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Reproducing colourful woven bands from the Iron Age salt mine of
Hallstatt in Austria: An interdisciplinary approach to acquire knowledge of
prehistoric dyeing technology
Anna Hartl
a,
⁎, Maarten R. van Bommel
b,1
, Ineke Joosten
b
, Regina Hofmann-de Keijzer
c
, Karina Grömer
d
,
Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer
d
, Hans Reschreiter
d
a
Division of Organic Farming, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Gregor-Mendel-Strasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, Austria
b
Sector Knowledge Moveable Heritage, Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands, Hobbemastraat 22, 1071 ZC Amsterdam, The Netherlands
c
Department of Archaeometry, University of Applied Arts Vienna, Salzgries 14, A-1010 Vienna, Austria
d
Department of Prehistory, Natural History Museum Vienna, Burgring 7, A-1010 Vienna, Austria
abstractarticle info
Article history:
Received 15 December 2014
Received in revised form 13 April 2015
Accepted 14 April 2015
Available online 4 May 2015
Keywords:
Natural dye
SEM-EDX
HPLC-PDA
Experiment
Reproduction
Textile
Hallstatt culture
Textiles from the Bronze Age and Iron Age have been preserved for more than 3000 years in the salt mine of
Hallstatt, Austria. Copper originating from prehistoric mining tools made of bronze has probably altered the
colour of many of the textiles. Three woven bands from the Iron Age were chosen for reproductions in order to
show how theymight originally havelooked, and to acquire knowledge of prehistoric dyeing technology. Dyeing
techniques documented in historical, ethnographic, and experimental archaeological literature were analysed.
Fibre, dye and element analyses of the prehistoric bands formed the basis for the experimental development of
dyeing methods using woad (Isatis tinctoria L.), weld (Reseda luteola L.) and scentless chamomile
(Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip.). The hand spun yarns were woven with rep band and tablet weaving
techniques. Each band was successfully reconstructed in two possible colour variants. The light fastness of the
dyed woollen yarns ranges between level 3 and 6 and matches everyday requirements today. Element and dye
analyses and a post-mordanting experiment with copper acetate explain today's colours of the woven bands. A
detailed picture of conceivable dyeing techniques in the Hallstatt Culture is provided, concerning the handling
of textile material during dyeing, woad processing and dyeing procedures, mordanting techniques, and the
tools and resources required. Dyeing with natural dyes is an ancient cultural technology that is simple in terms
of equipment and resources, but sophisticated in terms of the knowledge required. It fully reflects the compre-
hensive knowledge prehistoric people had of the chemical properties of natural substances, the effect of
temperature on (bio)chemical processes, and the ability to control and manage these processes. In central
Europe, the beginning of this knowledgedates back to Bronze Age, the 2nd millennium BC, as proven by the tex-
tile finds in Hallstatt.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Hallstatt in Austria is famous for its 7000-yearhistory of salt produc-
tion (Fig. 1). Initially, people probablyused brine that occurs naturallyin
salt-water sources,however, by the 16
th
century BC at the latest, inten-
sive mining for rock salt had begun. The conditions in the salt mine
present a unique situation: because it has been impregnated with salt,
organic waste material from Bronze Age and Iron Age miners
has been preserved to this day. This mixture of prehistoric waste and
salt, hardened by compression in the mountain, is called Heidengebirge
(heathen's rock). Archaeologists have continued to excavate tools,
artefacts and other remains left by the prehistoric miners (Kern et al.,
2009; Reschreiter, 2013).
Over the past 160 years, around 307 textile items consisting of
approximately 700 pieces have been excavated from the mine
(Grömer and Reschreiter, 2013). Most of them originate from the Iron
Age (850–350 BC), some even from the Bronze Age (1500–1100 BC).
No whole garment has yet been found, just pieces of fabrics that proba-
bly had a secondary use in the mining process. The Iron Age textiles in
particular are of extraordinary fineness and demonstrate a variety of
sophisticated textile techniques and colours. Woven bands that once
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
⁎Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 01 47654 3750; fax: +43 01 47654 3792.
E-mail addresses: anna.hartl@boku.ac.at (A. Hartl),
m.van.bommel@cultureelerfgoed.nl,m.r.vanbommel@uva.nl (M.R. van Bommel),
i.joosten@cultureelerfgoed.nl (I. Joosten), regina.hofmann@uni-ak.ac.at (R. Hofmann-de
Keijzer), karina.groemer@nhm-wien.ac.at (K. Grömer), helgo@roesel.at
(H. Rösel-Mautendorfer), hans.reschreiter@nhm-wien.ac.at (H. Reschreiter).
1
Present address: Faculty of Humanities and FNWI, Conservation and Restoration of
Cultural Heritage / HIMS, University of Amsterdam, Johannes Vermeerplein 1, 1071 DV
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.04.004
2352-409X/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/jasrep
decorated Iron Age clothes show complex and multi-coloured designs
(Grömer, 2005, 2013). What is noticeable is that the colours of many
textiles have a greenish shade, which can also be observed on the
bones, wooden objects and furs (Fig. 3) found in the mine. This may
be caused by the embedding conditions in heathen's rock: copper, orig-
inating from the broken-off tips of prehistoric bronze picks, changes the
colour to a greenish hue (Fig. 4)(Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2005a).
Therefore it is likely that the textiles looked different when they were
being worn by prehistoric people.
The people of the Early Iron Age in Hallstatt became rich from salt
production and trade: thegenerously equipped graves of the prehistoric
cemetery contain elaborately designed grave goods made of valuable
material such as gold, amber, glass and ivory. These objects reflect
(trade) connections with the Mediterranean, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Hungary and, considering the origin of ivory, perhaps also Africa or
Asia (Kern et al., 2009). The high quality and fineness of the textiles,
and the sophisticated expertise and time therefore required, suggests
that there was probably specialised production beyond meeting merely
domestic needs (Grömer, 2010, 2013). It is likely that the people living
in the mountain area of Hallstatt did not produce the textiles, because
nearly everyone —men, women and children —was involved in mining
(Fig. 2); the textiles, like other everyday goods as well as mining tools,
seem to have been brought to Hallstatt from the (wider) surrounding
area (Barth and Grabner, 2003; Kowarik and Reschreiter, 2010). As far
as has been established from the analysis of patterns and textile tech-
niques, the textiles were produced in areas that were part of the
Hallstatt Culture (Fig. 5)(Grömer, 2010, 2013).
The textiles are excavated and preserved by the Department of Pre-
history at the Natural History Museum of Vienna. They have been at the
centre of various scientific studies concerning fibre analysis, analysis of
Fig. 1. Hallstatt and the Salzberg in Austria. Picture: © Aerial archive, Institute of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology,University of Vienna.
Fig. 2. Iron Age salt mining in Hallstatt. The mining chambers were up to 20 m high. It is assumed that men, women and children were all involvedin the mine's activities: men cut the
heart-shaped rocksalt, women transported the saltslabs and childrenhad to help with lighting, recycling of miningwaste and carryingsmaller children. Cookingand eating alsotook place
in the mine. The illustration is based on current research results and is regularly updated in line with new finds and interpretations. Picture: D. Groebner, H. Reschreiter 2012, © NHM
Vienna.
570 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
dyes and textile techniques, experimental archaeology, and the devel-
opment of storage and conservation techniques (Bichler et al., 2005;
Grömer et al., 2013; Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2005b). A recently com-
pleted interdisciplinary research project
2
focused on dyes and dyeing
techniques in particular, with an analysis of 11 textiles from the Bronze
Age (12 samples) and 49 textiles from the Iron Age (67 samples)
(Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a). The interdisciplinary teamwork
not only produced written results (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2012,
2013a,2013b), but also became “materialised”in objects —the repro-
ductions of three woven bands from the Iron Age (Table 1). Our inten-
tion was to be as close to the originals as possible by using natural
materials and traditional spinning, weaving and dyeing techniques.
The spinning and weaving experiments have been published in detail
by Rösel-Mautendorfer et al. (2012). In this paper we focus on questions
related to dyeing:
(1) What might the colours of the woven bands originally have
looked like?
(2) What knowledge can be gained and hypotheses proposed about
prehistoric dyeing technology?
2. Methods
2.1. Fibre, dye and element analysis
2.1.1. Sampling
The woven bands were examined using a Dino-Lite digital micro-
scope, magnification 30–200×. We took seven micro-samples of the rep
bands HallTex 100/1C and HallTex 179/2, representing one sample for
each colour (for sampling points, see Grömer and Rösel-Mautendorfer
(2013)). The samples were numbered and a verbal description of their
colours given. The tablet-woven band (HallTex 123/A), which was recon-
structed because of the uniqueness of its pattern and the different weav-
ing technique, was not sampled as it would have been impossible to do
without damaging it. The colours for the reproduction of this band are
therefore based on the analysis results of similar colours occurring in
the two rep bands and other textiles from the Hallstatt mine (Hofmann-
de Keijzer et al., 2013a)asaconclusionbyanalogy.
2.1.2. Analysis of fibres and chemical elements
Fibres and chemical elements were analysed prior to dye analysis.
All the samples were examined by optical light microscopy and scan-
ning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-
EDX). Optical microscopy was used to identify the fibres and to observe
the regularity or irregularity of the colours within the bands, yarns and
fibres. SEM was used to examine thecontamination and condition of the
fibres. On clean areas of the fibres, the elements aluminium, copper and
iron were analysed by EDX. We focused on these elements because they
could originate from mordants and/or from the mine, and copper and
iron also have a colour-modifying effect on the textiles. However,
although clean areas of the fibres were analysed, they could still be con-
taminated by elements from the mine.
2.1.3. Dye analysis
The samples were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatog-
raphy with photo diode array detection (HPLC-PDA), following the
procedure available at www.organic-colorants.org. To interpret the re-
sults from the analysis of these samples, the analysis results of reference
dyeings with more than 30 domestic plant species were also used (pub-
lication in preparation).
A detailed description of the methods used to analyse the fibres, el-
ements and dyes is provided by Hofmann-de Keijzer et al. ( 2013a),
Joosten and Van Bommel (2008) and Joosten et al. (2006).
2.2. Dyeing experiments with natural dyes
2.2.1. Development of the dyeing methods for colour reproduction
The method development was an iterative process, based on the dye
analysis results of the woven bands from Hallstatt, a literature review
on dyeing techniques with natural dyes, previous dyeing and indigo
extraction experiments undertaken by the authors (Hartl and
Hofmann-de Keijzer, 2005; Hartl and Vogl, 2003), and discussions with
professional dyers who specialise in natural dyes. The traditional process-
ing and dyeing procedures were simulated using materials commercially
available today and laboratory equipment such as electric cookers, water
bath, incubator and pH-meter.
In the literature review, we analysed historical sources as well as
sources reprinting and commenting on historical sources (e.g. Chaptal
(1804) cit. in Nencki (1984);Lagercrantz, 1913; Leuchs, 1857a,1857b,
1857c; Müllerott, 1991, 1993; Ploss, 1989; Plowright, 1900; Prechtl,
1834; Reinking, 1925), ethnographic sources documenting traditional
dyeing methods (e.g. Bielenstein, 1935; Bühler, 1948, 1950; Grierson,
1989; Mautner and Geramb, 1932; Mohanty et al., 1987; Moschkova,
1977; Wills, 1979), the results of experimental archaeology (e.g.
Edmonds, 1993, 1998a,1998b), as well as comprehensive reviews (e.g.
Cardon, 2007; Hurry, 1930; Schweppe, 1993) and modern dyeing
2
Dyeing techniques of the prehistoric textiles from the salt mine of Hallstatt —analysis,
experiments and inspiration for contemporary application (Austrian Science Fund FWF:
L431-G02).
Fig. 4. Typical green colouron a tunnel wallin the Hallstatt salt mine.The greenish copper
salts originate from a broken-off tip of a bronze pick. Picture: © R. Hofmann-de Keijzer.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 3. Prehistoric fur (Inv. Nr. 78538#4, #5). The original white colour has changed to a
greenishshade due to the influence ofcopper salts. Picture: © NHM Vienna. (For interpre-
tation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
571A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
instructions (e.g. Nencki, 1984; Dean and Casselman, 1999; Fischer,
2006; Hill, 1993; Liles, 1999; Melvin, 2007; Spränger, 1975).
A series of experiments involving 93 dyeings with woad (Isatis
tinctoria L.) and indigo
3
from Indigofera spp. was performed (indigo was
just used at the beginning to gain experience) (Hartl et al., 2015). Dyeing
with woad and indigo requires special procedures because the main dye,
the blue pigment indigotin, is not soluble in water. Indigotin is not
contained as such in plants, but in the form of precursors. Three methods
of woad processing and dyeing were tested and the optimal method was
applied to the hand-spun yarns for the band reproductions (Table 2).
In order to choose possible colours for the reproductions, machine-
spun Merino wool yarn was dyed in a range of 51 colour shades based
on the analytical results. Dyeings with fresh woad leaves and woad
fermentation vats were applied, as well as different mordant dyeing
techniques (procedure: Table 3; amount of dyestuffs and mordants:
Tables 4–6). Mordant dyeing means that a soluble dye is fixed with a mor-
dant to the fibre. Mordants are metal salts suchasaluminium,ironorcop-
per salts; mordanting can be performed in a separate bath before or after
dyeing (the latter is also called post-mordanting), or simultaneously in
the same bath used for dyeing (Cardon, 2007; Schweppe, 1993). Some
plant species are able to accumulate aluminium salts and were therefore
used as plant mordants (see Section 3.3.3).
