possibility that Tikuna may be part of the group Ticuna-Yurí (the latter, an extinct language) (CAMPBELL, 1997;CARVALHO, 2009). ...
O presente trabalho avança uma agenda de pesquisa no campo mais amplo de linguagem e cognição, com vista ao estudo da expressão de conceitos numéricos no desenvolvimento inicial. No cerne da agenda proposta, está a questão da relação entre a aquisição de primeira língua e a expressão de conceitos numéricos na infância. Existem dois processos para explicar a expressão da informação numérica nas línguas. A primeira se dá por meio da estrutura gramatical da língua (seu sistema quantificacional). A segunda é a expressão direta do número com o uso de expressões de linguagem numérica. O primeiro processo é denominado “número gramatical”, o segundo, “número linguístico”. Na tentativa de levantar questões que vão além das investigações anteriores e expandir as considerações linguísticas e cognitivas, a proposta inclui discussões sobre várias habilidades numéricas em diferentes contextos linguísticos à luz do desenvolvimento conceitual de sistemas de numeração. Esperamos que esta proposta levante questões cognitivas e linguísticas interessantes no âmbito das línguas faladas por povos originários amazônicos.
... Geographically, most Coast Salish territory surrounds the Salish Sea (see Figure 1), though some nations, for instance those on the west coast of the Olympic Peninsula, are included. There are a number of different languages spoken including Lushootseed and Lhéchalosem primarily on the US side of the border and Halq̓ eméylem, Squamish, and Pentlatch on the Canadian side (Campbell 1997;Mithun 1999); multilingualism was common across the region owing to a vast network of intervillage ties (Suttles 1963). Lastly, there is variation among families who continue to practice the winter dance ceremony (Amoss 1978), those who use the sxwó:yxwey mask (McHalsie 2007), origin stories, and epistemologies (Bierwert 1999). ...
The fields of Border Studies and Critical Indigenous Studies offer much to social scientists seeking to understand the operation of power in the lives of borderlands communities. This article illustrates why critical Indigenous scholarship should be a necessary framework in exploring issues of state and nation-building by examining four possible origin stories for what is now an annual event on the Northwest Coast of North America: The Canoe Journey. I implore border studies scholars to look beyond national boundaries and consider Indigenous epistemologies and historiographies in understanding the impacts that international borders have on shaping how all peoples make meaning of our world. I argue that doing so will allow border studies to contribute toward an analysis of settler colonialism and highlight the role state borders play in upholding it.
... The population of Lima is predominantly admixed (71%) with tricontinental ancestry (European, African and Asian) [2]; for this type of admixture, pharmacogenetic data from other populations are not applicable, so it is vital to have studies on Peruvians [36]. Table 1 [37][38][39][40] summarizes the ethnic origin of Peruvians according to the geographical regions admixed (Coast and Andes), Shimaa (Cusco, Andes), Aymara (Andes of Moquegua, Puno and Tacna) and Ashaninka (Jungle). ...
Precision medicine seeks to individualize the dose from the beginning of phar-macological therapy based on the characteristics of each patient, genes involved in the metabolic phenotype, ethnicity or miscegenation, with the purpose to minimize adverse effects and optimize drug efficacy. The objective was to re-view studies that describe the association of the CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genes with the tricontinental and Latin American ancestry of Peruvians. A biblio-graphic search was carried out in PubMed/Medline and SciELO, with various descriptors in Spanish and English. The results of this review confirm that the ethnic origin of Peruvians is triconti-nental due to European (mainly Spanish), African and Asian migration, in addi-tion to Latin American migration, being 60.2% mixed, 25.8% Amerindian, 5.9% white, 3.6% African descent, 1.2% Chinese and Japanese descent, and 3.3% unspecified. Studies on CYP2C19*3, CYP2D6*2, *3 and *6 have been reported in Peruvians, and the frequency is similar to that studied in Ecuadori-ans and Colombians. The CYP2C19*3, CYP2D6*3, and CYP2D6*6 alleles found in Peruvians are common in Europeans, Africans, and Asians; while CYP2D6*4 in Africans and CYP2D6*2 related to Asians. In some studies, the ethnic/gene association has not been demonstrated; while others have shown a significant association, which is why further investigation is warranted. It is concluded that the studies on CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genes associated with the tricontinental and Latin American ancestry of Peruvians are little, and ac-cording to what has been investigated, the CYP2C19*3, CYP2D6*2, *3, *4 and *6 alleles have more related to their ancestry.
... These knowledge systems are or were enshrined in the many indigenous languages of the South American continent. It originally boasted, according to some estimates, as many as 1000 individual languages and more than 100 independent linguistic lineages (Campbell, 1997;Kaufman, 1990). Many of these languages, and with them the knowledge regarding the physical environment of its speakers, have become dormant already (Harrison, 2007), but a multitude of local languages is still spoken, some severely endangered (Crevels, 2012;Urban, 2021). ...
This article introduces CINWA, a freely accessible online database of terminology for cultivated plants in indigenous languages of South America based on FAIR principles for scientific data management and stewardship. In the pre-release version we present here, CINWA assembles more than 2700 terms from more than 60 indigenous languages of northwestern South America, and coverage will be continuously expanded. CINWA is primarily designed for use in historical linguistics to explore patterns of lexical borrowing that might be used as a proxy for tracing the pathways by which knowledge of individual cultivated plants and the associated know-how spread from speech community to speech community in pre-Columbian South America. In spite of intensifying research, this is still unclear for most cultivars as the locales of initial cultivation are heterogeneous and spatially diffuse. However, possible uses of the CINWA database are manifold and go beyond this research question. The database can be used as a resource for ethnobiological and comparative anthropological research on South American communities, South American agricultural ecosystems and practices, and for studies in lexical borrowing, language contact, and historical linguistics broadly.
