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Revision of the Brief Index of Self-Actualization
Abstract
Items from the 40-item Brief Index of Self-actualization were submitted to principal factor analysis with promax and oblique rotation (N = 620). With eigenvalues greater than 1 and factor loadings of .40 or higher, 32 items were retained as four factors, without overlap. A revised Brief Index of Self-actualization is presented as an improved measure of constructs underlying Abraham Maslow's description of a self-actualizing person.
... The concept of self-actualization has been discussed as a subject of interest throughout the past 80 years (Faraci & Cannistraci, 2015). Several theories about the development of personality state a highest level of self-development, similar to Maslow's (1943Maslow's ( , 1968Maslow's ( , 1970 stage of selfactualization, who is today widely seen as the acknowledged leader in self-actualization theory, although his concept had little evidence when he created it (Peterson & Park, 2010;Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1996). Despite the absence of a clear definition of the concept, scientists theorize it as a process of discovering, expressing and developing the real self to unfold its full potential (Cofer & Appley, 1964). ...
... As Maslow is still widely seen as the acknowledged leader of self-actualization and most scientific tools to test the concept base on his theory, his theory seems to be the most relevant for this study (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1996). ...
... According to Petrick and Backman (2002), the scale showed a considerably low, but still acceptable internal consistency in past studies as it had a Cronbach's Alpha of above 0.6, for example in Jones and Crandall's (1986) work, which showed a Cronbach Alpha of a= 0.65. Beside the SAS, only two other questionnaires measuring self-actualization exist, including the unsuitable POI (fee-based and too long) and the Brief index of Self-Actualization (Sumerlin and Bundrick, 1996) ...
Recent literature and statistics have shown that modern technological distractions excessively penetrate daily life. Although theories of cognitive control have stated that humans’ inherently have control over distractions, there has been empirical evidence that technological interferences are associated with social, economic and health problems. The present study was the first that examined the impact of technological distractions on self-actualization by focusing on two research questions: “Does tech-related distraction affect self-actualization?” and “Does mobile phone distraction affect self-actualization?”. An online survey collected data of 165 adult anonymously, who rated themselves on two measures for technological distraction (general tech-related distraction, mobile phone interference in life) and one measure of selfactualization, as well as two associated subdimensions of self-actualization (mindfulness, personal growth). Results revealed that higher levels of technological distractions were associated with lower levels of mindfulness but didn’t affect participants’ self-actualization and personal growth. On basis of motivated cognition model, results supported the claim that self-actualization and personal growth represent higher personal motivations, which might positively affect volitional control over technological distractions. Research results provide knowledge for a new field of study and could be practically used for mentoring or counselling purposes, emphasizing that despite the common notion, modern technologies don’t interfere with humans’ personal development capabilities and ultimate self, while also stressing the importance for self-enhancing volitional control. Directions for future research were discussed.
... measures of each construct: the PM scale (Conte et al., 1990) and the BISA-R (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1998). Both PM and SA have shown a common cognitive-style profile including high internal locus of control and rational cognition (Beitel et al., 2004;Jones & Crandall, 1986). ...
... The Brief Index of Self-Actualization-Revised (BISA-R) The BISA-R (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1998) consists of a 32-item, self-report measure and is based on an extensive review of Maslow's writings. It is a revision of Sumerlin and Bundrick's (1996) 40-item Brief Index of Self-Actualization. ...
... Examples include "I like to be alone with my own thoughts," "I am sensitive to the needs of others," "I like exploring new ideas," and "I fear success." Four core factors, Autonomy, Core Self-actualization, Comfort with Solitude, and Openness to Experience have been identified (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1998). The BISA has high internal consistency (α = .87) ...
The aim of this study was to investigate empirical connections between humanistic psychology and psychoanalysis by exploring a single measurable construct from each discipline. Specifically, we examined the relationship between self-actualization (SA) and psychological mindedness (PM). A cross-sectional design was selected to explore interrelations among study variables at a single timepoint. The participants were 204 students enrolled at midsize Eastern (Fordham) and Western (Boise State) US universities. Participant volunteers filled out the following measures: the Psychological Mindedness Scale (PM Scale), the Balanced Index of Psychological Mindedness (BPIM), the Brief Index of Self-Actualization - Revised (BISA-R), and the Short Index of Self-Actualization (SISA) along with a demographic form. SA and PM were not affected by demographic variables of age, gender, or ethnicity/race but were strongly and positively associated with one another. This study establishes empirical connections between humanistic psychology and psychoanalysis at the construct level. These connections have disciplinary and interdisciplinary implications.