A small sample thread of each colour was post-mordanted with a
1.45% copper acetate solution
4
to simulate the possible colour-
modifying effect of the embedding situation in the salt mine. The post-
mordanted threads of the colour variants were compared with the
original Hallstatt bands. The colours for the reproductions were selected
by the team, also taking into account colour preferences typical for the
Hallstatt Period as established from other objects such as pottery. For
each band reproduction, the hand-spun yarns were dyed in two possible
colour variants. After the weaving, a piece of each reproduced band was
treated with 1.45% copper acetate solution and compared with the Iron
Age bands.
As a quality control, the light fastness of ten samples used for the
reproductions was tested according to the blue wool standard (ISO
105 B02, Colour fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test).
The interdisciplinary process is shown in Fig. 6.
2.2.2. Experiments for the handling of fleece and hand-spun yarn during
dyeing
The wool used for the Iron Age woven bands could have been dyed
either before spinning (fleece dyeing) or after spinning (yarn dyeing).
For the reproductions, we dyed the yarn because it made the workflow
of the experiments easiaer to organise. The other possibility —dyeing
the fleece and spinning it afterwards —wastestedinanadditionalexper-
iment. The washed and carded fleece was dyed using two methods that
3
The term “indigo”is used in a confusing way in everyday language and also in scien-
tific literature to mean the plants, the traded product, the chemical compound indigotin
as well as the bluecolour. In this paper,we use the term “indigo”onlyfor the traded prod-
uct, an extract mostlyin form of a powder orblock, which contains indigotinand other re-
lated components (“indigoids”). The various plant specieswhich were used worldwide to
dye blue withindigotin are summarised as “plantsyielding indigoids”. The mainplant spe-
cies usedfor the production of indigotraded to Europe are Indigofera species. Due to lack of
evidence of which Indigofera species in particular were used, we mention only the scien-
tific name of the genus. We use the term “woad pigment”for the pigment indigotin ob-
tained from woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) to avoid the term “woad indigo”which is used
synonymously in literature. Detailed explanations and references quoted are given by
Hartl et al. (2015).
4
Percentage refers to the weight of the dry wool which is 100%; if, for example, 100 g
wool is post-mordanted with 1.45% copper acetate, this means 1.45 g of copper acetate.
Fig. 5. The area of theHallstatt Culture.The area of the eastern Hallstatt Culture comprises Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovenia.Southern Germany, Switzerland andFrance
belong to thewestern Hallstatt Culture. Important find spots are indicated. Picture: © K. Grömer.
572 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
stress the fibres differently: mordant dyeing with 100% weld (Reseda
luteola L.) and 15% alum, and fermentation vat dyeing with natural indigo
(potash-madder-bran vat). Since these methods differ in temperature, pH
and duration, we expected different effects on the fibre and therefore also
on the spinning ability of the fleece.
2.2.3. Material
Dye plants. Madder roots (Rubia tinctorum L.) and weld (Reseda luteola
L.) were bought from Alfred Galke GmbH (Bad Grund, Germany), a spe-
cialist supplier of herbs, spices and raw plant products. The flower heads
of scentless chamomile (Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip.),
which is not commercially available, were collected in Burgenland,
Austria. Woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) requires immediate processing of the
fresh leaves, therefore 100 m
2
was cultivated.
Mordants. We used commercially available alum (potash alum,
KAl(SO
4
)
2
∙12 H
2
O) instead of native or manufactured alums. Iron(II)-
acetate (Fe(CH
3
COO)
2
) and copper(II)-acetate (Cu(CH
3
COO)
2
)were
used to simulate traditional methods that used natural acids such as vin-
egar for mordant preparation.
Additives for fermentation vats. Potassium carbonate (K
2
CO
3
, potash)
was used for pH adjustment, simulating the use of wood ash lye and
potash. Organic wheat bran and madder were used for accelerating
fermentation.
Water. All dyeings were carried out using untreated Viennese tapwater,
classified as “low to moderately hard”,6–11°dH.
5
Sheep wool. White, unbleached, machine-spun Merino sheep wool was
used for the experiments to develop the colour palette. For the bandre-
productions, we tested the fleece of four rare Austrian breeds: Alpines
Steinschaf (Alpine stone sheep), Montafoner Steinschaf (Montafon
stone sheep), Krainer Steinschaf (Krainer stone sheep) and Waldschaf
(Forest sheep). The fleeces of these sheep are more similar to that of
prehistoric sheep than the modern Merino sheep fleece.
6
We selected
the Alpines Steinschaf and Montafoner Steinschaf for the reproductions,
because these fleeces produced the best results as regards their ability
to be processed into overtwisted yarns of 0.2–0.5 mm diameter and
5
www.wien.gv.at/wienwasser/qualitaet/haerte.html, accessed 17 May 2012 (official
website of the governmentof Vienna).
6
Personal communication with B. Berger, Agricultural Education and Research Centre
Raumberg-Gumpenstein, 19.08.2009.
Table 1
Description of the woven bands selected for reproduction.
HallTex number
1
HallTex 100/1C
(formerly: HT-100/3)
HallTex 179/2
(formerly: HT-179/2)
HallTex 123/A
(formerly: HT-123/3)
Inv.Nr. NHM
1
79.442b 90.180b 89.832
Description Multi-coloured rep band, sewn on
tabby fabric
Rep band with coloured chessboard pattern Tablet-woven band with meander and triangle
pattern, sewn together into a circle and sewn on
to a twill fabric (possibly a sleeve)
Find spot in the Hallstatt salt mine Kilbwerk, disturbed layers Kernverwässerungswerk Kernverwässerungswerk
Time period Iron Age (850–350 BC) Iron Age (850–350 BC) Iron Age (850–350 BC)
Width 1.4 cm 1.2 cm 1.3 cm
Material Wool Wool Wool (warp), horse hair (weft)
Colour of threads: new and former
1
verbal description (NCS-code);
microsample number of dye and
element analysis (n.a. = not
analysed)
Warp:
blue-green (former: green)
(S8010-B10G); 100/3#2
yellow (S3040-Y10R); 100/3#1
dark brown (S8502-Y); 100/3#3
Weft:
dark brown (S8010-Y50R); n.a.
3
Warp:
reddish brown (S8010-Y50R); 179/2#2
light olive (former: light yellow) (S3030-Y);
179/2#5
dark yellow (S3040-Y10R); 179/2#3
bluish-green (S6035-B60G); 179/2#4
Weft:
black (S8502-Y); 179/2#1
3
Warp:
blue-green (former: dark green)
2
(S6030B); n.a.
light blue-green (former: dark green)
2
(S5030-B30G); n.a.
brownish black (former: dark brown)
(S8502-Y); n.a.
yellowish (former: olive) (S5030-Y10R); n.a.
Weft:
black (S8502); n.a.
3
Spinning technique Plied yarn
Twist direction: S (blue-green and
yellow threads of warp), Z (weft;
dark brown threads of warp)
Twist angle: 30–40°
Thread diameter warp: 0.9 mm
Thread diameter weft: 0.5 mm
Plied yarn
Twist direction: Z
Twist angle: 30° (weft), 30–40° (bluish-green
threads), 40° (dark yellow), 40–50° (reddish
brown and light olive)
Thread diameter warp: 0.2 mm (dark yellow
threads), 0.2–0.3 mm (reddish brown),
0.3–0.4 mm (light olive), 0.4 mm (bluish-green)
Thread diameter weft: 0.5 mm
Plied yarn (weft: paired fibres)
Twist direction: Z (blue-green and
brownish-black thread), S (light blue-green and
yellowish thread)
Twist angle: 20° (brownish black threads),
20–30° (yellowish), 25–30° (blue-green), 30°
(light blue-green)
Thread diameter warp and weft: 0.1–0.2 mm
Weaving technique Rep band
Thread count warp: 26
Thread count weft: 8
Pattern: in warp 9 blue-green
threads, 7 yellow, 7 dark brown,
then alternating 4 yellow, 4
blue-green, then 4 yellow
threads.
Rep band
Thread count warp: 30
Thread count weft: 6
Pattern: colour chessboard pattern, different
colours in warp, sequence from edge to centre:
2 reddish brown, then light olive, bluish-green
alternating 3 times, then bluish-green, light
olive, alternating 3 times, then dark yellow,
reddish brown, dark yellow, reddish brown;
sequence repeated in inverse order from centre
to edge.
Tablet-woven
Thread count warp: 64
Thread count weft: 10
Pattern: meander pattern and triangles; at one
selvedge four and on the other side two tablets
with blue-green colour, then brownish black:
the background of the pattern is light
blue-green and brownish-black. The pattern is
yellowish and displays meander and cross-filled
triangles.
Notes:
Table based on data from Grömer and Rösel-Mautendorfer (2013).
1
In the catalogueof the Hallstatt textiles (Grömerand Rösel-Mautendorfer, 2013),the inventory numbering systemof the textiles at the NaturalHistory Museum Viennawas updated and
the colours of all textiles were described using the Natural Colour System Code (NCS, www.ncscolour.com/en/ncs). Some colours were renamed. To enable them to be traced back to
previous publications, the former inventory numbers and the former colour names are also given here. All numbers and colour names in thetext follow the new system.
2
The differentiation in “blue-green”and the slightly lighter “light blue-green”was made later, during the new description of the colours; it has not yet been established when we
investigated the colours for the reproductions.
3
The material used as weft for the reproductions was undyed brown sheep wool for HallTex 100/1C and HallTex 179/2, and horse hair for HallTex 123/A.
573A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
their colour uptake. Recent research on the fibre quality of textiles and
skins from the Hallstatt salt mines, which included comparisons with
the fleeces of today's sheep breeds, confirmed the similarity of the Al-
pines Steinschaf and ancient breeds (Rast-Eicher, 2013).
2.3. Wool preparation, spinning and weaving experiments
Different methods of wool washing with soapwort Saponaria
officinalis L. (washing the fleece or washing the yarn made of unwashed
fleece), wool preparation (picking, whacking, combing or carding the
fleece; making a combed top), and hand spinning and twisting were
tested, applying experimental archaeology methods. The methods
yielding yarns most similar to the original prehistoric bands were
used for the reproductions. After dyeing, the yarns were woven with
rep and tablet-weaving techniques. The tools used in the experiments
were reconstructed according to ethnographic, prehistoric and mediae-
val objects (for detailed methods description see Rösel-Mautendorfer
et al. (2012)).
2.4. Nomenclature
The scientific plant names are based on the Tropicos database of the
Missouri Botanical Garden (www.tropicos.org, accessed on 12 June
2014).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Analytical results and reconstruction of the colours
3.1.1. The blue-green shades
The samples of these colours contain indigotin and related compo-
nents and are interpreted as dyeings with woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) due
to the archaeological context. Current dye analysis methods can clearly
identify indigotin dyeings, but not the plant species that was used.
Woad is considered to be the main sourceof indigotin for dyeing textiles
in Europe until the large scale import of indigo gained from Indigofera sp.
in the 16th and 17th century AD (Schweppe, 1993; Körber-Grohne, 1995;
Hofenk de Graaff, 2004). Referring to Vitruvius, Dioscorides and Pliny,
indigo from Indigofera sp. seems to have been known in the Graeco-
Roman world only as an imported luxury item, applied as a pigment in
its insoluble form for painting, cosmetic and medicinal use (Cardon,
2007; Balfour-Paul, 2006). In the 9
th
century AD, Indigofera sp. were
introduced by the Arabs to the Muslim Mediterranean and cultivated in
Andalusia, Malta and Sicily (Cardon, 2007). Archaeobotanical finds
prove that woad, whose original distribution is located in the steppes
around the Caucasus mountains and western and central Asia as far as
eastern Siberia (Hegi, 1986), was already known in Europe in the Iron
Age (Körber-Grohne, 1967, 1981; Stika, 1999; Zech-Matterne and
Table 2
Context and techniques used for woad dyeings.
Dyeing with fresh woad leaves Dyeing with green and
couched woad
Dyeing with woad pigment
Principal chemical
process during
processing and
dyeing
Dye bath preparation: enzymatic hydrolysis by
soaking the fresh leaves in water transforms the
indigotin precursors into the soluble form
indoxyl. An alkali is added which maintains the
necessary alkalinity by neutralising the acids
produced during fermentation.
Dyeing: the indoxyl penetrates the immersed
textile fibres.
Aerating: after the textile is taken out and
exposed to air, the indoxyl reacts with oxygen
and forms indigotin.
(Cardon, 2007)
Producing a dried dye material: processing the fresh leaves into dried woad balls (“green woad”),
couched woad or woad pigment transforms the precursors into indigotin.
Dyeing: under the alkaline and reducing conditions of the vat dyeing process, indigotin is transformed
into the yellowish, soluble form leuco-indigotin which penetrates the fibres of the immersed textile. In
traditional fermentation vats, alkali such as wood ash lye, potash, (slaked) lime or putrid urine are used,
and the reducing conditions are established by fermentation, which can be enhanced by adding madder
roots, bran etc.
Aerating: after the textile is taken out and exposed to air, indigotin is formed again by oxidation and the
initially yellowish textile changes to blue.
(Cardon, 2007)
Historical context
of the methods
No traditional method with woad documented.
Methods using fresh leaves of other plants
yielding indigoids well documented for Africa,
central America and tropical Asia (Leuchs,
1857b; Bühler, 1950; Cardon, 2007).
Techniques considered to be very ancient
(Bühler, 1950; Cardon, 2007). Possible that simi-
lar methods were initially also used for woad.
Sophisticated technique known from the European
Middle Ages (Leuchs, 1857b; Müllerott, 1991,
1993; Ploss, 1989; Wills, 1979; Edmonds, 1993,
1998a; Cardon, 2007; Hurry, 1930; Schweppe,
1993).