... A number of external genetic relations have been proposed for the Quechuan and Aymaran families (for a summary, see Campbell 1997). However, in light of the many obvious resemblances between languages from those two families, such as those outlined in the previous section, a Quechuan-Aymaran grouping has received by far the most attention. ...
Emlen, Nicholas Q. (Forthcoming.) The Quechuan-Aymaran relationship. In Oxford Guide to the Languages of the Central Andes. Matthias Urban, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
... Kommunikatsiya verbal (nutqiy) va noverbal (nutqsiz) 36 bo'lishi mumkin. Kishilar o'rtasidagi muomala jarayonida nafaqat verbal, balki noverbal muloqot vositalaridan, ya'ni turli imo-ishoralardan ham foydalaniladi. ...
... Siriano is very closely related to Desano, but mutually unintelligible (Sorensen, 1967). Some linguists regard both languages as possibly dialects of each other (Grimes, 1985), though some people disagree (Campbell, 1997), and believe that they are a little further apart than Romance languages (Sorensen, 1967). ...
This thesis presents a linguistic description of the phonology and morphology of Siriano, an endangered Amazonian language traditionally spoken in the Vaupés River region of northwest Amazon, in Brazil and Colombia. There is little extant documentation of Siriano; therefore, the description is primarily based on the data gathered by the thesis chair Dr. Wilson de Lima Silva.
Siriano is a typical Eastern Tukanoan language in terms of its typological characteristics. It has a relatively small size of phonemic inventory, and most of the phonemes, both vowels, and consonants have their nasalized counterparts. The syllable structure is very simple. The glottal stop and fricative are phonetically realized in a careful speech to modify the syllable structure. Siriano is a language of a two-tone system, carrying high and low tones. They can be lexical tones, but some of them are not and change accordingly with the morphological processes. Stress is also shown to interact with tone patterns. Nasal spreading is very commonly seen, but the oral inherent morphemes block this phonological process. It has plentiful nominal categories and noun-related suffixes, with simple morphological processes. Verbs require tense, aspect, modality, and evidential marking in the form of suffix attachment. The overt evidential marking is used to distinguish the present and distant past tense.
... Pese a concentrarse en un espacio geográfico definido (la hipótesis que sustenta el origen y la integración de la familia considera al subtiaba y al mangue, hoy en día extintos, los cuales se hablaron en Nicaragua), cada una de las lenguas que componen la familia cuenta con un buen número de variantes, situación que obliga a pensar si se trata de una familia de lenguas o una macrofamilia de familias; esto es, algunas variantes, incluso, podrían llegar a considerarse lenguas diferenciadas de las otras variantes que componen a una agrupación, para emplear la terminología del Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas. Éste es el caso de la llamada subfamilia amuzgo-mixtecana (Campbell, 1997), a la cual pertenece el amuzgo. ...
Proceedings of the First Natural Language Processing for Indigenous Languages Congress
... (a) Archaeological sites with 14 C dates [4] and tropical forest biome [12]. 1 = earliest dated site (Urupá, 5070 ± 60 BP) [13]. (b) Historical distribution of Tupi speakers [14][15][16]. 2 = probable homeland of the Tupi family; 3 = Guarani languages; 4 = Tupinambá languages. ...
The expansion of forest farmers across tropical lowland South America during the Late Holocene has long been connected to climate change. The more humid conditions established during the Late Holocene are assumed to have driven the expansion of forests, which would have facilitated the dispersal of cultures that practised agroforestry. The Tupi, a language family of widespread distribution in South America, occupies a central place in the debate. Not only are they one of the largest families in the continent, but their expansion from an Amazonian homeland has long been hypothesized to have followed forested environments wherever they settled. Here, we assess that hypothesis using a simulation approach. We employ equation-based and cellular automaton models, simulating demic-diffusion processes under two different scenarios: a null model in which all land cells can be equally settled, and an alternative model in which non-forested cells cannot be settled or delay the expansion. We show that including land cover as a constraint to movement results in a better approximation of the Tupi expansion as reconstructed by archaeology and linguistics.
... Linguists have also advanced their own theories, which for the most part espouse language families other than Yuto-Nawan. These include Lyle Campbell, who has suggested that Totonakan played a key role in the founding of this metropolis (Campbell, 1997, p. 161); whereas ...
Teotihuacan, the great metropolis of the Central Mexican highlands, has often been characterized as a state without a writing system. This paper redresses this notion and provides an overview of the city’s writing system and weighs in on its state of decipherment. The corpus of texts is defined and outlined as are its media and contexts. The geographical distribution of the writing system is considered, identifying the localities that define the heartland of Teotihuacan writing and culture, as well as more distant sites and enclaves elsewhere in Mesoamerica where examples of Teotihuacan writing have been found. The temporal distribution is also appraised before going on to present the underlying graphic characteristics of the writing system, leading to an appraisal of the sign inventory, showing clear correspondences to other Mesoamerican logophonetic writing systems. A synopsis of previous work on the writing system is presented in a historical précis, before considering candidate languages of the script and features of the underlying language recorded in the writing system.
... For this study, a language family refers to the parental language from which several daughter languages and/or dialects derive. Additionally, a language isolate has two accepted definitions: (1) a language with no identifiable relationship with any other known language, appearing as an anomalous outlier, and (2) a language belonging to a family of which no other member languages survive [8]. ...