... The BISA-R, developed by Sumerlin and Bundrick (1998), consists of a 32-item, selfreport measure. It is based on an extensive review of Maslow's writings and a revision of Sumerlin and Bundrick's (1996) 40-item Brief Index of Self-Actualization. ...
... BISA-R items are rated on a 6-point Likert Scale with answers ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." Four core factors, Autonomy, Core Self-actualization, Comfort with Solitude, and Openness to Experience have been identified through factor analytic procedures (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1998). These factors have shown moderate, positive intercorrelations (Sumerlin & Bundrick, 1996). ...
The primary aim of this study was to promote an empirically-based dialogue between Western psychology and Buddhism. To this end, we explored one type of Western psychology (Humanistic Psychology, based on Rogers and Maslow) and one type of Buddhist tradition (a Westernized interpretation of Theravada). Even more specifically, we explored the empirical relationship between mindfulness and self-actualization (SA), exemplars of each discipline. A cross-sectional design was employed to assess correlations among study variables. Participants were 204 students attending midsize Eastern (Fordham) or Western (Boise State) US universities. Participants completed general measures of mindfulness (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)) and SA (Short Index of Self-Actualization (SISA)). They also filled out multifaceted measures of each construct: the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) and the Brief Index of Self-Actualization - Revised (BISA-R). A demographic form was also administered. While mindfulness and SA were not associated with the demographic variables of age, gender, or ethnicity/race, they were associated with one another in various ways. The findings indicate similarities and differences between the two constructs. This study provides evidence for empirical links between mindfulness and SA, suggesting points of contact between Buddhist and humanistic psychologies more generally. Specifically, these findings provide an empirical starting point for increased cross-fertilization between these two traditions. © 2013 World Association for Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapy & Counseling.
This study aims to explain the variation in the quality value of the financial statements of the Dr. Hasan Sadikin Central General Hospital (RSUPHS) in Bandung. In this study, what is considered to be the cause of the poor quality of financial reports is internal control that interacts with individual personalities. In this study, personality is viewed from the perspective of self-actualization. Self-actualization is someone's need to be able to become what he wants according to his potential. This research is an explanatory study in which data collection uses a questionnaire. The questionnaire was given to 66 employees relating to financial reporting and internal control. Data processing uses statistical moderated regression analysis with residual values. The results showed that self-actualization did not moderate the effect of internal control on the quality of financial reports. however, together with internal control, self-actualization contributes to variations in audit quality.
The present study aimed to adapt and validate the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the EFL settings of Iranian universities. A review of the related literature showed that there are very few studies on the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in learning contexts, especially that of foreign/second language classes. To do so, having revised and rephrased the items in the scale developed for Hierarchy of Needs, the researcher made sure of the content validity and reliability of the revised version. Afterwards, the designed questionnaires were distributed among 271 learners of language studying at Ferdowsi, Imam Reza and Tabaran universities. The obtained data were then analyzed. Confirmatory factor analysis procedures were held to ensure the construct validity of the questionnaire. The designed scale was validated through certain statistical procedures. Confirmatory Factor Analysis and content validity procedures were done to ensure the validity of the scale. In addition to this, using Coranbach’s coefficient of reliability, the items and the scale as a whole were proven to be reliable. The significance of the work lies in the fact that the better an educator knows their own students, the better rapport they can establish with them. This can to a great extent improve the teaching and learning process in different contexts. It is to be said that this scale can be of great significance in any kinds of research in the field that deals with needs and expectations of students at different levels.