Techniques of processing leaves to a dried product
are much older: the method documented in the
Stockholm Papyrus (Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis)
dates from the 3
rd
–4
th
century AC (Lagercrantz,
1913; Reinking, 1925).
Production of woad pigment developed in the 19
th
century (Cardon, 2007; Schweppe, 1993), adapted
from methods used for indigo production from
Indigofera spp. (e.g. Chaptal (1804) cit. in Nencki
(1984);Leuchs, 1857c).
Woad pigment can be used like indigo in any
fermentation vat, e.g. urine vats (Nencki, 1984;
Grierson, 1989; Cardon, 2007; Fischer, 2006; Liles,
1999; Spränger, 1975) and potash-madder-bran
vats (Leuchs, 1857b; Liles, 1999; Melvin, 2007;
Spränger, 1975)
Our experiments
for method
re-development
(Hartl et al.,
2015)
Processing: none
Dyeing: adapting methods documented for other
plants to woad (32 dye baths)
Processing: dried woad balls (“green woad”) made
of fresh and fermented leave pulp respectively;
couching of dried woad balls
Dyeing: using green and couched woad in
fermentation vats (23 dye baths)
Processing: production of woad pigment
Dyeing: adapting methods documented for indigo
to woad pigment using urine vats) and
potash-madder-bran vats (in total 38 dye baths)
Applied to
reproductions
Yes No Yes
Table 3
Procedure for mordant dyeings.
Description of the procedure
Preparation of
dye bath
Soak dye plants over night in water (35 °C, dye bath ratio
1:100
1
), heat up and keep for 1 h at 90 °C (exception madder:
70 °C). Allow to cool, filter off plant material, refill amount of
evaporated water to maintain dye bath ratio.
Mordanting Soak wool in water for 24 h. Dissolve mordant in water (dye
bath ratio 1:100), put wool in, heat slowly and keep for 1 h at
90 °C (exception madder: 70 °C). Stir occasionally. Allow to
cool to 40 °C. Take wool out and carefully press water out. (The
same method was used for post-mordanting with copper
acetate, but the material was rinsed afterwards).
Dyeing Put pre-mordanted wool into dye bath, heat up slowly and
keep for 1 h at 90 °C (exception madder: 2 h, 70 °C). Stir
occasionally. Allow to cool to 40 °C. Take wool out and carefully
press water out. Rinse until water is clear.
Equipment Beaker glass, magnetic stirrer with electronic contact
thermometer
Note:
1
Ratio of dyedmaterial to water,dye bath ratio 1:100 meanse.g. for 10 g wool 1000 ml dye
bath were used.
574 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Leconte, 2010; Van der Veen, 1996), see detailed review by Hofmann-de
Keijzer et al. (2013a).
The analysis of sample 100/3#2 (blue-green) shows a combination of
intensive woad dyeing with a small amount of an unknown red dye and
an even smaller amount of unknown yellow components (Table 4,the
spectra of the most relevant unknown components are given in
Appendix A,Figs. A.1–A.7). It is not clear whether these yellow compo-
nents are dyes. The unknown red dye indicates the use of another dye
plant. The occurrence of unknown red dyes in prehistoric European tex-
tiles has been discussed by several authors (e.g. Hofmann-de Keijzer
et al., 2005a; Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a; Walton Rogers, 2001;
Tidow and Walton Rogers, 2001). Specification of their origin would
need a broad range of dyed reference materials for comparative dye
analysis. The blue-green colour of the sample cannot be explained by
this combination of analysed dyes —according to these it should be an in-
tense blue with a slightly reddish tint. The dyeing experiments, however,
showed that the blue colour (especially when fresh woad leaves are
used) becomes green after post-mordanting with copper acetate.
For a blue variant with a slightly reddish tint, a mordant dyeing with
madder was overdyed with woad. Dye analysis excludes madder as
having been used for this Hallstatt band; it was chosen for the experi-
ments as a source of red colour. Thesecolour samples, however, became
too brown, showing almost no contrast to the naturally brown wool in
the pattern. Therefore this dyeing method was not applied for the
reproductions; the blue variants achieved with fresh woad leaves and
the woad pigment vat were used instead (Table 4).
According to the analysis of the bluish green of sample 179/2#4,
woad was used in combination with a plant yielding an unknown yel-
low flavonoid dye (apigenin-equivalent-001), probably scentless cham-
omile (Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip., for detailed
explanation see the discussion of yellowish shades in Section 3.1.2).
The green colour of this analysed sample can be explained by a double
dyeing of blue and yellow in almost the same amount. For the reproduc-
tions, a dyeing with Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip. was
overdyed with woad, yielding an intense green shade (Table 4).
3.1.2. The yellowish shades
The determination of plant sources for the detected yellow compo-
nents was difficult, as many plants yield the same yellow dyes. Well-
known dye plants such as weld (Reseda luteola L.), saw-wort
(Serratula tinctoria L.) or dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria L.) can be ex-
cluded, because luteolin, the main component in dyeings with these
species, was not detected in the samples. The analysis of reference dye-
ings with local plant species and the comparison with the analytical re-
sults of the band samples lead to the conclusion that the apigenin-
equivalent-001 (Fig. A.1) found in the dark yellow (#3), the bluish
green (#4) and the light olive (#5) thread of the chessboard rep
band (HallTex 179/2) could originate from scentless chamomile
(Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip.). The analyses of woollen
threads dyed with plants from our reference collection showed that
scentless chamomile was the only source for apigenin-equivalent-001,
Table 4
Development of blue-green shades for the reproductions.
Rep band
HallTex 100/1C
Chessboard rep band
HallTex 179/2
Tablet-woven band
HallTex 123/A
Microsample no.
Colour
100/3#2
blue-green
179/2#4
bluish green
Not sampled
blue-green
Dye analysis
1
Indigotin: ++
Orange-002: -
Red-002: -
Indirubin-equivalent-001: --
Yellow-009: --
Yellow-010: --
Indigotin: +
Isatin: +/−
Orange-001: -
Yellow: -
Indirubin: --
Orange-002: --
Apigenin-equivalent-001: --
5× Yellow: --
Not analysed
Element
analysis
1
Cu: +/−, Fe: -, Al: - Cu: +/−, Fe: n.d., Al: n.d. Not analysed
Conclusion Wool with white and a few pigmented brown
fibres, dyed with woad; unknown red dye
(Red-002) indicates use of another dye plant; not
sure if unknown yellow components are dyes.
Colour could be influenced by copper and iron.
White wool, dyed with woad; unknown orange
and yellow components could indicate the use of
another dye plant, the unknown yellow
component apigenin-equivalent-001 could
indicate the use of Tripleurospermum inodorum.
Same ratio of blue and yellow dyes Colour could
be influenced by copper.
Not analysed, conclusion by analogy from rep band
HallTex 100/1C and chessboard rep band HallTex
179/2: white wool, dyed blue with woad or dyed
green with woad + yellow dye.
Experiments for
colour shades
2
Woad dyeing (6 samples):
fresh woad leaves, couched woad, woad pigment;
each technique in 2 and 4 dippings
Woad overdyeing on madder (12 samples):
madder dyeing: 25% and 50% madder, mordant: 15%
alum. Woad overdyeing: fresh woad leaves, couched
woad, woad pigment; each in 2 and 4 dippings
Woad overdyeing on Tripleurospermum inodorum
(12 samples):
Tripleurospermum i. dyeing: 25% and 50%
Tripleurospermum i., mordant: 15% alum.
Woad overdyeing: fresh woad leaves, couched
woad and woad pigment; each in 2 and 4
dippings
See experiments for 100/3#2 and 179/2#4
Reproduction
variants
(1) and (2)
2
(1) woad dyeing with fresh leaves, 4 dippings
(2) woad pigment vat, 4 dippings
(1) woad pigment vat, 3 dippings, overdyeing
Tripleurospermum i. (50%) / alum (15%)
(2) woad pigment vat, 3 dippings, overdyeing
Tripleurospermum i. (50%) / alum (15%)
dyed in different vats
(1) + (2) woad dyeing with woad pigment vat,
4 dippings, dyed together in the same vat
Notes (also for Tables 5 and 6):
1
Dye-equivalent (e.g. indirubin-equivalent): the ultraviolet–visible (UV–VIS) absorption spectrum corresponds to the spectrum of the dye, but the retention time does not correspond.
Unknown coloured components are named according to their UV–VIS absorption spectra orange, red and yellow. A number after the colour name or dye-equivalent indicates that the
component is detected in more than one sample. The spectra of unknown components are given in Appendix A. Symbols are given for the relative amount of dyes and coloured
components: ++ (very much), + (much), +/−(medium), - (little, trace), - - (very little, small trace); symbols for chemical elements are: + (much), +/−(medium), - (little, trace),
n.d. (not detected). For detailed information on analysis methods and results of all analysed prehistoric textiles from Hallstatt see (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a; Grömer and
Rösel-Mautendorfer, 2013), however, the interpretation of the analysisresults concerning unknown yellowshas been optimised in thispaper: one of the unknown yellow components
was identified as apigenin-equivalent-001.
2
Percentage refers to theweight of thedry wool which is 100%; if e.g. 10 g wool is dyed, 25% madder means 2.5 g madder.
575A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
even as the main component. This widespread species grows in huge
amounts along roads, on fallow lands and in fields (Fig. 7).
It is possible that someof the unknown yellowcomponents found in
the band samples are no dyes at all but degradation products of wool fi-
bres. The greenish-yellowish colours can also be due to the copper influ-
ence of the embedding conditions in the mine. The band reproductions
were therefore carried out in variants with undyed white wool and var-
iants with wool dyed yellow with Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch.
Bip. (Table 5).
3.1.3. The brown shades
The brownshades of the bands may be naturally brown sheep wool.
For the dark brown sample 100/3#3 naturally brown wool can be iden-
tified. For the reddish brown sample 179/2#2, however, it is not clear
whether white or pigmented wool was used (the pigmentation is
not clearly visible, which may be due to the dyeing). The colour is diffi-
cult to explain. The detection of the yellow flavonoid luteolin could indi-
cate the use of dye plants such as weld (Reseda luteola L.), saw-wort
(Serratula tinctoria L.), dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria L.) (Cardon,
2007; Schweppe, 1993; Hofenk de Graaff, 2004) and according to our
research also yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) and dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.). Apigenin, however, which should
also be present as a minor component in dyeings with these plants, is
absent. Due to degradation processes, it could be below the detection
limit of the HPLC system. The detection of luteolin in combination
with the chemical element iron would explain the brown colour, but
not the reddish brown tint. The reddish dyes may also have degraded
and therefore be below the detection limit, or an undyed, naturally
reddish brown wool was used. It has been established from other tex-
tiles that the prehistoric dyers dyed even pigmented brown and black
wool (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2005a). Therefore the dyeing experi-
ments were carried out with weld and different mordants on white
and pigmented wool. For the reproductions, undyed brown wool and
brown wool dyed with weld and an iron mordant were used (Table 6).
3.2. Colour comparison of the copper post-mordanted reproductions and
the Iron Age bands
The two colour variants of each reproduced band were post-
mordanted with copper acetate and then compared with the Iron Age
originals (Fig. 8).
3.2.1. Reproduction of chessboard rep band HallTex 179/2
It is not clearly visible whether variant 1 (white wool / yellow wool) or
variant 2 (light yellow wool / dark yellow wool) corresponds better to the
original (Fig. 8a). The bluish green of the Iron Age band is more bluish
than in both variants of the copper treated reproductions, but the tenden-
cy is right. The reddish brown of the prehistoric band is more reddish than
Table 5
Development of yellowish shades for the reproductions.
Rep band
HallTex 100/1C
Chessboard rep band
HallTex 179/2
Tablet-woven band
HallTex 123/A
Microsample no.
Colour
100/3#1
yellow
179/2#5
light olive
Not sampled
yellowish
Dye analysis
1
Indigotin: -
3× Yellow: --
Indigotin: -
3× Yellow: -
Apigenin-equivalent-001: --
5× Yellow: --
Not analysed
Element analysis
1
Cu: +/−, Fe: -, Al: - Cu: +/−, Fe: n.d., Al: - Not analysed
Conclusion White wool not dyed, or dyed yellow
but dyes are below detection limit of
the HPLC system; indigotin is probably
a cross-contaminati on. Colour could be
influenced by copper and iron.
White wool not dyed, or dyed maybe
with Tripleurospermum inodorum
(based on the presence of a trace of
apigenin-equivalent-001) and faded;
indigotin is probably a cross-contamination
from the bluish green thread (179/2#4).
Colour could be influenced by copper.
Not analysed, conclusion by analogy
from rep band HallTex 100/1C and
chessboard rep band
HallTex 179/2: white wool,
not dyed or dyed yellow.
Experiments for colour
shades
2
No experiments Tripleurospermum inodorum dyeing
(1 sample):
Tripleurospermum i.: 25%; mordant: 15% alum
See experiments for 179/2#5
Reproduction variants (1) and
(2)
2
(1) + (2) white wool, not dyed (1) white wool, not dyed
(2) Tripleurospermum i. (25%) / alum (15%)
(1) Trileurospermum. i. (25%) / alum (15%)
(2) white wool, not dyed
Microsample no.
Colour
179/2#3
dark yellow
Dye analysis
1
Apigenin-equivalent-001: --
Apigenin-equivalent-002: --
Indigotin: --
4× Yellow: --
Element analysis
1
Cu: +, Fe: n.d., Al: n.d.
Conclusion White wool not dyed, or dyed maybe with
Tripleurospermum inodorum (based on the presence
of a trace of apigenin-equivalent-001) and faded;
indigotin is probably a cross-contamination
from the bluish green thread (179/2#4).
Colour could be influenced by copper.