The National Research Council recommends that genetic differentiation among subgroups of ethnic samples be lower than 3% of the total genetic differentiation within the ethnic sample to be used for estimating reliable random match probabilities for forensic use. Native American samples in the United States’ Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) database represent four language families: Algonquian, Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleut, and Salishan. However, a minimum of 27 Native American language families exists in the US, not including language isolates. Our goal was to ascertain whether genetic differences are correlated with language groupings and, if so, whether additional language families would provide a more accurate representation of current genetic diversity among tribal populations. The 21 short tandem repeat (STR) loci included in the Globalfiler® PCR Amplification Kit were used to characterize six indigenous language families, including three of the four represented in the CODIS database (i.e. Algonquian, Na-Dene, and Eskimo-Aleut), and two language isolates (Miwok and Seri) using major population genetic diversity metrics such as F statistics and Bayesian clustering analysis of genotype frequencies. Most of the genetic variation (97%) was found to be within language families instead of among them (3%). In contrast, when only the three of the four language families represented in both the CODIS database and the present study were considered, 4% of the genetic variation occurred among the language groups. Bayesian clustering resulted in a maximum posterior probability indicating three genetically distinct groups among the eight language families and isolates: (1) Eskimo, (2) Seri, and (3) all other language groups and isolates, thus confirming genetic subdivision among subgroups of the CODIS Native American database. This genetic structure indicates the need for an increased number of Native American populations based on language affiliation in the CODIS database as well as more robust sample sets for those language families.
Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2021.1963088 .
... Dentro de la macro-familia lingüística otomangue, el amuzgo o jn'ón ndá 'palabra de agua' pertenece al sub-grupo amuzgo-mixtecano junto al mixteco, triqui y cuicateco (Campbell 1997). El pueblo o grupo étnico originario amuzgo habita actualmente en el sureste de México en el extremo oriental del estado de Guerrero y en el extremo occidental del estado de Oaxaca. ...
En el amuzgo de San Pedro Amuzgos, Oaxaca, algunos estudios previos han planteado un fonema marginal /d/, que aparece solo después de un nasal, dando lugar a un contraste entre [nd] y [nt] (Smith-Stark & Tapia García 1984: 204; Buck 2000: 365). En principio, proponemos que [nd] es un alófono post-oralizado de /n/ antes de vocales orales, mientras que el alófono [n] aparece antes de vocales nasalizadas. Seguidamente, damos cuenta de la distribución de [n], [nd] y [nt] en varios contextos fonológicos, y mostramos que las tendencias ortográficas indican cierta afinidad entre la laringización, los diptongos crecientes, y la sonoridad. Confirmamos con datos fonéticos que la principal diferencia entre [nd] y el grupo consonántico [nt] radica en la duración de la oclusión posnasal. Finalmente, presentamos datos morfofonológicos que apoyan nuestro análisis y también sugieren la existencia de un grupo consonántico verdadero [nd], distinto a [nd], creado a partir de /nt/ por una regla contextualmente restringida de la sonorización posnasal.
... El primero de ellos es el interés de revisar los parámetros estructurales generales del sistema de locación en lenguas otomangues. Si se considera la representación de las dos divisiones que la componen (Campbell 1996) se observa que el mazahua pertenece a la división occidental, en tanto que el amuzgo y el mazateco forman parte de la división oriental (figura 1). Se tiene como hipótesis que esta selección permite visualizar una gama de alternativas con las que las lenguas sistematizan el conocimiento. ...
p>En este artículo se describe el sistema locativo en amuzgo, mazahua y mazateco. Se destaca que dicho sistema, dividido en verbal y no verbal, permite caracterizar la marcación de la locación en estas lenguas como mixta, puesto que, por un lado, parte de la semántica propia de los verbos de naturaleza locativa y, por el otro, muestra divergencia entre unidades como los adverbios, los demostrativos locativos y los sustantivos relacionales. Se pone en relieve el sistema de las adposiciones locativas puesto que es el espacio de la gramática en el que las tres lenguas analizadas coinciden. El principal aporte del trabajo consiste en presentar ese sistema mixto y discutir la existencia de un tipo de adposiciones diferentes (las especificativas) a las dos ya identificadas (predicativas y no predicativas). La propuesta pretende ilustrar una prospección de la variedad de la marcación locativa existente al interior de la familia otomangue. La información procede de una muestra amplia de géneros (narraciones, historias de vida, diálogos) tomada, en cada caso, en campo.
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... A relationship with Yuman has earlier been proposed by Brinton. The validity of Chontal's inclusion in Hokan has been debated somewhat inconclusively since then (see, for example, Waterhouse 1976, Turner 1967a, sometimes in the context of a wider discussion of whether any genuine Hokan linguistic stock exists at all (Kaufman 1988, Poser 1995, Campbell 1997, Mithun 1999. Oltrogge (1977) suggested a particularly close affiliation of Chontal with Tol (also known as Jicaque) and the now-extinct Subtiaba, two languages of Nicaragua. ...
... Sin embargo, la relación entre estas lenguas no ha sido totalmente comprobada en algunos casos y ha sido rechazada en otros. Este último es el caso del tlapaneco-subtiaba, que ha sido clasificado, sin lugar a dudas, dentro de la familia otomangue, sin relación con la familia hokana (Campbell, 1997(Campbell, , 2007. Campbell pone en duda la hipótesis hokana, y subraya que algunos lingüistas hallan cierto apoyo, pero no el suficiente. ...
A diferencia de Mesoamérica, el norte de México es un área que ha tenido que luchar por su identidad desde tiempos prehispánicos. En buena medida, esto se debe a una especie de vacío material y, por ende, de otro vacío en cuanto al registro material de su complejidad de pensamiento y de su imaginario colectivo referido. En consecuencia, la región del norte de México ha dependido de la visión e interpretación de las comunidades que sí desarrollaron esos registros materiales; es decir, desde Mesoamérica. Por ello, se propone un cambio de chip que modifique esta visión unilateral por una bilateral y compleja.