Teachers face the reality that a significant number of learners at schools in a deprived environment fail to perform according to their given potential. This is related to South Africa's history of apartheid and the environmental deprivation of learners in the townships. The essential ingredient in personal development, namely, motivation, is lacking in many secondary school learners. The burning question is how to motivate these learners in order to open up a future to them to which they can look forward. The aim of the study was therefore to explore whether learners are ‘at risk’ with regard to motivation when they find themselves in a deprived environment; and to provide guidelines to teachers to better deal with these learners and improve the outcome of their education for the future. In order to achieve this, a qualitative research design was used. Data were collected by means of focus group interviews and participants were included in the sample through purposive sampling. Data analysis was done from the transcriptions of audiotape recordings. Ethical measures were adhered to and the data were verified, using specific criteria for ensuring trustworthiness and authenticity. The findings are presented as three major themes, with categories and subcategories. Guidelines based on these findings are recommended for teachers to motivate deprived learners towards a brighter future.
A questionnaire was developed to measure the level of satisfaction in people of the five basic needs described by Maslow: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. For 166 undergraduates the level of basic needs satisfaction was related, as predicted by Maslow, to scores on measures of neuroticism and belief in an internal locus of control.
Two or more dimensions unintentionally varied simultaneously are said to be confounded, but several theories in personality intentionally combine 3 or more distinct qualities. Researchers using these theories sum the qualities before testing predictions. How wise is this practice? The practice appears to derive from 2 distinct lines of reasoning. One of them assumes that the component dimensions converge on a single underlying quality (latent variable) that each reflects imperfectly. The other assumes a synergy among dimensions. Issues arising from each line of reasoning are illustrated by examining self-monitoring, attributional style, and hardiness. Conclusions are that (a) information is lost whenever a latent variable theory is tested solely by a composite and (b) a synergistic theory can be tested only through a statistical interaction.
Maslow's need hierarchy and model of the self-actualizing personality are reviewed and criticized. The definition of self-actualization is found to be confusing, and the gratification of all needs is concluded to be insufficient to explain self-actualization. Therefore the theory is reconstructed on the basis of a second-order, cognitive-systemic framework. A hierarchy of basic needs is derived from the urgency of perturbations which an autonomous system must compensate in order to maintain its identity. It comprises the needs for homeostasis, safety, protection, feedback and exploration. Self-actualization is redefined as the perceived competence to satisfy these basic needs in due time. This competence has three components: material, cognitive and subjective. Material and/or cognitive incompetence during childhood create subjective incompetence, which in turn inhibits the further development of cognitive competence, and thus of self-actualization.
St~mmary.-To assess the internal consistency of the Personal Orientation Inventory, 218 public school teachers (K-12) from a northeastern state were administered the inventory. Using the K-R 20 and the split-half methods, values and ranges were comparable to those previously reported. Prior estimates of the stability and internal consistency of the inventory are presented for comparison. The Inner Direction scale, in particular, is stable and internally consistent in all smdies. The reliability of the Personal Orientation Inventory has been assessed in previous studies using two types of estimates, test-retest correlation coefficients and internal consistency coefficients (Table 1). The assessments of internal consistency have included two studies which used the K-R 20 formula and only one study which used the split-half method (Table 1). The purposes of the present research were to study further the internal consistency of the Personal Orientation Inventory using both the K-R 20 and the split-half methods1 and to report on a new sample. Public school teachers of a northeastern state were administered the Personal Orientation Inventory. Of these 218 K-12 teachers, 136 were female, 82 male. Their ages ranged from 22 to 65 yr., with a median age of 39.7 yr. As can be seen from Table 1, the K-R 20 values and ranges of this study were comparable to those reported by Silverstein and Fisher (1973) and Wise and Davis ( 1975 ) , and the split-half coefficients were comparable to those reported by Wise and Davis (1975). Reliability estimates for the major Inner Direction scale in particular have been consistently high across all studies, including test-retest (intervals of 1, 2, and 50 wk.), K-R 20, and split-half methods (Table 1). Internal consistency coefficients generally were higher than the test-retest coefficients for the Inner Direction scale but were generally lower for all of the other inventory scales. Thus, although the coefficients of Time Competence, the other major scale, and many of the subscales reached the acceptable level of reliability (.70 or higher) in two of the three studies of stability, they did not reach comparable values in the K-R 20 and split-half studies. The Inner Direction scale is both highly stable and internally consistent. Some question remains concerning the internal consistency of Time Competence and the 10 subscales. 'Since splitting items on an odd-even basis would have resulted in noticeable discrepancies in the number of items compared for some of the scales, a different method was used. For each xale it was determined which items increased the scale score when participants worked "A" and which items increased the score when participants worked "B." Then every "A" item and every other "B item were assigned to split-half forms of each scale.