Experiments for colour
shades
2
Tripleurospermum inodorum dyeing (2 samples):
Tripleurospermum i.: 50%, 100%;
mordant: 15% alum
Reproduction variants
(1) and (2)
2
(1) Trileurospermum i. (50%) / alum (15%)
(2) Tripleurospermum i. (100%) / alum (15%)
Notes:
1
See Table 4.
2
See Table 4.
576 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
the browns we used (brown wool dyed with weld + iron mordant in var-
iant 1, natural brown wool in variant 2). How the prehistoric dyers
achieved the reddish shade is still not clear. It is also possible that they
usedbrownwoolwithanaturalreddishshadeduetopigmentation.
3.2.2. Reproduction of rep band HallTex 100/1C
The blue from the copper-treated variant 2 (fermentation vat with
woad pigment) and the natural brown wool in both variants correspond
perfectly with the Iron Age band. The light blue from the copper-treated
variant 1 (dyeing with fresh woad leaves), however, is too light. The
white undyed wool used in both variants for reproducing the colour of
sample 100/3#1 does not correspond well to the Iron Age band as the
original colour is more yellowish (Fig. 8b). Comparing the copper-
treated yellow and white variants used for the reproduction of the
tablet-woven band HallTex 123/A (see below) with the yellow of the
rep band HallTex 100/1C, it seems more likely that for band HallTex
100/1C also a yellow dyed yarn was used, although no yellow dye was
detected in sample 100/3#1.
Table 6
Development of brown shades for the reproductions.
Rep band
HallTex 100/1C
Chessboard rep band
HallTex 179/2
Tablet-woven band
HallTex 123/A
Microsample no.
Colour
100/3#3
dark brown
179/2#2
reddish brown
Not sampled
brownish black
Dye analysis
1
Indigotin: +/−
3× Yellow: --
Luteolin: -
9× Yellow: --
Not analysed
Element analysis
1
Cu: -, Fe: -, Al: - Cu: +/−, Fe: +/−, Al: - Not analysed
Conclusion Brown wool, possibly
dyed blue with woad
or not dyed and indigotin is a
cross-contamination.
Colour could be influenced
by copper and iron.
White or brown wool, dyed with
luteolin containing plant (e.g. weld)
and maybe iron mordant.
Colour could be influenced by copper
and iron.
Not analysed, conclusion
by analogy from rep band
HallTex 100/1C: brown wool,
not dyed.
Experiments for colour shades
2
No experiments Weld dyeing (18 samples): weld: 25%
and 50%; each with alum (15%),
copper acetate (1.45%), iron acetate (1.25%)
mordant; each with white, brown and
grey wool.
No experiments
Reproduction variants (1) and (2)
2
(1) + (2) brown wool, not dyed (1) brown wool, dyed with weld
(50%) / iron acetate (1.25%)
(2) brown wool, not dyed
(1) + (2) brown wool, not dyed
Notes:
1
See Table 4.
2
See Table 4.
Fig. 6. The interdisciplinary processof reproducing the woven bands from the Iron Age. Thedevelopment of the dyeingtechniques is shown in detail, with other steps summarised.UaK:
University of Applied Arts Vienna, BOKU: University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna,RCE: Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands,NHM: Natural History Museum
Vienna. Picture: © A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the colours in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
577A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
3.2.3. Reproduction of tablet-woven band HallTex 123/A
It was not possible to take samples of this band, therefore the colours
of the reconstructions are based on the analysis results of similar colours
occurring in the two rep bands (conclusion by analogy). After the copper
treatment, the blue used in both variants 1 and 2 corresponds perfectly to
the blue-green colour of the original band. The copper post-mordanting
adds exactly the greenish shade of the Iron Age band to the reproduced
blue dyeing. The natural dark brown wool used in both variants matches
the brownish black of the Iron Age band perfectly. The colour reproduc-
tion of the yellow shade shows that after the copper treatment, the
white wool (variant 2, right in Fig. 8c) corresponds better to the original
than the yellow wool (variant 1, left in Fig. 8c).
The colour comparison of the reproductions with the prehistoric
bands is based on the assumption that the colours were mainly changed
by the copper influence of the embedding conditions in the mine.
However, the colours could also have been influenced by other factors,
such as iron ions originating from the minerals in the mine, or degrada-
tion of dyes due to use, e.g. fading caused by sunlight.
Fig. 7. Scentless chamomile (Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip.). This plant is a
possiblesource for yellow dyeingswith apigenin-equivalent-001as the main component.
Picture: © A. Hartl.
Fig. 8. Iron Age bands and reproductions. (a) Chessboard rep band HallTex 179/2. (b) Rep band HallTex 100/1C. (c) Tablet-woven band HallTex 123/A: The band, which is still sewn
together, may have been used to decorate the lower end of a sleeve. For reasons of conservation, it is kept on a supporting construction (beige colour); the pattern is visible on the
inner side. In each picture, variant 1 and 2 of the reconstructions are marked with numbers 1 and 2 respectively, the copper-treated variants are marked with #, the Iron Age bands
are without marking. (d) Tablet-woven band HallTex 123/A without supporting construction: The upper part shows the reverse side of the pattern, the front side of thepattern is visible
below. Picture (a), (b), (c): © H. Reschreiter/NHM Vienna. Picture (d): © NHM Vienna. Photo layout: A. Hartl and K. Grömer.
578 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
3.3. Hypothesis about Iron Age dyeing technology
3.3.1. Dyeing of fleece or dyeing of yarn?
An investigation of the threads of the Iron Age bands using a Dino-Lite
digital microscope and an optical microscope did not provide information
as to whether the prehistoric dyers had dyed the yarn or dyed the fleece
before spinning. In any case, it is necessary for the wool to be carefully
washed and degreased before dyeing to achieve a good colour uptake.
For the reconstructions, the yarns were dyed. Like the yarns of the Iron
Age bands, the yarns for the reproductions were also highly-twisted spun
yarns (twist angle 40–60°) to resist the mechanical stress during weaving.
When these yarns are immersed in water, they become tangled due to the
twist (Fig. 9) and the dyeing becomes irregular and spotty, especially in
vat dyeing. From historical sources, it has been established that sticks
were used for dyeing skeins (e.g. Prechtl, 1834); several pictures from his-
torical sources are published by Ploss (1989)). Searching for a simple so-
lution, this method was adjusted: two cooking spoons (which could have
been any kind of wooden stick) were used to keep the yarns in a parallel
position during dyeing. To avoid yarn loops, the skeins were occasionally
stretched by pulling the sticks apart (Fig. 10). This allowed even dyeing to
be achieved (Fig. 11).
From comparing the yarn dyeing with the experiments of dyeing
fleece (Fig. 12) and then spinning it afterwards, it can be concluded
that from the dyer's point of view, fleece is easier to handle. More
water is needed, because fleece is voluminous, but if put in a net, it is
easy to dye and does not become felted. Mixing the dyed fleece during
the combing process compensates for any uneven dyeing. Dyeing very
thin, overtwisted yarns, as is required for the woven bands, needs
special care because they easily become tangled. From the spinner's
point of view, both methods (spinning undyed anddyed fleece) are pos-
sible and yield the same result. Neither of the dyeing methods tested
(mordant dyeing and fermentation vat dyeing) had any negative effect
on the spinning ability of the fleece. From the wool washer's point of
view (Rösel-Mautendorfer et al., 2012), however, it is easier to wash
the ready-made yarns than the fleece. Raw fleece easily becomes felted
during washing and heavily felted parts often cannot be prepared and
spun any further and become waste. An alternative could be to wash
the sheep before shearing —a method that is well documented in his-
torical and ethnographic sources (Bielenstein, 1935; Moschkova,
1977; Grimm, 1938; Heyne, 1921; Ryder, 1983).
3.3.2. Several ways to dye blue with woad
Contrary to expectations, it is not that difficult to discover a blue dye
in a green plant. The blue colour can easily be recognised on injured
parts of the woad leaves where the colourless precursors have reacted
with oxygen in the air and formed the blue indigotin (Fig. 13). Perhaps
that is how people became aware of woad as a source of blue colour.
Soaking the leaves in water for some hours also makes the blue colour
visible (Fig. 14). The challenge, however, is to obtain only the blue,
because woad contains many more colours (Fig. 15,Hartl et al. (2015)).
It was possible to dye blue with all three methods tested in the
experiments. Dyeing with the couched woad vat and with woad
pigment in the potash-madder-bran vat resulted in dark shades of
blue after four to five dippings. In the experiments with fresh woad
leaves, the colours also became darker with more dippings, but not as
dark as that achieved with the other two methods. This confirms the
observation that in general blues achieved with the fresh leaves of
plants yielding indigoids are not as dark due to the limited concentra-
tion of the dye baths (Cardon, 2007). To achieve really dark shades, sev-
eral newly prepared dye baths would probably be needed.
The only type of vat that did not work in our experiments is —
ironically —the one that is meant to be very easy: the urine vat.
This method has successfully been reproduced by others.
7
For the
band reproductions, we chose dyeing with woad pigment in the
potash-madder-bran vat (Fig. 16) because this was the most reliable
method to reproduce, and then dyeing with fresh woad leaves to
provide a second traditional method to apply.
From the dye analysis of the Iron Age bands and the experiments, we
cannot conclude which vatdyeing techniques thepeople of the Hallstatt
Culture used. However, it is obvious that they already knew how to dye
blue with woad and how to avoid all the other colours that woad also
contains. They also knew how to combine dyeing techniques, e.g.
yellow and blue to gain a colour fast green (as in sample 197/2#4 of
the chessboard rep band), and how to give colours subtle nuances, e.g.
by combining a blue dyeing with less intense dyeings of other colours
(as in sample 100/3#2 of the other rep band). The dye analysis results
for the other Hallstatt textiles provide many more examples of the ex-
pertise of prehistoric dyers (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a).
The analysis of vat dyeing techniques in historical and ethnographic
literature and our processing and dyeing experiments with woad make
two findings obvious:
(1) Woad dyeing techniques can be divided into more simple techniques
and very sophisticated techniques as regards the processing steps,
the duration of the processing and dyeing, and the intensity of con-
trolling and managing the dyeing process.
The similarities are that the ingredients used are moreor less the
same in all techniques (woad, water and alkali, and if woad pig-
ment is used, substances which enhance fermentation as well).
The tools and resources required for dyeing are also the same
(a pot, something for stirring and warmth). There are some dif-
ferences in the tools required for processing, but if processing is
not carried out in very large dimensions, complicatedor specially
constructed tools are not required. All that is needed is the kind
of tools available in “normal households”for cutting, grinding,
pounding and filtering (Table 7). The actual dyeing process
(called dipping) is always the same: immersing the textile for
some time in the liquid, occasionally moving it to ensure even
dyeing, and taking it out to enable the oxidation of indigotin.
For darker shades, immersing and exposure to air is repeated
several times. Apart from the dyeing with fresh leaves, vats can
be used for several days until they are exhausted.
The differences in processing, however, have an effect on the
duration of processing and dyeing, and on the intensity required
for preparing and maintaining the vat (Table 7). It was demon-
strated by our experiments that —once the right temperature,
duration and pH needed for the process are known —dyeing
with fresh woad leaves is much simpler and requires less time,
Fig. 9. Tangled overtwisted spun yarn. Picture: © A. Hartl.
7
e.g. Helen Melvin, artist and dyer in Bodfari Denbighshire, UK, personal communica-
tion and experiments conducted together on 28.-30.09.2010, and Dorothea Fischer, dyer
in Geesthacht, Germany, personal communication by telephone 09.06.2011, method de-
scription also published (Fischer, 1999, 2006).
579A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
equipment, resources, and especially attention during the dyeing
process than the techniques using a processed dyestuff. The pro-
cessing of woad leaves (especially into woad balls and couched
woad) takes some time, but the advantage of these techniques
is that they result in a concentrated, storable and tradable form
of the dyestuff.
8
This means that dyeing can be done indepen-
dently from the harvesting time and the place where woad is
cultivated.
The intensity required to control and manage the vat process is
high when a processed dyestuff (e.g. dried woad pulp, woad
balls, couched woad, woad pigment) is used: the alkaline condi-
tions have to be continually monitored and re-established by
adding alkali, because the fermentation produces acids that
lower the pH. On the other hand, if too much alkali is added
and the pH is too high, fermentation stops. Fermentation can be
enhanced by adding madder, bran, or sugar sources. To reduce
the indigotin into leuco-indigotin in the vat, the right balance
has to be maintained. This requires considerable experience
and attention, because the change of pH can be fairly rapid if
the fermentation is strong, especially at the beginning of the vat
preparation. In our experiments with couched woad vat and
potash-madder-bran vat, the vat was monitored up to three
times a day. The advantage is that these dyeing processes are
quite fast.
The urine vat, however, is an exception. Urine vats are easy to
maintain, but slow. Fresh urine is weakly acidic, but if it is kept
for some days (“putrid urine”), it becomes alkaline (Leuchs,
1857a). Putrid urine provides the required alkalinity and
fermenting bacteria for inducing indigotin reduction (Cardon,
2007). The time-consuming work of monitoring and managing
the vat is not necessary because the pH remains stable (in our
experiments it remained stable at pH 9), which enables dyeing
to be done easily alongside other work. The only “disadvantage”
is that urine vats are slow: the vat takes time to be ready for dye-
ing, and the dyeing itself also takes a long time, especially for
darker shades (Table 7). The urine smell is not a problem:
carefully rinsing and aerating the textile removes the smell
completely. The use of urine vats with indigo is documented for
domestic dyeing in ethnographic sources of Scotland (Grierson,
1989) and Latvia (Bielenstein, 1935). Bielenstein (1935) men-
tions that these methods were also previously applied for
woad, but unfortunately does not provide details about the
form (fresh or processed) in which the woad was used.