... The term 'Amuzgo' applies to a separate group of languages rather than languages of the Mixtecan variety (as described in Longacre 1961, opposed in a later analysis in Campbell 1997). Currently, the Xochistlahuaca variety of Amuzgo is classified as 5 'developing' in the Ethnologue scale of vitality, while other varieties with fewer speakers and in more vulnerable circumstances have been designated as 6 (threatened) or 7 (shifting). ...
This paper proposes an account of nasalization phenomena in Xochistlahuaca Amuzgo (XA), a variety of Guerrero Amuzgo, using insight from the phonology-morphology interface within the context of constraints due to monosyllabic lexical roots. Previous assumptions are clarified to show that while nasal consonants and vowels exist phonemically, complex nasal-stop segments do not; and nasalization remains limited to root morphology and a set of inflectional markers and does not occur across syllable boundaries, in contrast with Mixtecan languages. These insights are illustrated by the third-person singular human enclitic (3SGHUM), a nasal autosegment. Alternations triggered by 3SGHUM show that complex nasal-stop segments are shown to be allophones of simple nasals that are post-oralized before an oral vowel to protect and enhance nasal-oral contrast in vowels, an example of the phenomenon known as shielding. A reduplicative allophone of 3SGHUM further displays nasalization that appears exceptional when compared with other nasalization phenomena in plural and pronominal inflection, as well as derivation. These challenges are met from a strict CVCV approach, enabled by the assumption that the Proto-Amuzgo-Mixtecan *CVCV lexical root survives today in XA as CCVV(ʔ), the maximal lexical root. The monosyllabic economy that sets XA apart from its sister languages influences strategies that block against morphophonological change triggered by inflection, or that enhance contrast against loss of identity. Enhancing strategies like shielding then bring XA into a typological relationship with unrelated languages (Jê, Tupí-Guarani, among others).
... The classification generally accepted today is not far from that consisting of 55 families established by the late nineteenth century (Powell 1891). Some histories of work on contact within North America can be found in Darnell and Sherzer 1971, Sherzer 1973, 1976, Bright and Sherzer 1976, Campbell and Mithun 1979, Mithun 1999, 2010, 2017a, to appear, Silverstein 1996, Campbell 1997, and Thomason 2016. ...
... El amuzgo o jnó n n dà es una lengua de la familia otomangue perteneciente a la rama amuzgo-mixtecana del tronco otomangue occidental (Campbell, 1997). Se habla en diferentes localidades del sur de México. ...
The outsider art project is a transdisciplinary research initiative that aims to deconstruct the definition of outsider art based on the computational analysis of texts and images. This is a transdisciplinary project because it fosters collaboration and knowledge exchange between artists, researchers, and citizens. The project goals involve the ontologization of the domain of Outsider Art, the computational analysis of the outsider art style of painting and the deployment of the outsider art web portal.
... Según Greenberg (1987), la familia pertenece a la rama mataco-guaycurú, del tronco macro-pano, del ge-pano-caribe. Del mismo modo, Campbell (2000) y Viegas- Barros (1993Barros ( , 2013 establecen una vinculación genética entre las familias mataguaya y la guaycurú. No obstante, esta no deja de ser una hipótesis débil dada la reducida demostración de esa vinculación genética. ...
En el marco de los debates abiertos sobre la distribución de la oclusiva glotal, su estatus
fonológico y realización en superficie, así como la glotalización en lenguas amerindias,
este trabajo hace foco en la familia mataguaya hablada en el Gran Chaco, Sudamérica.
Desde una perspectiva filogenética, se defiende la hipótesis de una serie eyectiva en
el protomataguayo, y se postulan argumentos para la reconstrucción de /*ʔ/ como
protofonema, entre los cuales se encuentra el desarrollo de las sonorantes glotalizadas
(consonantes y vocales). Se especula que la emergencia de las consonantes y vocales
glotalizadas se dio internamente en las lenguas y, presumiblemente, en periodos distintos
en cada caso. En línea con algunas propuestas teóricas, y en función del carácter del
comportamiento de la oclusiva glotal y de los fenómenos de glotalización en esta familia,
asumimos que el análisis de la oclusiva glotal como un segmento es adecuado para las
lenguas mataguayas.
Within the framework of the current debate on the distribution of the glottal stop, its
phonological status and surface realization, as well as the glottalization phenomena in
Amerindian languages, this paper focuses on the Mataguayan language family spoken
in the Gran Chaco, South America. From a phylogenetic perspective, the hypothesis of
an ejective series in the Proto-Mataguayan is supported. Also, a number of arguments
are postulated for the reconstruction of /*ʔ/ as a proto-phoneme, among which is the
development of glottalized sonorants (consonants and vowels). It is speculated that the
emergence of glottalized consonants and vowels occurred internally to languages and,
presumably, at different stages in each case. In line with some theoretical proposals,
and based on the glottal stop behavior and glottalization phenomena in this language
family, we propose that the analysis of the glottal stop as a segment is adequate for the
Mataguayan languages.
... Ethnobotanical works provide an idea of the number and variety of annual and perennial crops cultivated by indigenous Amazonian people (see summary in Cunha, 2019). Some groups, such as the Amuesha of Peru, plant up to 204 varieties of manioc (Emperaire, 2001;Salick et al., 1997) while dozens of (Campbell, 1997), indigenous territories (RAISG , 2019) and groups mentioned in the text. ...