Self-actualization and hope were explored in a sample of 149 graduate and undergraduate students attending a private university. The sample varied widely as to age (M = 23.7 yr., SD = 18.0). Principal axis (oblique) factor analysis of the variables Brief Index of Self-Actualization, life satisfaction, subjective health, age, and Hope Scale components of pathways and agency produced a 2-factor model representing Striving and Fulfillment. Brief Index scores loaded at criterion on both factors. However, Hope Scale components did not load on the factor Fulfillment. This pattern of loadings supported self-actualization as a broader construct than hope. Also, the factor analysis helped to differentiate self-actualization from hope, and supported the Brief Index of Self-Actualization as a measure of Maslow's ideas.
A40-item Brief Index of Self-Actualization was developed from Sumerlin's 65-item Personal Attitude Survey. The new instrument was developed wholly from Maslow's composite writings to measure his self-actualization model. The Personal Attitude Survey is composed of items written to capture 11 features that Abraham Maslow used to describe a self-actualized person (e.g., autonomy, comfort with solitude, and courage). Principal components analysis reduced the 11 features to seven factors: Core Self-Actualization, Jonah Complex, Curiosity, Comfort with Solitude, Openness to Experience, Democratic Character, and Life Meaning and Purpose. The Brief Index had high positive correlations with Jones and Crandall's Short Index of Self-Actualization. Alpha was .87 and two-week test-retest reliability was .89. Known-groups methodology was used to determine construct validity with scores on the factors Core Self-Actualization and Democratic Character higher in a group of college men compared to a subsample of unsheltered homeless men with some college. Hence, Maslow's speculation that unsatisfied deficiency needs hinder movement toward self-actualization was supported.
3 sets of empirical data, 2 from samples of college students and 1 from a sample of psychopathic felons, were factored, along with correlations based solely on the number of overlapping items in the Personal Orientation Inventory. The factor structure found in the item-overlap correlations closely resembled that found in the empirical data, but whether this “built-in” factor structure is attributable to item overlap per se appears to be an unanswerable question.
Jones and Crandall (1986) have reported initial psychometric data on the Short Index of Self-actualization. Included in their study was a principal components analysis. The authors reported that the instrument was characterized by four factors and a fifth uninterpretable factor. The present authors submitted the Jones-Crandall model to a confirmatory factor analysis using the confirmatory factor analytic model. The results showed substantial agreement with the Jones-Crandall model—a five-factor model with the fifth considered uninterpretable. The main difference in the findings was in the factor correlations. Jones and Crandall used an orthogonal rotation whereas the present study determined that an oblique solution is more in harmony with the data.
This research reports the development of a 15-item index of self-actualization that will be useful in research contexts. The index is based primarily on modified items from the most widely accepted measure of self-actualization, the Personal Orientation Inventory. The index had a significant correlation with this inventory (r = .67, p < .001). It also correlated as expected with measures of self-esteem, rational behavior and beliefs, neuroticism, and extraversion. The index discriminated between groups of people nominated as self-actualizing and as non-self-actualizing. There were no problems with response sets, and the index was resistant to "faking good." Weaknesses of the scale are discussed as well as means to overcome these weaknesses.
The article presents the development of an instrument to assess need satisfaction among lower socio-economic populations. The four most basic levels of the Maslow need hierarchy were considered—physiological, physical safety and security, affection, and self-esteem. Each level was represented by a subscale. Pilot testing and revision of initially-constructed items was performed. Finally, 200 delinquent adolescents were administered the Need Satisfaction Schedule (NSS). Stability was demonstrated for each subscale and the total schedule (p < .041). Internal consistency was relatively higher for the upper levels of the hierarchy and for the total NSS. Convergent validity of the subscales was established (p < .005). Nomological validity was established by the use of a correlation matrix approach. Utilization of the NSS among lower socio-economic was discussed.