Although the production of woad pigment by adopted extraction
methods from Indigofera sp. has only been documented in
Europe since the 19
th
century (Cardon, 2007; Schweppe, 1993),
it is at least conceivable that people knew how to gain woad pig-
ment much earlier. The necessary tools and resources were al-
ready available in the Hallstatt Period, and there is also a
connection to the ancient technique of dyeing with fresh leaves:
the first steps of macerating the leaves are the same (Table 7). It
was noticeable in our dyeing experiments with fresh leaves that
after a while the pigment settles at the bottom of the pots. Fur-
thermore, according to the processes documented by Chaptal
8
Compare Bühler's conclusions from ethnographic documentations of processing
methods of other plants yielding indigoids (Bühler, 1948, 1950).
Fig. 10. Handling of overtwisted spun yarn. Sticks of cooking spoons and loose binding with threads (a)prevent hand spun yarns from becoming tangled during mordanting and dyeing
(b). Pictures: © A. Hartl.
Fig. 11. Dyed hand-spun yarn ready for weaving. Dyed yellow with Tripleurospermum
inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip. Picture: © A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
580 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
(1804), cit. in Nencki (1984), and Leuchs (1857c), the pigment
production does not require aeration of the liquid; the green sed-
iment turns blue after draining off the liquid and being in contact
with oxygen in the air.
The documentation of the various techniques for dyeing blue
with woad in literature and our processing and dyeing experi-
ments show that the fact that woad dyeing was performed
does not necessarily mean that specialised professional vat
dyers (as was the case in the Middle Ages, for example) already
existed. Woad dyeing can also be done at a domestic level, espe-
cially if dyeing techniques with fresh leaves or urine vats are
used.
(2) Regardless of which woad dyeing techniques were used, Iron Age
people already had extensive practical knowledge of the chemical
properties of natural substances and the effect of temperature on
biochemical processes.
Fermentation vats are complex processes that are determined
by several factors such as the quality of the plant material, pH,
time and temperature. The prehistoric dyers already had knowl-
edge of how to manage these processes: fermentation vats only
work at pH 8–9 and have to be kept warm but not boiling. They
knew about the chemical properties of the natural substances
they added, such as urine, wood-ash lye etc. Knowledge about
how to maintain a constant warm temperature is essential
for fermentation vat dyeing, especially in colder climates. It
is known from ethnographic and historical sources (e.g. Ploss,
1989; Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989), that people did not
Fig. 12. Dyedfleece ready for spinning. Dyed yellow withweld (Reseda luteolaL.) and blue
with indigo (Indigofera spp.). Picture: © A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 13. Woad leaf. The blue colour is visible on the injured parts of the leaf where the
colourless precursors have reacted with oxygen in the air and formed indigotin. Picture:
© A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 14. Blue film on the water surface after soaking woad leaves for 24 h. Picture:
©A.Hartl.(Forinterpretationof the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 15. Woad dyes more than blue. All colours were achieved in our experiments with
woad. Picture: © A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure leg-
end, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 16. Dyeing hand-spun yarn in a potash-madder-bran-vat with woad pigment. Taken
out of the vat, the yarn turns blue as soon it is in contact with oxygen in the air. Picture:
© A. Hartl. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
581A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Table 7
Comparison of woad dyeing techniques based on procedures, material, resources, duration and management intensity.
Dyeing with fresh woad leaves
(analogous to methods using
Indigofera spp., Strobilanthes spp.,
Marsdenia tinctoria R.Br.,
Polygonum tinctorium Ait.)
Dyeing with dried fermented
woad leaf pulp (Papyrus Graecus
Holmiensis and a recipe from
Corfu)
Dyeing with couched woad
(mediaeval woad vat)
Dyeing with woad pigment in
urine vat (description for woad
pigment production; vat
analogous to methods
documented for indigo from
Indigofera spp.)
Dyeing with woad pigment in
potash-madder-bran-vat
(description for woad pigment
production; vat analogous to
methods documented for indigo
from Indigofera spp.)
P R O C E S S I N G Processing procedure No processing Woad leaf pulp:
Pounding leaves, fermenting the
pulp, drying (Lagercrantz, 1913;
Leuchs, 1857b; Reinking, 1925)
Woad balls:
Crushing the (washed and wilted)
leaves to a pulp, (fermenting the
leaf pulp), forming of balls, drying
balls (Leuchs, 1857b; Müllerott,
1991, 1993; Wills, 1979;
Edmonds, 1993, 1998a; Cardon,
2007; Hurry, 1930; Schweppe,
1993; Hartl et al., 2015)
Couched woad:
Pounding of dried woad balls,
setting up in heaps, sprinkling
with water. Repeated sprinkling
with water and turning the heaps
to control humidity and
temperature of fermentation
process. Afterwards drying and
packing balls (Leuchs, 1857b;
Müllerott, 1991, 1993; Wills,
1979; Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007; Hurry, 1930;
Schweppe, 1993). Our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015):
pounding of dried woad balls,
sprinkling with water, couching in
thermos jugs.
Optional: sprinkling heaps
additionally with urine
(Müllerott, 1991, 1993)
Pigment:
Macerating (washed) fresh leaves in warm water until the colour of
the liquid changes to yellowish green and bubbles appear. Filtering off
liquid to remove leaves, adding alkali, liquid turns cloudy and dark
green, flocculates. Stirring and beating the liquid for 15 min–2hto
introduce oxygen, blue foam appears. Waiting for pigment to settle
down. Draining off liquid, filtering off the pigment sludge, drying
pigment (Chaptal, 1804; Leuchs, 1857c; Hartl et al., 2015)
Or (method without beating the liquid): after adding alkali (e.g. lime
water), waiting for green sediment to settle down, draining off liquid,
adding acid (sediment turns blue!), stirring, diluting with water.
Waiting for sediment to settle down, draining off liquid. Also without
acid, the green sediment turns into blue due to contact with oxygen in
the air, but acid cleans indigo of lime (Chaptal, 1804; Leuchs, 1857c)
Or other methods: extracting with hot water details see Leuchs (1857c)
Additional ingredients –None Woad balls:
No additional ingredients
Couched woad:
Water (Leuchs, 1857b; Müllerott,
1991, 1993; Wills, 1979;
Edmonds, 1993, 1998a; Cardon,
2007; Schweppe, 1993; Hartl
et al., 2015)
Optional: urine (Müllerott, 1991,
1993)
Water, alkali (e.g. limewater, wood ash lye, potash) (Chaptal, 1804;
Leuchs, 1857c; Hartl et al., 2015)
Optional: acid (e.g. dilute sulphuric acid, acetic acid) for method
without beating the liquid (Chaptal, 1804; Leuchs, 1857c)
Tools and resources –Pot, tool for pounding leaves,
place for drying
1
Woad balls:
Tool for crushing leaves: in
mediaeval times special woad
mills driven by horses or water
(Leuchs, 1857b; Müllerott, 1991,
1993; Wills, 1979; Edmonds,
1993, 1998a; Cardon, 2007; Hurry,
1930; Schweppe, 1993), in our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015)
wooden post and tub; simple racks
for drying woad balls (Leuchs,
1857b; Müllerott, 1991, 1993;
Pot or container, something to keep macerating leaves under water
(e.g. wooden boards, stones), tool for stirring and beating liquid, filter,
warm place to dry pigment sludge (Chaptal, 1804; Leuchs, 1857c; Hartl
et al., 2015)
Tools for aerating the liquid are not necessary in small-scale
production, it can also be done by pouring the liquid from one pot to
another several times, or by moving your hands or feet in the liquid to
introduce air.
582 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Wills, 1979; Edmonds, 1993,
1998a; Cardon, 2007; Hurry, 1930;
Schweppe, 1993; Hartl et al., 2015)
Couched woad:
Tool for pounding woad balls,
covered place for setting up heaps,
tools for turning heaps and
sprinkling with water (Leuchs,
1857b; Müllerott, 1991, 1993;
Wills, 1979; Edmonds, 1993,
1998a; Cardon, 2007; Hurry,
1930). In our experiments (Hartl
et al., 2015): to avoid temperature
loss due to small amounts,
simulation in thermos jugs with air
pump
Duration –Fast
1 day for fermenting (Lagercrantz,
1913; Reinking, 1925) + time for
drying (Lagercrantz, 1913; Leuchs,
1857b; Reinking, 1925)
Slow
Woad balls:
Drying of woad balls for 1 week–2
months (Leuchs, 1857b; Wills,
1979; Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Hurry, 1930)
Optional, before making balls:
fermentation of leaf pulp for 1–3
days up to 4 months (Leuchs,
1857b; Schweppe, 1993)
Couched woad:
4 weeks until 3 months for
couching and drying (Leuchs,
1857b; Wills, 1979; Edmonds,
1993, 1998a; Cardon, 2007; Hurry,
1930), in our experiments (Hartl
et al., 2015): 40 days
Fast
Macerating leaves:
Depending on the temperature, 18–20 h (if warm), possibly several
days (if cold) (Chaptal, 1804), in our experiments (Hartl et al., 2015):
20 and 24 h
Drying pigment sludge:
20–30 days (Chaptal, 1804)
D Y E I N G Dyeing procedure
2
Preparing the dye bath:
Macerating the whole, shredded
or pounded fresh leaves in (hot)
water, adding alkali (Bühler,
1950; Cardon, 2007; Hartl et al.,
2015)
Or: macerating leaves directly in
wood ash lye or urine (Leuchs,
1857b; Bühler, 1950)
Dyeing:
Dyeing textile in the liquid
(Leuchs, 1857b; Bühler, 1950;
Cardon, 2007; Hartl et al., 2015)
Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis:
Warming woad and urine in the
sun for 4 days, stirring every day.
Boiling the mixture, carefully
stirring. Removing from fire and
cooling cauldron from below by
pouring cold water on it. Adding
soapwort, covering and keeping
warm on moderate fire for 3 days,
dyeing (Lagercrantz, 1913;
Reinking, 1925).
Recipe from Corfu:
Pouringwateroverdriedwoad
pulp, when it ferments adding again
water and wood ash lye, dyeing
textile for 8 days (Leuchs, 1857b)
Preparing the vat:
Grounding of couched woad,
putting in a vat, adding very hot
water and maintaining at 50 °C.
Adding alkali until pH 8.5–9,
stirring. Repeated carefully
stirring and controlling pH and
temperature until liquid turns
yellowish green with a coppery
film on the surface (“flower”)
(Edmonds, 1993, 1998a; Cardon,
2007; Schweppe, 1993; Hartl
et al., 2015)
Optional: adding of madder, bran,
beer, yeast to enforce
fermentation (Edmonds, 1993;
Schweppe, 1993)
Dyeing:
Skimming off “flower”, dyeing
textile in the vat, stirring as less as
possible to avoid introduction of
oxygen (Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007; Hartl et al., 2015)
Preparing putrid urine:
Keeping urine warm in the sun or
close to an oven, then filtering off
(Nencki, 1984; Bielenstein, 1935;
Grierson, 1989; Cardon, 2007;
Fischer, 2006; Melvin, 2007;
Spränger, 1975); in our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015):
keeping (filtered) urine at 40 °C in
a waterbath
Or: using just urine (Bielenstein,
1935; Liles, 1999)
Preparing the vat:
Adding indigo in lump or
powdered form to the putrid
urine (put into a muslin bag
suspended in the vat and rubbed
daily), keeping the vat warm until
liquid turns yellowish-greenish
with a coppery film on the surface
(Nencki, 1984; Bielenstein, 1935;
Grierson, 1989; Cardon, 2007;
Fischer, 2006; Liles, 1999; Melvin,
2007; Spränger, 1975; Hartl et al.,
2015)
Optional: stirring the vat daily
Preparing the vat:
Mixing madder and bran in hot
water and keeping at 80 °C for
3-4 h, adding potash and cooling
down to 40 °C, adding indigo.
Keepingvatwarm,stirringtwicea
day (Liles, 1999)
Or: mixing madder, bran, wood ash
lye or potash in warm water, adding
indigo in a tight-weave bag rubbed
daily, keeping vat warm for several
days up to several weeks, adding
additional madder after 2–3days
(Spränger, 1975)
Or: boiling of wood ash lye (pH 10)
with madder and bran for 15 min.,
cooling down to 40 °C, adding
indigo, maintaining temperature,
stirring daily and checking pH,
adjusting with washing soda to pH
8-9 (Melvin, 2007; Hartl et al.,
2015)
Dyeing:
When colour of liquid gets
yellowish green with coppery
flower on the surface, vat is ready
(continued on next page)
583A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Table 7 (continued)
Dyeing with fresh woad leaves
(analogous to methods using
Indigofera spp., Strobilanthes spp.,
Marsdenia tinctoria R.Br.,
Polygonum tinctorium Ait.)
Dyeing with dried fermented
woad leaf pulp (Papyrus Graecus
Holmiensis and a recipe from
Corfu)
Dyeing with couched woad
(mediaeval woad vat)
Dyeing with woad pigment in
urine vat (description for woad
pigment production; vat
analogous to methods
documented for indigo from
Indigofera spp.)
Dyeing with woad pigment in
potash-madder-bran-vat
(description for woad pigment
production; vat analogous to
methods documented for indigo
from Indigofera spp.)