During the last two decades, new archaeological projects which systematically integrate a variety of plant recovery techniques, along with palaeoecology, palaeoclimate, soil science and floristic inventories, have started to transform our understanding of plant exploitation, cultivation and domestication in tropical South America. Archaeobotanical studies are providing a far greater appreciation of the role of plants in the diets of early colonists. Since ∼13ka, these diets relied mainly on palm, tree fruits, and underground tubers, along with terrestrial and riverine faunal resources. Recent evidence indicates two areas of precocious plant cultivation and domestication: the sub-Andean montane forest of NW South America and the shrub savannahs and seasonal forests of SW Amazonia. In the latter area, thousands of anthropic keystone structures represented by forest islands show a significant human footprint in Amazonia from the start of the Holocene. While radiocarbon date databases show a decline in population during the middle Holocene, important developments happened during this epoch, including the domestication of cacao, the adoption of maize and the spread of manioc across the basin. The late Holocene witnessed the domestication of rice and the development of agricultural landscapes characterised by raised fields and Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs). Our multi-proxy analysis of 23 late Holocene ADEs and two lakes from southern Amazonia provides the first direct evidence of field polyculture agriculture including the cultivation of maize, manioc, sweet potato, squash, arrowroot and leren within closed-canopy forest, as well as enrichment with palms, limited clearing for crop cultivation, and low-severity fire management. Collectively, the evidence shows that during the late Holocene Amazonian farmers engaged in intensive agriculture marked by the cultivation of both annual and perennial crops relying on organic amendments requiring soil preparation and maintenance. Our study has broader implications for sustainable Amazonian futures.
... El amuzgo o jnó n n dà es una lengua de la familia otomangue perteneciente a la rama amuzgo-mixtecana del tronco otomangue occidental (Campbell, 1997). Se habla en diferentes localidades del sur de México. ...
Las redes sociales entre personajes que los grafos y otras herramientas de las Humanidades Digitales (HD) nos permiten visualizar aportan perspectivas nuevas que avalan
en algunos casos las interpretaciones críticas tradicionales, pero también incluyen enfoques diferentes que enriquecen el estudio de dichos textos (Fernández et al., 2015,
Fisher et al., 2017). Dentro de la Literatura Española ya tenemos algunas investigaciones que han recurrido al estudio de esas redes sociales de los personajes, destacando
en este caso que nos compete, los que se refieren al ámbito del teatro de la llamada
Edad de Plata (Martínez Carro, 2019) o a dos de los Episodios Nacionales (Isasi, 2017).
En este año en que se cumple el centenario de la muerte del escritor español Benito
Pérez Galdós resulta interesante estudiar las redes sociales que establecen los personajes de tres piezas teatrales: Doña Perfecta que fue estrenada en el Teatro de la Comedia
el 28 de enero de 1896, Electra, que se estrenó en 1905 en el Teatro Español y Casandra
que se representó por primera vez en ese mismo teatro en 1910. Las tres piezas forman
parte del corpus teatral digitalizado en TEI de la Biblioteca Electrónica Textual del
Teatro en Español de 1868-1939 (BETTE) (Jiménez et al. 2017 y Martínez Carro y
Santa María, 2019), que se ha integrado en el Drama Corpora Project bajo el nombre
de Spanish Drama Corpora (DraCor).
English is one of the most widely-spoken languages in the world, with native-speaking communities at the furthest ends of the earth. However, just three thousand years ago, the language-which-became-English was not spoken anywhere in Britain. Trudgill, one of the foremost authorities on the English language, takes us on a remarkable journey through the history of English to show how it grew to become the global phenomenon that we know today. Over ten short, easily digestible chapters, he traces its development and global spread, starting with the earliest genesis of English five thousand years ago, exploring its expansion in the British Isles, and finishing with an overview of how the language looks today, including its use in an increasingly digital world. Particular attention is paid to the native-speaker varieties of English from all around the world, and the relationship between colonial varieties of English and indigenous languages.
Se presenta el sistema calendario o de tiempo anual entre seris mediante la reconstrucción discursiva de las expresiones que hacen referencia a cada uno de los periodos lunares. Se concluye que las temporadas del año denotan conocimiento ecoambiental, información de estrellas y de prácticas sociales de una sociedad de caza y recolecta.
This handbook offers an extensive cross-linguistic and cross-theoretical survey of polysynthetic languages, in which single multi-morpheme verb forms can express what would be whole sentences in English. These languages and the problems they raise for linguistic analyses have long featured prominently in language descriptions, and yet the essence of polysynthesis remains under discussion, right down to whether it delineates a distinct, coherent type, rather than an assortment of frequently co-occurring traits. Chapters in the first part of the handbook relate polysynthesis to other issues central to linguistics, such as complexity, the definition of the word, the nature of the lexicon, idiomaticity, and to typological features such as argument structure and head marking. Part II contains areal studies of those geographical regions of the world where polysynthesis is particularly common, such as the Arctic and Sub-Arctic and northern Australia. The third part examines diachronic topics such as language contact and language obsolence, while Part IV looks at acquisition issues in different polysynthetic languages. Finally, Part V contains detailed grammatical descriptions of over twenty languages which have been characterized as polysynthetic, with special attention given to the presence or absence of potentially criterial features.
El presente volumen ofrece trabajos acerca de lenguas pertenecientes a las familias lingüísticas quechua, aimara, uro-chipaya, cahuapana, arawak, jíbaro y pano, entre otras, además de estudios enfocados en el castellano andino.
This work shows new relevant research on the diverse manifestations of rock art in Latin America.
Investigations focus on the use of territories as a habitat delimited by natural and symbolic boundaries, and as a means of obtaining resources, as well as their link to collective memory.
The analysis, both stylistic and symbolic, provide the reader with a great thematic richness of areas and regions, making this volume an important reference in the study of rock art in this vast continent.
In this work, I explore the double nature of Brazilian Portuguese, or rather, I look at its unique position within the Portuguese language. In other words, I consider how, by undergoing a process of Creolization, Brazilian Portuguese boasts features that clearly bestow upon it the characteristics of a separate language altogether. Yet, by having undergone a decreolization process, Brazilian Portuguese cannot be regarded as a separate language, but rather, it should be viewed as a variant of Portuguese, albeit distant and on the cusp of one day (inevitably) falling into the category of "separate language."