This book is a continuation of my Motivation and Personality, published in 1954. It was constructed in about the same way, that is, by doing one piece at a time of the larger theoretical structure. It is a predecessor to work yet to be done toward the construction of a comprehensive, systematic and empirically based general psychology and philosophy which includes both the depths and the heights of human nature. The last chapter is to some extent a program for this future work, and serves as a bridge to it. It is a first attempt to integrate the "health-and-growth psychology" with psychopathology and psychoanalytic dynamics, the dynamic with the holistic, Becoming with Being, good with evil, positive with negative. Phrased in another way, it is an effort to build on the general psychoanalytic base and on the scientific-positivistic base of experimental psychology, the Eupsychian, B-psychological and metamotivational superstructure which these two systems lack, going beyond their limits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"A Personal Orientation Inventory utilizing scores of relative time competence, relative inner-and other-directedness, and 10 additional subscales has been developed. Validation studies show a definite trend in discriminating self-actualized, normal, and non-self-actualized groups on these dimensions." The mean for the self-actualized group was above the norm mean, whereas the mean for the non-self-actualized group was below. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was assessed using test-retest, internal consistency (Kuder-Richardson Formula 20; (KR-20), split-half reliability coefficients, and Sex * Trials analyses of variance. 172 university students were administered the POI and retested 2 wks later. For the Time Competence and Inner Direction scales, test-retest coefficients were .75 and .88, respectively. KR-20 coefficients were .52 and .83 for first administration and .66 and .86 for second administration. Split-half coefficients were .50 and .84 and .73 and .87 for the 2 administrations, respectively. Ss' 2nd scores tended to be higher than their first ones, and on some scales women scored higher than men and showed a greater increase than men. All significant effects accounted for only small proportions of overall sample variances. It is suggested that mean scores and changes in scores be interpreted with caution; along with the probability of occurrence, the magnitude of the change should also be considered. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A tool assessing position within Maslow's hierarchy of needs is presented. The Maslowian Assessment Survey (MAS) taps the safety, belonging, and esteem levels of the hierarchy with the following subscales for each of the three levels: (a) need gratification, (b) need importance, (c) need salience, (d) self-concept (i.e., how much one is like a prototypical person at each level). Correlational data, gathered in a series of four studies, supported the reliability and validity of these subscales. Combining the four samples (N = 612), the MAS exhibited a Cronbach's α (averaged across subscales) of .89. With a subsample of 88, the subscales exhibited an average 6-week test-retest correlation of .83. As to validity evidence, safety self-concept correlated positively with depression and neuroticism and negatively with self-esteem, dominance, and desirability. Belonging selfconcept was negatively related to self-esteem and autonomy, while being positively related to neuroticism, depression, social recognition, and affiliation. An esteem level self-concept was positively related to self-acceptance, autonomy, dominance, and (inconsistently across studies) desirability. Across all three levels of the hierarchy, degree of need gratification was found to be positively related to selfesteem and negatively related to neuroticism and depression.
Adaptation to homelessness was investigated in a sample of 145 street homeless men using loneliness and depression scales and the construct of self-actualization. Principal components analysis with varimax rotation of a matrix of correlations of measures on the history of being homeless, demographic data, scores on loneliness and depression scales, and self-actualization measures gave a 3-factor model of adjustment: adaptive striving, detachment, and adaptive resources. Maslow's and Sullivan's contention that satisfying interpersonal relationships are common pathways to mental health was affirmed.
Examined the relationship between physical self-efficacy as an appraisal of subjective biology and self-actualization in a sample of 160 Black and White graduate and undergraduate students. An
r of .46 supports the association of subjective biology and self-actualization. Whereas there were no gender or racial differences in scores on self-actualization, men (
n = 39) scored higher than women (
n = 112) on physical self-efficacy and subscales of perceived physical ability and perceived self-presentation confidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The special characteristics of items-low reliability, confounds by minor, unwanted covariance, and the likelihood of a general factor-and better understanding of factor analysis means that the default procedure of many statistical packages (Little Jiffy) is no longer adequate for exploratory item factor analysis. It produces too many factors and precludes a general factor even when that means the factors extracted are nonreplicable. More appropriate procedures that reduce these problems are presented, along with how to select the sample, sample size required, and how to select items for scales. Proposed scales can be evaluated by their correlations with the factors; a new procedure for doing so eliminates the biased values produced by correlating them with either total or factor scores. The role of exploratory factor analysis relative to cluster analysis and confirmatory factor analysis is noted.