(Fischer, 2006)
Optional: adding dates (Fischer,
2006)
Dyeing:
Dyeing textile (Nencki, 1984;
Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989;
Cardon, 2007; Fischer, 2006; Liles,
1999; Melvin, 2007; Spränger,
1975; Hartl et al., 2015)
for dyeing (Liles, 1999; Melvin,
2007; Spränger, 1975; Hartl et al.,
2015)
Additional ingredients Water, alkali (e.g. wood ash lye,
lime, sodium carbonate, urine)
(Leuchs, 1857b; Bühler, 1950;
Cardon, 2007; Hartl et al., 2015)
Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis:
Water, urine, soapwort
(Lagercrantz, 1913; Reinking,
1925)
Recipe from Corfu:
Water, wood ash lye (Leuchs,
1857b)
Water, alkali (e.g. potash, urine,
lime) (Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007; Schweppe, 1993;
Hartl et al., 2015)
Optional: madder, bran, beer,
yeast (Edmonds, 1993; Schweppe,
1993)
Urine (Nencki, 1984; Bielenstein,
1935; Grierson, 1989; Cardon,
2007; Fischer, 2006; Liles, 1999;
Melvin, 2007; Spränger, 1975;
Hartl et al., 2015)
Optional: dates (Fischer, 2006)
Water, alkali (potash, wood ash
lye, washing soda), madder, bran
(Liles, 1999; Melvin, 2007;
Spränger, 1975; Hartl et al., 2015)
Tools and resources Pot, warmth, tool for stirring
(Hartl et al., 2015)
Optional: tool for cutting or
pounding leaves; net (to put
leaves in) or filter
1
Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis:
cauldron, fire, tool for stirring
(Lagercrantz, 1913; Reinking,
1925)
Recipe from Corfu: pot, warmth,
tool for stirring
1
Pot, warmth, tool for stirring
(Edmonds, 1993, 1998a; Cardon,
2007; Hartl et al., 2015)
Optional: net to prevent material
from dipping into the bottom
sludge of the vat (Edmonds, 1993)
Pot, warmth, filter (Nencki, 1984;
Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989;
Cardon, 2007; Fischer, 2006; Liles,
1999; Melvin, 2007; Spränger,
1975; Hartl et al., 2015)
Pot, warmth, tool for stirring
(Liles, 1999; Melvin, 2007;
Spränger, 1975; Hartl et al., 2015)
Duration for preparing the vat
and dyeing (one dipping)
2
Fast
Duration of macerating leaves:
2–3 days (Leuchs, 1857b; Bühler,
1950), in our experiments (Hartl
et al., 2015): 3 min.–24 h
Dyeing:
1–12 h for one dipping (Leuchs,
1857b; Bühler, 1950; Cardon,
2007), in our experiments (Hartl
et al., 2015): 30 min
?
Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis:
7 days for preparation of vat, no
time given for dyeing
(Lagercrantz, 1913; Reinking,
1925)
Recipe from Corfu:
no time given for fermentation
process, dyeing for 8 days (Leuchs,
1857b)
Fast
Preparing the vat:
20–37 h (Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007), in our experiments
(Hartl et al., 2015): 3–5 days
Dyeing:
20 min–2 h according to state of
the vat (Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007), in our experiments
(Hartl et al., 2015): 2 h
Slow
Preparing putrid urine:
3–4 days up to 3 weeks (Nencki,
1984; Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson,
1989; Cardon, 2007; Fischer,
2006; Melvin, 2007; Spränger,
1975), in our experiments (Hartl
et al., 2015): up to 44 days
Preparing the vat:
2–4 days up to 4 weeks (Nencki,
1984; Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson,
1989; Cardon, 2007; Fischer,
2006; Liles, 1999; Melvin, 2007;
Spränger, 1975), in our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015):
up to 75 days
Fast
Preparing the vat:
2–3 days (Melvin, 2007; Spränger,
1975), few days up to 2 weeks
(Liles, 1999), in our experiments
(Hartl et al., 2015): 3–5 days
Dyeing:
30 min–2h(Liles, 1999; Melvin,
2007; Spränger, 1975), in our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015): 2 h
584 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Dyeing:30 min (Cardon, 2007),
1-2 days (for dark shades the
dippings were repeated for
several weeks!) (Nencki, 1984;
Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989;
Fischer, 2006; Liles, 1999; Melvin,
2007; Spränger, 1975), in our
experiments (Hartl et al., 2015):
0.5-12 h
Intensity of process
management
Low
Stirring 1–2 times per day
(Leuchs, 1857b)
In our experiments (Hartl et al.,
2015): once the desired pH is
reached, no further measures are
needed
High
Monitoring and managing the vat
process
1
High
Monitoring and managing the vat
process (Edmonds, 1993, 1998a;
Cardon, 2007; Hartl et al., 2015)
Low
No monitoring and managing the
vat process necessary.
Optional: rubbing indigo in muslin
bag daily (Nencki, 1984; Grierson,
1989; Cardon, 2007; Liles, 1999;
Melvin, 2007; Spränger, 1975)
Optional: stirring the vat daily
(Fischer, 2006)
High
Monitoring and managing the vat
process (Liles, 1999; Melvin,
2007; Spränger, 1975; Hartl et al.,
2015)
Tested in our experiments with woad (Hartl et al.,
2015)
Yes
used for reproductions
No Yes
but not used for reproductions
Yes
but did not work
Yes
used for reproductions
Notes
Additional processing steps that are only mentioned by some authors are indicated as “optional”, alternative steps are indicated with “or”. If the method applied in our experiments differs from literature considerably, this is indicated (“in our
experiments”).
1
Authors' assumptions if no data given in literature.
2
The actual dyeing process of one dipping is always the same: immersing the textile for some time in the liquid, occasionally moving it to ensure an even dyeing, taking it out and exposing to air to enable the oxidation of indigotin. For darker shades,
the process is repeated several times.
585A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
only use fire under the pot as a source of warmth, but also buried
their dye pots in dung heaps, put hot stones into the liquid, kept
the pot outside in the sun etc.
With no measuring equipment other than human senses, consid-
erable experience and sensitivity are required (especially if proc-
essed forms of woad are used) to control the fermentation vat
process. It is essential to be able to read signs that indicate the
state of the vat, such as smell, taste, feel of the liquid, colour of
the liquid, appearance of bubbles and development of the cop-
pery film on the surface —known as the “flower”. In literature,
the “flower”is described as a clear sign, but in reality, there are
many different “flowers”(Fig. 17). Traditional dyers today still
control their fermentation vats using these signs (e.g. the dyeing
demonstration of traditional Yoruba vat dyeing by Gasali
Adeyemo at the International Symposium and Exhibition on Nat-
ural Dyes in La Rochelle, France 25.04.2011; documentation in
literature e.g. Mohanty et al., 1987; Edmonds, 1998a;
Balfour-Paul, 2006). The right point of time for dyeing needs to
be recognised and cannot easily be planned ahead. This might
be one reason why dyers using fermentation vats often have sev-
eral vats working at once (Fig. 18), see also pictures of traditional
dyers and their vats, e.g. in India (Mohanty et al., 1987), Nigeria
(Gardi, 2009), Thailand, Japan, Sumatra and China (Balfour-
Paul, 2006).
The extensive knowledge dyers had is particularly obvious when
it comes to reproducing shades. It has been established from
many cultures and time periods that dyers were able to repro-
duce a gradation of blue from light to dark: the oldest known
source mentioning this gradation is a Babylonian clay tablet
from the 7
th
century BC; from the European Middle Ages,
standardised scales of blue shades were established (each de-
fined by a special name) which served as a reference for the
exact reproduction by professional dyers (Cardon, 2007). With-
out standardised material at their disposal, dyers were —and
still are —capable of producing standardised colours with fer-
mentation vats.
3.3.3. Which mordants did the prehistoric dyers use?
Only a few plants yield direct dyes, which means that the dyes bind
directly to the fibre material without the requirement of an additional
substance. Examples of direct dyes are tannins, berberine, or the dye-
stuff orchil, which is processed from lichens (Cardon, 2007;
Schweppe, 1993). None of these dyes were detected in the woven
bands from Hallstatt.
For most of the yellow and red dye yielding plants, mordants are re-
quired to fix the dyes to the fibre and improve colour fastness. We used
alum and iron acetate for the dyeings with weld and scentless chamo-
mile to achieve light fastness qualities for the reproductions which en-
able them to be shown in exhibitions. By element analysis of the
samples from the bands, it cannot be concluded if mordants were
used by prehistoric people. Aluminium, copper and iron detected by
SEM-EDX can originate from mordants or from the embedding mate-
rials in the mine, or both (Table 8). In the case of copper, the influence
of the mine is obvious: copper was also detected in a fur with the typical
greenish colour (Inv. Nr. 78538#4, #5, Fig. 3) and in an undyed greenish
textile (HallTex 168) (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a). All band col-
our samples show more or less the same copper content (symbol
+/−,Tables 4,5, 6), even the fabric (sample 100/1#1) to which one
band is sewn (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a; Grömer and
Rösel-Mautendorfer, 2013). We cannot rule out, however, that copper
was already present before the embedding in the mine due to
mordanting. If differences in the elements occur in different coloured
threads of one band (which were exposed to exactly the same condi-
tions in the mine), it could indicate the use of mordants, such as in the
band HallTex 179/2: the green (179/2#4), light olive (179/2#5) and
dark yellow (179/2#3) samples contain only copper, the reddish
Fig. 17. The so-called “flower”. At the surfaceof the vat, the leuco-indigotin oxidisesinto indigotin. Theappearance of the flower canbe very different.Examples from the fermentationvat
experiments: (a) V3.3, 16.10.2010; (b) V11.1, 20.03.2011; (c) V11.2, 20.03.2011; (d) V12.2, 01.04.2011. Pictures: © A. Hartl.
586 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
brown sample (179/2#2) and the black sample from the weft (179/2#1
(Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a)) contain copper and iron. So in this
case, iron could originate from a mordant.
In very early times dyers were already starting to use mineral and
organic substances that improved the quality of the dyeing. Which
methods could the people of the Hallstatt Culture have used? The fol-
lowing possibilities exist:
(a) They could have used alum. Alum is the most universally
used mordant, appreciated for not changing colour shade.
According to Cardon (2007), alum is already mentioned in writ-
ten sources from Egypt, Greece and Assyria, e.g. cuneiform in-
scriptions from 1000 —700 BC. The first alum sources were
native alums: potash alum (KAl(SO
4
)
2
∙12H
2
O), generally found
associated with other aluminium compounds as ammonium
alum (NH
4
Al(SO
4
)
2
∙12H
2
O), alunogen (Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
∙18H
2
O) and
halotrichite (FeAl
2
(So
4
)
4
∙22H
2
O). Alunogen and halotrichite
were also known as hairsalt in the Middle Ages. Native alums
occur in deserts (e.g. in the western Egyptian desert) and volca-
nic areas close to fumaroles (in Antiquity, well-known Mediter-
ranean sources for alum were the islands of Melos, Lipari,
Volcano, Stromboli and Sicily). Manufactured alum extracted
from alunite (also named alumstone, occurring only in volcanic
areas) was already known in Antiquity in Mesopotamia. Since
the Middle Ages, manufactured alum, processed from alunite in
Asia Minor, Greece (Lesbos), southern Spain and Italy (La Tolfa,
close to Rome), became one of the most important commodities
in international trade. The invention of processing alum from
alum shale at the end of the 16
th
century AC in the Inn valley in
Tyrol, Austria, increased the production and consumption of
alum, because the raw material, a pyritic shale, is much more
widespread than alunite (Cardon, 2007). If the dyers of the Hall-
statt Period already used alum, they must have imported it from
the Mediterranean area (trade contacts to the south are docu-
mented (Kern et al., 2009)) or they knew already at this early
time how to process it from alum shale.
(b) They could have used plant mordants. Some plants are able to
accumulate aluminium and were therefore used for mordanting.
In Europe, dyers used species of the Lycopodiaceae family:
stag's horn clubmoss (Lycopodium clavatum L.), ground pine
(Diphasium complanatum (L.) Rothm.), alpine clubmoss
(Diphasium alpinum (L.) Holub) and firclubmoss(Huperzia
selago (L.) Bernh. ex Schrank & Mart.) (Cardon, 2007). The earli-
est archaeobotanical evidence of clubmoss so far is from York in
the mid-9
th
to mid-11
th
century AC: plant remains of clubmosses
were foundtogether with dye plants and dyed textile fragments,
and due to this special context it is likely that clubmoss was used
as a mordant (Hall, 1996). The use of Lycopodiaceae in domestic
dyeing has been documented for Scotland, Scandinavia and
Iceland (Grierson, 1989) as well as Latvia (Bielenstein, 1935).
The whole plant was extracted in water or (putrid) urine
(Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989), whereas it is known from
Asia that people have also been using the ashes of aluminium-
accumulating plants for mordanting, e.g.from Symplocos species
(Cardon, 2007) or camellia (Camellia japonica)(Weinmayr,
2001). Analyses of plant material showed a high aluminiumcon-
tent in Diphasium complanatum (L.) Rothm. and Diphasium
alpinum (L.) Holub), but Huperzia selago (L.) Bernh. ex Schrank
& Mart. did not contain much more than the average aluminium
level in vegetation; its use as a mordant therefore seems
questionable (Duff and Sinclair, 1989). Experiments comparing
mordanting with alum and mordanting with Diphasium
complanatum (L.) Rothm. indicate that clubmoss may have a
positive impact on light fastness (Grierson, 1989). Unlike alum,
clubmoss seems to affect the colour, making dyeings paler
and slightly yellowish (Duff and Sinclair, 1989). In samples
dyed with clubmoss species from ourreference collection (Lyco-
podium clavatum L., Lycopodium annotinum L.and Huperzia selago
(L.) Bernh. ex Schrank & Mart.), small amounts of unknown yel-
low flavonoids were detected which could be responsible for this
colour effect (publication in preparation). All four clubmoss spe-
cies mentioned above were available to Iron Age dyers: they are
common in the Hallstatt Culture area from lowlands to alpine re-
gions, depending on the species (Hegi, 1984).