Esta investigación aborda el tema de la continuidad referencial en textos narrativos del idioma guarijío, que pertenece a la familia de lenguas yutoaztecas. El objetivo es la descripción de los diversos mecanismos referenciales que codifican a los distintos participantes/referentes, y la distribución y el grado de topicalidad que estos pueden presentar dentro del discurso. Para ello, se realiza (i) un análisis particular del inventario de mecanismos referenciales que posee la lengua, seguido de (ii) una muestra del análisis del fenómeno en tres textos de carácter narrativo que detallan la manera en la que los hablantes logran llevar a cabo la continuidad referencial en este idioma.
Tohono O’odham (formerly Papago), a Native American language spoken in southern Arizona and northern Mexico, has been frequently reported as endangered. The article aims to present efforts to revitalize and stabilize the language (and its culture), particularly the activities of Ofelia Zepeda, who is a member of the Tohono O’odham Indian Nation. Zepeda is a professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona in Tucson and has been contributing to the revival of her mother tongue, primarily as a linguist, language educator and activist. She is also known for her creative writing and incorporates Tohono O’odham into her poems.
The construction of earthen enclosures changed how the Middle Woodland landscape was monumentalized in central Kentucky. Archaeologists have long associated these monuments with important social changes, leading to modern interpretations of these mounds as material evidence for cooperative labor, large kin-based coalitions, and pan-regional ritual practices and cosmological beliefs. We conducted research at nine enclosures in central Kentucky that allowed us to examine the evidence for their potential correlation with astronomical phenomena and identify variability in how enclosures were constructed. In this article we present archaeoastronomical and geoarchaeological data from these nine sites to explore how local groups built and used geometric enclosures. Our data led us to consider the diverse ceremonial situations under which these monuments were constructed. We suggest that the variability present in, and the spread of, small enclosures reflects both the simultaneous reinterpretation and adoption of pan-regional institutions during local manifestations of a Middle Woodland situation.
This chapter discusses how migration and trade as historical sociocultural processes have contributed to language spread and language contact situations in Latin America. It explores how language contact situations in Latin America have been dynamically created and changed by the movement of peoples and exchange of things and ideas through space and time, focusing on three kinds of linguistic outcomes: language spread, the emergence of multilingualism, and the development of contact languages. The discussion is framed by an interdisciplinary framework, focusing on the internal and external histories of indigenous languages of Latin America, from the initial peopling of the New World up to contemporary situations of language contact.
Language contact - the linguistic and social outcomes of two or more languages coming into contact with each other - starts with the emergence of multilingual populations. Multilingualism involving plurilingualism can have various consequences beyond borrowing, interference, and code-mixing and -switching, including the emergence of lingua francas and new language varieties, as well as language endangerment and loss. Bringing together contributions from an international team of scholars, this Handbook - the second in a two-volume set - engages the reader with the manifold aspects of multilingualism and provides state-of-the-art research on the impact of population structure on language contact. It begins with an introduction that presents the history of the scholarship on the subject matter. The chapters then cover various processes and theoretical issues associated with multilingualism embedded in specific population structures worldwide as well as their outcomes. It is essential reading for anybody interested in how people behave linguistically in multilingual or multilectal settings.
In this chapter the author addresses the following questions: What does it mean to say that a language is a creole? Do creoles constitute a separate global typological class apart from other language typological groupings? The author calls for research on creole languages that is free from linguistic feature bias, creole language list bias, and genealogical bias. He compares expansion languages from the Meso and South American indigenous language families, particularly the Quechuan family (focusing on Ecuador, the northern border), with the Arawakan, Tupian, Cariban, Jêan, Chibchan, Uto-Aztecan, Mayan, and Otomanguean families. The comparison highlights processes of ethnogenesis, morphological reduction, and sub- or adstrate influence. The findings help broaden the definition of “creole” to refer to a special lexifier– descendant relationship, making the notion of creole a relational one, to facilitate comparisons with other languages and with “linguistic areas.” Questions that remain include: Are there area-specific features? And can this approach shed light on the characterization of creoles as a particular group of languages? What role can language contact play in reconstructing language families?
As a settler nation, the United States is a contact zone unto itself, with a dynamic ecology of migrating, multilingual speakers of minority and minoritized languages, and emergent language varieties. This chapter examines the linguistic, social, and political policies associated with many of these communities, drawing on research that examines the real and imagined pasts and presents of language users. Acknowledging the inherently political and ideological practice of separating and naming languages, the chapter focuses on the mobilization of diverse linguistic resources, highlighting the fluidity of multilingualism in US contexts. The chapter provides a broad and, by necessity, selective overview of Indigenous and immigrant language contact, change, loss, and survival in the US. Starting with a brief history and overview of current work with respect to immigrant languages, the chapter then describes examples of current research on Indigenous languages in the US. Discussion in each section is organized around contemporary research and theory on language status, language corpus, and language acquisition. The chapter concludes with consideration of the possibilities created by multilingual speakers’ adaptive strategies to help their languages survive and thrive in the US’s aggressively monoglossic context.
Sosyal ve kültürel olarak inşa edilen toplumsal cinsiyet farkları ve özellikleri çağdaş toplumun en ilgi çeken meselelerinden biridir. Farklı bilim alanlarında cinsiyet ve toplumsal cinsiyet ile ilişki disiplinler arası çalışmaların son yıllardaki artışı dikkat çekmektedir. Bu makalenin genel amacı cinsiyet, toplumsal cinsiyet ve dil ilişkileri üzerine değerlendirmelerde bulunmaktır. Dil, cinsiyet ve toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında oluşan ve anlam kazanan bazı görüş ve düşüncelerin aktarılmasıyla beraber bunlar üzerine temellenen teorik yaklaşımlar ve kuramlar üzerinden söz konusu olgular arasındaki bağlar incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Böylece toplumsal cinsiyet ve cinsiyet olgularının dilin fonetik, morfolojik ve leksik düzeyindeki göstergelerinin tespit edilerek incelenmesi de bu çalışmanın amaçları olarak sayılmalıdır. Nitekim çalışmanın sonucunda dilin ses düzeyindeki cinsiyet göstergelerinin genellikle kadın ve erkek biyolojik ve fizyolojik altyapısından kaynaklanan cinsiyet farklılıklarına dayandığı; dildeki cinsiyet göstergelerini içeren gramer kategorilerinin toplumun diyalektik dünya algılayışı üzerine kuruldukları; dilin leksik düzeyinin, toplumsal cinsiyet göstergelerini anlamsal çağrışımlarında içermesi, leksik boyutun üstün cinsiyet işaretli düzey üzerinde kurgulandığı tespit edilmiştir.
В статье рассматривается проблематика «арктического нарратива» в англоязычной социокультурной антропологии. В исследовательское поле включаются такие проблемы, как важность выработки единого археолого-антропологического подхода для преодоления расхождений в интерпретациях материальной культуры арктических народов; формирование и развитие способов адаптации циркумполярных сообществ в природной среде. В ходе исследования было установлено, что существенной проблемой до сих пор является анализ меж культурных связей автохтонов Арктики с периода древности и до современной эпохи глобализации. Кроме того, в статье уделено внимание такому вопросу, как заселение арктического региона и Северной Америки. Так же рассматривается влияние климатических флуктуаций на хозяйственный и транспортный базис арктических социумов. Делаются выводы о том, что без ясного анализа процессов доисторических миграций в этот район дальнейшее понимание периода ранней истории Арктики затруднительно. Необходимо изучать народы не изолированно, а лишь в переплетении куль тур, так как это позволит выявить истоки кооперации циркумполярных сообществ. Препятствовать качественному изучению автохтонов Арктики может политический контекст: в течение последних десятилетий мировые арктические державы больше озабочены вопросами эксплуатации ресурсов региона и контролем над транс портными маршрутами, чем научными исследованиями.
The paper deals with the problem of the “Arctic narrative” in the English-language
socio-cultural anthropology. The research includes such problems as the impor�tance of developing an archaeological and anthropological approach to overcome differences in the interpretations of the material culture of the Arctic peoples, the formation and development of adaptations of circumpolar communities in the natural environment. A significant problem is the intercultural communication of the autochthonous peoples of the Arctic from the antiquity to the modern era of globalization. In addition, the paper pays attention to such problem as the settlement of the Arctic Region and North America. Moreover, the impact of climatic fluctuations on the economic and transport basis of Arctic societies should also be mentioned. It is concluded that further understanding of
the early history of the Arctic is difficult without a clear analysis of the processes
of prehistoric migration to this area. It is important to conduct research not in isolation but only through intertwining of cultures as this will reveal the origins of the cooperation between circumpolar communities. The political context can impede the quality study of Arctic autochthons: over the past decades, the global Arctic powers have been more concerned with resource exploitation and control of transportation routes than with scientific research.
В пред став лен ной статье рассматривается проблематика «арктического нарратива» в англоязычной социокультурной антропологии. В исследовательское поле включаются такие проблемы, как важность выработки единого археолого-антропологического подхода для преодоления расхождений в интерпретациях материальной куль туры арктических на родов; формирование и развитие способов адаптации циркумполярных сообществ в при род ной среде. В ходе исследования было установлено, что существенной проблемой до сих пор является анализ межкультурных связей автохтонов Арктики с периода древности и до современной эпохи глобализации. Кроме того, в статье уделено внимание та кому вопросу, как заселение арктического региона и Северной Америки. Так же рассматривается влияние климатических флуктуаций на хозяйственный и транспортный базис арктических социумов. Делаются вы воды о том, что без ясного анализа процессов доисторических миграций в этот район дальнейшее понимание периода ранней истории Арктики затруднительно. Необходимо изучать на роды не изолированно, а лишь в переплетении куль тур, так как это позволит вы явить истоки кооперации циркумполярных сообществ. Препятствовать качествен ному изучению автохтонов Арктики может политический контекст: в течение последних десятилетий мировые арктические державы больше озабочены вопросами эксплуатации ресурсов региона и контролем над транс портными маршрутами, чем научными исследованиями.
The paper deals with the problem of the “Arctic narrative” in the English-language
socio-cultural anthropology. The research includes such problems as the impor�tance of developing an archaeological and anthropological approach to overcome
differences in the interpretations of the material culture of the Arctic peoples,
the formation and development of adaptations of circumpolar communities
in the natural environment. A significant problem is the intercultural communication of the autochthonous peoples of the Arctic from the antiquity to
the modern era of globalization. In addition, the paper pays attention to such
problem as the settlement of the Arctic Region and North America. Moreover,
the impact of climatic fluctuations on the economic and transport basis of Arctic
societies should also be mentioned. It is concluded that further understanding of
the early history of the Arctic is difficult without a clear analysis of the processes
of prehistoric migration to this area. It is important to conduct research not in
isolation but only through intertwining of cultures as this will reveal the origins
of the cooperation between circumpolar communities. The political context can
impede the quality study of Arctic autochthons: over the past decades, the global
Arctic powers have been more concerned with resource exploitation and control
of transportation routes than with scientific research.