(c) They could have used iron mordants. The use of iron salts for
mordanting seems to be older than the use of natural alum
(Cardon, 2007). The most common iron mordants for natural
dyes are ferrous sulphate (FeSO
4
∙7H
2
O, also named ferrous-
iron(II)-sulphate, copperas, green vitriol), iron acetate
(Fe(CH
3
COO)
2
, also named iron(II)-acetate, ferrous acetate)
and iron-rich mud. Ferrous sulphate is formed naturally by the
oxidation of white iron pyrites (iron disulphide FeS
2
) or marca-
site by weathering. The natural process takes a few months and
can be accelerated by calcining, leaching and purifying. Ferrous
sulphate was already used in Antiquity in the Mediterranean
area. Iron acetate can be easily produced by dissolving scrap
iron (grinding dust, filings, turnings, rusty nails, etc.) in acetic
acid, a procedure which is already documented in the
Stockholm Papyrus and is still used today, e.g. for traditional
printing and dyeing techniques in India (Cardon, 2007). Not
only vinegar, but other natural acids as well, such as saures
Dünnbier (also named standebilla or tahpinsch,asour-tasting
drink made ofbread crusts fermented in water) were used in do-
mestic dyeing (Bielenstein, 1935). Iron-rich mud was obtained
from particular moors and could be recognised by the rust-
coloured scum or the oily iridescent film on its surface; owing
to the vegetable matter that accumulates in stagnant water, an
anaerobic bacterial reduction maintains the iron present in the
sediments in its soluble ferrous-Fe(II)-state (Cardon, 2007). Dye-
ing methods with iron-rich mud have also been documented by
Bielenstein (1935),Grierson (1989) and Mautner and Geramb
(1932). Iron mordants make colours darker; tannins obtained
from bark, galls or fruit in combination with iron mordants pro-
duce black —a method which is already documented by dye
analyses of Egyptian textiles from the 18
th
dynasty (1542 —
1305 BC) (Cardon, 2007). The use of tannins is proven by the de-
tection ofellagic acid. It is possible that the Hallstatt dyers also al-
ready knew this method for dyeing black: in two samples of
black Hallstatt textiles, ellagic acid-equivalent and iron were de-
tected (textiles HallTex 110 from the Bronze Age and HallTex
Fig. 18. Four indigo vats. The earthenware vats are buried in a mixture of sheep dung to
maintaintheir temperature (example from Hyderabad, India). Picture:© A. Hartl. (For in-
terpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)
587A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
160 from the Iron Age (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a)). It is
therefore possible that iron mordants werealso used for dyeings
with other plants such as those used for the woven bands. Early
Iron Age iron mining and smelting is known from Burgenland,
Austria, e.g. Oberpullendorf (Urban, 2000).
(d) They could have used copper mordants. Cardon (2007) mentions
the sources of copper mordants as being chalcopyrite (a double
sulphide of copper and iron, CUFeS
2
, already listed as a mordant
in the Stockholm Papyrus), copper sulphate (CuSO
4
∙5H
2
O, also
named blue vitriol or blue copperas) and copper acetate
(Cu(CH
3
COO)
2
, also named copper(II)-acetate, cupric acetate).
Copper acetate can be obtained by dissolvingverdigris in vinegar,
concentrating the solution through evaporation and
crystallisation (Cardon, 2007). Other methods from mediaeval
sources have been documented by Ploss (1989); detailed meth-
od descriptions have been given by Leuchs (1857c).Likeironac-
etate, copper acetate is also mentioned as a mordant in recipes of
the Stockholm Papyrus (Cardon, 2007). Copper sulphate was
being used in Antiquity in the Mediterranean area. It is a by-
product of the ancient methods of producing ferrous sulphate
from pyrites; the mixture of both sulphates had to be purified
(Cardon, 2007). The technology of processing ferrous sulphate
and/or copper sulphate from iron pyrites is not documented for
the area and time period of the Hallstatt Culture. It is possible,
however, that these technologies were already known, aspyrites
occur in huge quantities during copper mining. Copper mining in
the Austrian Alps (e.g. in St. Veit and Mitterberg) has been docu-
mented since the Early Bronze Age (Urban, 2000; Goldenberg
et al., 2011).
(e) They could have used fermentation techniques. Several authors
who have documented the domestic dyeing techniques of the
late 19
th
and early 20
th
centuries came across fermentation dye-
ing procedures in central Asia (Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan,
(Moschkova, 1977)) and northern Europe (Latvia (Bielenstein,
1935) and Scotland (Grierson, 1989); Vajanto and Räisänen
(2010) mention similar documentations for that time period in
Finland). In the methods documented for central Asia, either
the wool before dyeing or the dye plant material or both (in
one step or separate steps) were fermented. For fermentation,
cereals were soaked in water for 5–15 days, sometimes with
the addition of sour milk. People used wheat (Triticum sp.), bar-
ley (Hordeum vulgare L.) or dshugara (Sorghum bicolor subsp.
bicolor
9
) in the form of grains, flour and dough. In this mixture,
wool was fermented before dyeing for up to 40 days. Most of
the methods also included the use of mordants (alum or ferrous
sulphate), but some worked without them. The dyeing took
place afterwards either in a hot (boiling) or cold dyeing process.
In some recipes alkali and tannins are added to the dye bath in
the form of plant ashes or extractions (Moschkova, 1977). Simi-
lar fermentation methods using bread or groats have been docu-
mented forLatvia; in addition there are methods using sour milk,
whey, gesäuertes Birkenwasser (fermented birch sap), saures
Dünnbier, sauerkraut juice and juice from rowan berries (Sorbus
aucuparia L.), as well as methods fermenting dye plants in
urine. Thefermentation processes took several days,but enabled
mordanting (and dyeing respectively) without boiling and with-
out having to maintain a fire since warm places, such as dung
heaps, were used to maintain the temperature (Bielenstein,
1935). Some of these traditional fermentation dyeing methods
have been reconstructed in recent experimental research
(Vajanto and Räisänen, 2010; Vajanto, 2012; Bieber, 1989;
Klempau, 1991). Fermentation dyeing techniquesare considered
very ancient techniques, probably older than mordanting with
metallic salts. Fermentation technology has been part of food
production since Neolithic times: the oldest leavened bread
found to date comes from Egypt in 4400 BC (Samuel, 2000,
2001). The oldest European leavened bread was found in
Switzerland and dates from 3600 BC (Währen, 2000). Therefore,
the raw material required (cereals,
10
sourdough and bread) and
the knowledge of fermentation techniques were already avail-
able in the Early Iron Age in Europe. So it may be possible that
the people from the Hallstatt Culture also used these techniques
for dyeing.
(f) They could have done something else but this knowledge has since
been lost.
3.3.4. Tools and resources for dyeing
There is little information available about prehistoric dyeing equip-
ment in Europe. Very few archaeological find spots have been interpreted
as dye workshops, as in Myrtos (Crete, early Bronze II Period), Corinth
(Greece, Hellenistic period), Tell Beit Mirsim (800–700 BC, Palestine)
and Nir David (1000 BC, Palestine) (Barber, 1992). The characteristic
equipment and structures needed for dyeing, apart from dyestuff and tex-
tile material, as listed by Barber (1992),comprise:
•mortars and pestles, grinders,and pounders for preparing the dyestuff
•large pots (especially large when whole clothes are dyed)
•sieves or funnelled drainboards to extract and salvage excess dye li-
quor when the dyed textile is taken out of the bath
•perhaps beaters for washing
•tubs or channels for water
•lots of water (for washing, dyeing and rinsing)
•means of heating the pots for simmering dyeing procedures
9
There are many accepted names according the Tropicos database; we follow the no-
menclature according to Wiersema and Dahlberg (2007).Moschkova (1977) uses the
name Sorghum cernuum.
10
Einkorn (Triticum mo nococcum L.), emmer (T. dicoccon Schrank ex Schübl.), spelt
(T. spelta L.), naked wheat (T. aestivum L. / duru m Desf. / turgidum L.) and barley
(Hordeum vulgare L.) (Körber-Grohne, 1995; Kohler-Schneider, 2007).
Table 8
Possible origin and effect of the chemical elements copper, iron and aluminium.
Possible origin of chemical elements Colour modifying effect
Chemical elements detected Mordants Salt mine
(embedding conditions)
Aluminium Alum
Lycopodiaceae species which
accumulate aluminium in
their tissues
Minerals No effect
exception: the native alum
halotrichite dulls colours due
to its iron content (Cardon, 2007)
Iron Iron containing mud
Ferrous sulphate
Iron acetate
Minerals Dull, darker; with tannins: black
Copper Copper sulphate
Copper acetate
Broken off tips from prehistoric
bronze picks
Greenish, darker
588 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
•several airy racks or platforms and large amounts of space to dry the
dyed material.
Barber (1992) refers to specialist dyers' workshops operating on a
large scale. Analysis of ethnographic literature documenting domestic
dyeing methods on a small scale (Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989;
Mautner and Geramb, 1932; Moschkova, 1977) provides a different
picture of the equipment and resources that the people of the Hallstatt
Culture might also have used:
Pits, pots, cauldrons and wooden troughs: some bronze cauldrons
(Fig. 19) and large types of pots (such as Kegelhalsgefäße or so called
storage pots) are known from the Urnfield and Hallstatt Culture (e.g.
Nebelsick, 1997; Patay, 1990). However, without detecting any dye
remains, it is unclear whether they were used for dyeing. Up to
now no archaeological find of this kind has been excavated in central
Europe. But dyeing does not necessarily require large pots or metal
cauldrons for heating on a fire. Unglazed earthenware pots, wooden
troughs and pots made of bark were also used in domestic dyeing for
non-boiling dyeing processes (such as fermentation dyeing and vat
dyeing) or were heated by hot stones placed in the dye bath
(Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson, 1989). Of course dyeing fabrics or
whole clothes requires larger pots, but dyeing yarn and fleece can
also be done in smaller dimensions. Dyeing the voluminous fleece
needs more water, but small quantities of dyed fleece can be
mixed afterwards during the carding process to obtain larger,
homogenously coloured material (Grierson, 1989; Cardon, 2007).
Special dyeing procedures were also carried out in pits, like the
muža, a pit one metre deep and one metre wide in a moor with
iron-rich mud, which was filled with oak bark, green walnut shells,
Knoppern (i.e. acorn cupule) and alder fruits. This ancient technique
for dyeing black was still being used in the 19
th
century in
Untersteiermark, which is now Slovenia (Mautner and Geramb,
1932).
Other tools: In any case,a tool for stirringis necessary, which could be
a simple wooden stick. Tools for cutting, grinding or pounding dye-
stuff may be the same as for cooking. These belonged to the standard
tool set in settlements and graves of the Hallstatt Culture (e.g.
Nebelsick, 1997). For filtering, fine fabrics or baskets can be used.
In domestic dyeing, measuring was done by experience (e.g. “a
handful”) and did not require special equipment (Bielenstein,
1935; Moschkova, 1977).
Resources: Fire and fire-resistant pots are not necessarily needed for
dyeing. For non-boiling techniques, people made use of warm
places: dye pots were placed in the sun, close to heated ovens, or
buried in dung heaps or warm ashes (Bielenstein, 1935; Grierson,
1989). Sufficient water for dyeing, washing and rinsing is necessary,
but tubs or channels are not required if this is being done in rivers or
lakes. As with clothes washing, space for drying is necessary, and if
woad is processed with couching, covered places are also needed.
3.3.5. Dyeing quality
It has been established from experimental archaeology that the pro-
duction of textiles of the quality and fineness of the Hallstatt textiles
was particularly labour intensive (Grömer, 2010). The many patched
and mended textiles found in Hallstatt indicate that clothes were
worn for a long time before being used as rags in the mine (Grömer,
2005; Mautendorfer, 2005). Therefore the dyeing of the bands must
have been very high quality because the pattern is still clearly visible.
A single-coloured piece can be re-dyed if the colour fades, a practice
which was common in domestic dyeing (Grierson, 1989; Mautner and
Geramb, 1932), but a multi-coloured woven band of course cannot.
Today, the main parameter for describing the quality of dyed textiles
during use is their colour fastness (e.g. light fastness, rub fastness, fast-
ness to perspiration, wash fastness). Fibre and dye form a system —it is
not the colour fastness of the dye alone that has to be assessed, but the
dyeing itself: colour fastness is influenced by dye, fibre material, dyeing
method and colour depth (Peter, 1985). The testing methods are inter-
nationally regulated by ISO standards (International Organization for
Standardization, http://www.iso.org). We focused on the light fastness
of the yarns for the reproductions, because this is themost relevant fac-
tor if they are being shown in exhibitions. Light fastness according to
the Blue Wool Standard ISO 105 B02 is measured on a scale from 1 to
Fig. 19. The bronze cauldron from Sipbachzell, Austria. The cauldron holds ca. 210l
(Höglinger, 1996). Picture: E. Grilnberger © Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum.
Table 9
Examples of minimum requirements for light fastness.
Minimum requirements
for light fastness
Application Source
Level 5 For fabrics intended for furniture, curtains or drapes EU-Ecolabel for textile products (i.e. textile clothing, accessories,
interior textiles, fibres, yarn and fabric) (The Commission of the
European Communities, 2009)
Level 4 For all other products
Level 4 For furniture, curtains or drapes when fabrics are both light coloured
(standard depth b1/12) and made of more than 20% wool or other keratin
fibres, or more than 20% silk, or more than 20% linen or other bast fibres
Levels 3–4 Any final product labelled according GOTS (e.g. fibre products, yarns,
fabrics, clothes and home textiles)
Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), Version 3.0 (International
Working Group on Global Organic Textile Standard, 2011)
Levels between
4 and 6
Average range of minimum requirements in practice for dyeings on
wool, depending on the purposes of the clothing (for leisure wear
the requirements can be very low, for professional clothing or
military purpose very high)
U. Krämer (DEK Deutsche Echtheitskommission / German Colour
Fastness Committee), personal communication by email, 8 August 2013
Note:
Light fastness levels according to Blue Wool Standard ISO 105 B02, on a scale from level 1 (worst value)to level 8 (best value).