El presente escrito aborda la catalogación de las lenguas indomexicanas desde las siguientes perspectivas: la diversidad de los idiomas originarios hablados en el actual territorio nacional, de la que se ofrecen primeras noticias y antecedentes catalográficos en la primera parte; el componente legal que mandata la elaboración de un catálogo de las lenguas indígenas, del que se ocupa la segunda; las reflexiones metodológicas empleadas en la década pasada para catalogar tales idiomas, más la síntesis de la propuesta catalográfica, presentadas en la parte tercera; y la prospectiva sociolingüística en México, de la que se ofrecen unos comentarios a la consideración en la parte final. La tercera es la parte medular de este texto; con base en los primeros trabajos del Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas, se muestran los resultados catalográficos derivados de ordenar la información estructural, genealógica, comparativa y sociolingüística al alcance; a la vez que son referidas las categorías familia lingüística, agrupación lingüística, variante lingüística y autodenominación, desarrolladas al seno de este trabajo.
The embera group is made up of approximately 56,504 indigenous people who are located from the Darien province in Panamá, then through the colombian departments of Chocó, Antioquia, Córdoba, Caldas, Risaralda to Ecuador. This talk presents the general morphological properties of êbêra language from Alto Sinú, region located in the northern part of Colombia.
The ethnic group called embera and its language ([êbêra] in phonetic writing) is part of the Chocó Linguistic Family. This classification is due not only to the linguistic aspect but also to the common socio-cultural characteristics. This family is made up of embera and waunán groups located in Colombia. The êbêra language spoken in Alto Sinú, as also happens in the other êbêra macroglosses, has morphological properties of an analytical insulating language; most grammatical morphemes are free morphemes, although the verb and the name have an inflectional morphology.
There are also numerous prepositions to express grammatical categories and there are many auxiliaries. The analytical character lies in the lexicalization and grammaticalization of meanings that are implicit in other languages.
This introduction to the Special Section provides a summary of our current understanding of the first humans and the first Maya in these regions and presents seven articles that examine these critical periods from varied, intersecting perspectives. The Introduction begins with a brief history of early preceramic research (primarily in northern Belize) and provides a current chronology for the Paleoindian, Archaic, and Early Preclassic periods. The Paleoindian and Archaic (ca. 11,500–900 b.c. ) periods are discussed in terms of the origins of the first peoples in these regions, lithic technology, subsistence, and early ritual. Next, a summary of archaeological evidence for the transition to the first villages (ca. 1200–800 b.c. ) is provided, with examinations of a horticultural lifestyle, the earliest ceramics, increased socio-economic complexity, new ideology and ritual practices, and developing social inequality. Proto-Mayan and Mayan languages—their dating, origin, and early lexicon—are discussed in relation to the first Maya. Material culture and language are explored with regard to conceptions of Maya culture.
In 1894, the chilean José Toribio Medina publishes, in Sevilla, a copy of the work of the priest Luis de Valdivia SJ on allentiac language (1607), which, until then, was thought to be missing. This work set the ground for a series of publications on the subject of allentiac, by the main argentinian referents in modern americanism. Samuel Lafone Quevedo writes, from september to october in the newspaper La Nación, the “Arte y vocabulario de la lengua Allentiac (Guarpe)”. Bartolomé Mitre publishes, also in 1894, in the journal Revista del museo de La Plata a review of Valdivia’s work, “American languages. A bibliographical and linguistic study of the works of P. Luis de Valdivia on araucanian and allentiak, with a reasoned vocabulary of allentiak”. In this article, we intend to reveal a manner of working that is consolidated in the decade of 1890 among some of the (sud)american linguistics main actors. We will analyze the background of these publications with personal (and unpublished) exchanges held by these two particular thinkers, in which they construct and reconstruct data and representations on indigenous languages. The study of some of each’s papers, plus other material published in different media, will allow us to uncover the flow of information and the collective construction of linguistic knowledge in Argentina.
The grammatical notion of switch reference refers to morphological markers that track whether the subjects of two related clauses are coreferent (Jacobsen 1967). We argue in this article for a treatment of switch reference as index agreement, based on the behavior of switch reference in Washo (Hokan/isolate; USA). We propose that switch-reference marking arises as the result of multiple agreement between C in an embedded clause and the referential index values of the subject in that embedded clause as well as the subject in its superordinate clause. The morphemes representing both different and same subject marking are then the exponence of the presence or absence, respectively, of conflict in the featural makeup of C. We argue that, unlike alternatives based on coordination, control, or binding, an agreement-based account explains several core properties of this phenomenon in Washo, including the distribution and internal structure of clauses marked for switch reference, as well as the exponence of switch reference in cases of reference overlap. More generally, switch reference in Washo provides evidence that Agree can be bidirectional (downward and upward), as well as for the existence of referential indices as true syntactic objects that participate in syntactic operations.
Shoshone, the northernmost Uto-Aztecan language, originally spoken in the area of the Great Basin (U.S.), has been frequently reported as threatened. In his paper, the author presents a vitality assessment of the Western dialect of the Shoshone language based on the methodology which stems from the UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages. He takes into account UNESCO′s nine factors in order to determine the degree of language vitality and endangerment for Western Shoshone and to outline strategies which might help to revitalize the language in the future.
The cricket tale was told in the summer of 2016 by a seasoned storyteller: Mr. José Vélez San Juan. Mr. San Juan was born and raised in the Nahua community of the Huasteca region of Hidalgo, San Isidro Atlapexco. The central topic of the story is a conflict where insects and mammals play the central roles. The narrative focuses on how the cricket and the lion fight each other because the latter stepped on the former’s foot. In the end, the little cricket wins the fight even if he is much smaller than the lion. With the help of other powerful insects such as ants, bees and wasps, the cricket defeats the lion. One of the messages transmitted in this tale is how the cooperation and solidarity between many insects can result in a won battle. Such values are central to the cultural resistance that Nahua people have shown against western conquest. This tale is part of the daily negotiations of identity in the face of cultural differences.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.