589A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
8 (8 being the best value). In practice today, the minimum demands on
light fastness depend on the products' use. For clothing made from
wool, they range between levels 3 and 6 (Table 9).
The light fastness of the dyed yarns used for the reproductions is,
with one exception, fairly good: the scores are between 5 and 6, and
therefore achieve the higher end of the minimum requirements in prac-
tice today. The one unsatisfactory result is the dyeing with fresh woad
leaves, which scored 3 (Table 10). Itis interesting, however, that a sam-
ple of machine-spun merino wool which was dyed in the same vat and
at the same time as the hand-spun sample scores 6. Three other samples
of machine-spun merino wool dyed with fresh woad leaves in different
vats also scored 6 (Hartl et al., 2015).
These levels, however, are still below the light fastness of fourdiffer-
ently coloured prehistoric Hallstatt textiles, which all scored N7: three
samples from the Iron Age (black-brown from the textile HallTex 88,
light brown from HallTex 104, bright green from HallTex 122), and
one from the Bronze Age (brownish yellow from HallTex 217)
(Hofmann-de Keijzer et al., 2013a). Except for HallTex 88, it can be ex-
cluded that these textiles are made of naturally brown or black fleece,
as the fibres are not pigmented. It appears that prehistoric dyers really
were experts. There could, however, be other reasons for the high
values, such as the influence of copper, which enhances light fastness
(as demonstrated by experiments with different mordants and yellow
dyes by Cox Crews (1982), or the dyes had already degraded to a
more stable state when the textiles were being used (Hofmann-de
Keijzer et al., 2013a).
4. Conclusions
4.1. Reproductions and explanation of colours
The Iron Age woven bands from the salt mine in Hallstatt have
been reproduced for the first time using natural material and tradi-
tional hand spinning, weaving and dyeing techniques. The choice of
material and techniques is based on fibre, dye and element analysis
and analysis of the textile techniques of the Iron Age originals. The
reproductions match the original size (yarn diameter, width of the
band) very well and were presented with the Iron Age bands at the
“colours of Hallstatt | textiles connecting science and art”exhibition
at the Natural History Museum Vienna (Hofmann-de Keijzer et al.,
2012)(Fig. 20).
There are many reconstructions of other Iron Age bands (especially
tablet-woven borders), but weaving technology is usually the focus
(e.g. Ræder Knudsen, 1998, 1999, 2012). There are few reproductions
using natural dyes, e.g. the Iron Age fabrics and bands from Hochdorf
in Germany. These tablet-woven band reconstructions, however, could
not be made with hand-spun yarns, because the yarns which met the
requirements of yarn diameter (0.2 mm) did not resist mechanical
stress during the tablet-weaving process (Banck, 1996). Another exam-
ple is the reconstruction of the Vaaler-Band from Dithmarschen in
Germany, using the fleece of primitive sheep (Skudde), goat hair and
natural dyes (the exact dating of this band is not clear) (Goldmann
and Pfarr, 2010). A completely different approach uses computer-
animated techniques for a virtual reconstruction of textiles from the
Roman period (Cybulska, 2010).
Fig. 20. Reproduction of the tablet-woven band presented at the exhibition. Picture: © A.
Hartl. (For interpretation of the colours in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)
Table 10
Light fastness of the dyed yarns used for the band reproductions.
Sample description Light fastness
2
according to Blue Wool
Standard ISO 105 B02, scale from 1
(being the worst) to 8 (the best value)
Reproduced colour (microsample number
of original bands and reproduction variant)
Dye plant and dyeing method
1
Fibre material (hand-spun wool
of Montafon stone sheep)
Woad dyeing with fresh leaves, 4 dippings White wool 3 “blue-green”
(100/3#2, variant 1)
Woad pigment vat, 4 dippings White wool 5 “blue-green”
(100/3#2, variant 2)
Woad pigment vat, 5 dippings; overdyeing
of madder 25%, alum 15%
White wool 6 “blue-green”
(100/3#2, variant 2; not used for reproductions)
Not dyed Brown wool 6 “dark brown”
(100/3#3, variant 1 + 2)
Woad pigment vat, 3 dippings; overdyeing of
Tripleurospermum inodorum 50%, alum 15%
White wool 6 “bluish green”
(179/2#4, variant 1)
Woad pigment vat, 3 dippings; overdyeing of
Tripleurospermum inodorum 50%, alum 15%
White wool 5–6“bluish green”
(179/2#4, variant 2) same method as variant 1,
repeated in another vat
Tripleurospermum inodorum 25%, alum 15% White wool 5–6“light olive”
(179/2#5, variant 2)
Tripleurospermum inodorum 50%, alum 15% White wool 5–6“dark yellow”
(179/2#3, variant 1)
Tripleurospermum inodorum 100%, alum 15% White wool 5–6“dark yellow”
(179/2#3, variant 2)
Weld 50%, iron acetate 1.25% Brown wool N7“reddish brown”
(179/2#2, variant 1)
Note:
1
Percentage refers to the weight of the dry wool which is 100%.
2
The lightfastness test was performed by Suzan de Groot, Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands, Amsterdam.
590 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
The reproductions of the Hallstatt bandsoffer an impression of how
the Iron Age bands mighthave looked before the colours were changed
by copper salts originating from the embedding situation in the mine.
The simulation of this colour-modifying effect by post-mordanting the
reproductions with copper acetate solution contributed to the explana-
tion of the band colours today: it was demonstrated that due to copper,
the blue dyed with woad (especially if dyed with fresh leaves) acquires
the typical bluish-green shade of many Hallstatt textiles. Some yellow-
ish shades were difficult to explain by dye analysis owing to the very
small amount of unknown yellow components detected; they could
be undyed white or yellow dyed wool. Dye analysis of archaeological
textiles from that early period still presents challenges, such as the pos-
sible degradation of dyes and wool fibres, which makes it hard to iden-
tify the dye plants or whether the components are actually from dyes.
This uncertainty was taken into account by reproducing each woven
band in two variants.
4.2. Prehistoric dyeing technology
Little is known about the actual dyeing procedures in Europe in
the era before Christ, since there are no written sources. Reliance is
on indirect sources, such as dye and element analysis of textile
finds, or chemical analysis of substances remaining in objects
which were found in building structures that were interpreted as
being dye workshops. The latter, however, have been found in
regions outside the Hallstatt Culture, such as Crete, Cyprus and Pales-
tine (Barber, 1992). The dye and element analyses of 11 Bronze Age
textiles and 49 Iron Age textiles from the salt mine in Hallstatt
carried out by Hofmann-de Keijzer et al. (2013a) have shown that
the main dyeing principles (vat dyeing, dyeing with or without mor-
dants, and combining different techniques to achieve special colours
and subtle nuances) were already developed in Europe in the Bronze
Age and Early Iron Age. A review of dye analysis of other European
Iron Age textiles confirms this conclusion at least for the Iron Age
(Hofmann-de Keijzer, 2010).
In this paper, we developed a detailed and practical picture of the
conceivable dyeing techniques of the Hallstatt Culture. Different possi-
bilities for the actual dyeing procedures were demonstrated concerning
the handling of the textile material during dyeing, woad dyeing tech-
niques, mordanting, and the tools and resources used. The quality
achieved meets today's requirements for woollen clothing. It was
demonstrated that dyeing with natural dyes is an ancient cultural
technology that is simple in terms of the equipment and resources
needed, but very sophisticated in terms of the knowledge required.
This reflects perfectly the comprehensive knowledge people in
Europe already had more than 3,000 years ago of the chemical prop-
erties of natural substances, the effect of temperature on (bio)-
chemical processes, and the ability to judge and react using the
right measures to manage these complex processes. Although we
focussed in this paper on the Iron Age, we can assume that the begin-
ning of this comprehensive knowledge dates back to the Bronze Age:
from 12 samples of 11 Bronze Age Hallstatt textiles analysed by
Hofmann-de Keijzer et al. (2013a), 9 samples were dyed and 3
samples were probably dyed.
4.3. Interdisciplinary approach
In order to obtain a detailed practical picture of possible prehistoric
dyeing techniques, the combination of many elements is required:
fibre, dye and element analysis of the prehistoric textiles, the analysis
of historical, ethnographic and experimental archaeology sources
about dyeing with natural dyes, as well as “modern”instructions, dye-
ing experiments, working with dyers practising natural dyeing
techniques, assessment of dyeing quality and discussions with
archaeobotanists and archaeologists. This interdisciplinary approach
proved very valuable for developing this differentiated picture.
4.4. Methodological challenges and future research
For the colour description of the woven bands, the Natural Colour
System Code (NCS) was used (Grömer and Rösel-Mautendorfer,
2013). The application of a colorimeter was not possible because the
diameter of the measuring area was too big for the very fine
multicoloured patterns. Tools with very small measuring heads would
enable a more objective colour determination and comparison with
the reproduced colours.
Dye analysis of archaeological textiles from that early time period
still presents challenges concerning the identification of dyes (e.g.
baseline disturbance in the chromatograms, low concentrations of
dyes and coloured components, possible degradation products of
dyes and wool, lack of analytical data of comparable prehistoric tex-
tiles and reference material) and concering the identification of dye-
ing material (e.g. possible use of a broad range of local plants in
prehistory, differences in dye ratios of plant species in prehistoric
times and today, modifications of dye ratios due to unknown dyeing
methods or degradation processes). These challenges have been
discussed by the authors in detail elsewere (Hofmann-de Keijzer
et al., 2013a). A first step to broaden the scope of possible plants
and to shed some light on the unknown reds and yellows was under-
taken by establishing and analysing reference dyeings with more
than 30 local plant species (publication in preparation). However,
this is still a huge field for future research.
Abbreviations
BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna
GOTS Global Organic Textile Standard
HPLC-PDA high-performance liquid chromatography with photo
diode array detection
NHM Natural History Museum Vienna
RCE Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands
SEM-EDX scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray
analysis
UaK University of Applied Arts Vienna
Acknowledgements
Our research was enabled and supported by many people. We
would like to thank them for their kind cooperation and also for the
interest in our work which they showed in their support: Jürgen Friedel
(Institute of Organic Farming, University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences Vienna (BOKU) for providing the laboratory for the dyeing ex-
periments; Christian Vogl (Institute of OrganicFarming, BOKU, Vienna)
for enabling this research to be undertaken at the Institute of Organic
Farming; Bernhard Pichler (Department Archaeometry, University of
Applied Arts Vienna) for the fruitful cooperation within the research
project; Anton Kern (Prehistoric Department NHM Vienna); Eckart
Barth (Prehistoric Department NHM Vienna) for providing the textile
finds excavated in the Hallstatt salt mine; Johanna Putscher for
organising the literature; Berta Gielge, Tanya Niedermüller and Johanna
Putscher for help with woad cultivation and processing; Marianne
Kohler-Schneider and Andreas G. Heiss (both from the Institute of Bot-
any, Working Group Archaeobotany, BOKU, Vienna) for providing
archaeobotanical literature and stimulating discussions; Beate Berger
(Agricultural Education and Research Centre Raumberg Gumpenstein)
for valuable information on rare Austrian sheep breeds; Günter Jaritz,
Markus Stadlmann, Barbara Soritz and Hans Kjäer (Arche Austria,
breeders of rare Austriansheep breeds) for generously providing fleece
from these breeds; Katrin Kania (pallia, Erlangen, Germany) for the
great contribution she made to the spinning experiments; Helen Melvin
(artist and dyer in Bodfari Denbighshire, UK), Ian Howard (Woad-inc.,
Dereham, UK) and David Hill (University of Bristol, UK) for sharing
their knowledge about woad vats and processing; Joseph Kóo(Original
591A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Indigo Blaudruck, Steinberg, A) for providing indigo; Art Néss Proaño
Gaibor for his contribution of the dyestuff analysis of reference mate-
rials and Suzan de Groot for carrying out the Xenon test (both from
the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands, Amsterdam); Manuel
Wandl (University of Applied Arts Vienna) for contributions to the col-
our shade selection from the textile designer's point of view; Brigitta
Colbert (ÖTI Institut für Ökologie, Technik und Innovation GmbH, Vien-
na) for her explanation of the assessment and requirements of light
fastness in the modern textile industry and Claire Tarring for English
proofreading. We thankSalinen Austria AG who enable and support ex-
cavations in the Hallstatt salt mine and the Austrian Science Fund FWF
who funded the project “Dyeing techniques of the prehistoric textiles
from the salt mine of Hallstatt —analysis, experiments and inspiration
for contemporary application”(Austrian Science Fund FWF: L431-G02).
Fig. A.1. Apigenin-equivalent-001 (sample 179/2#5, light olive).
Fig. A.2. Indirubin-equivalent-001 (sample 100/3#2, blue-green).
Fig. A.3. Red-002 (sample 100/3#2, blue-green).
Fig. A.4. Orange-001 (sample 179/2#4, bluish green).
Appendix A. Spectra of unknown components detected in the Iron Age bands
592 A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
Fig. A.5. Orange-002 (sample 100/3#2, blue-green), probably related to woad
(Isatis tinctoria L.).
Fig. A.6. Yellow-009 (sample 100/3#2, blue-green).
Fig. A.7. Yellow-010 (sample 100/3#2, blue green).
593A. Hartl et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 569–595
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