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Fighting drought with innovation: Melbourne's response to the Millennium Drought in Southeast Australia
Abstract and Figures
Water shortages brought on by the Millennium Drought in Southeast Australia forced greater Melbourne, a city of 4.3 million people, to find innovative ways of increasing water supply and decreasing water demand. This article explores how water managers in Melbourne reacted to the crisis and evaluates the short-and long-term impacts of their decisions. Reduced water demand occurred primarily through residential and industrial water conservation programs, restrictions , together with emergency reductions in the environmental release of water to streams. The city also experimented with using recycled water, in place of surface water, to support agriculture in the Werribee Irrigation District. Water pricing was not strengthened during the drought, and thus not regarded as a drought demand management tool, primarily because Melbourne water companies lacked independent price setting powers. Today, 5 years after the end of the Millennium Drought, gains in water conservation appear to be holding steady, but recycled water for irrigation has declined for various reasons. We contend that the Millennium Drought provided Melbourne with the opportunity to develop and implement a more integrated approach to water management. Many of the innovations it forged (e.g., distributed harvesting and use of stormwater) will continue to enhance the city's resilience to drought and reduce its vulnerability to climate variability for years to come. Nevertheless, a challenge going forward is how to sustain these achievements in light of anticipated population growth and continued climatic change. This challenge—coupled with Melbourne's successes—hold important lessons for water-stressed cities around the world.
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... Comparing different drought management strategies in a quantitative manner, as presented here, complements qualitative comparisons of previous studies (White et al., 2001;Wilhite et al., 2014;Urquijo et al., 2017). Some of the tested strategies have been assessed separately, as studies focused on either water demand (Low et al., 2015;Maggioni, 2015;Gonzales and Ajami, 2017;Hayden and Tsvetanov, 2019), adaptive water management (Thomas, 2019; White et al., 2019) or conjunctive use combined with managed aquifer Figure 6. Impact of increased/decreased modelled storage outflow parameters and increased/decreased water demand on groundwater drought characteristics (drought duration and maximum intensity). ...
... The impact of drought mitigation scenarios 1 and 2 (increased water supply and restricted water demand) is mostly noticeable during extreme drought conditions when water demand reduces more than water supply increases. In most extreme drought conditions, water demand reduces by 36 %, which is similar to the extreme water reductions realised in Melbourne, Australia, during the Millennium Drought (Low et al., 2015) but not as low as water restrictions enforced in some parts of Cape Town, South Africa, during the Day Zero crisis (Rodina, 2019;Garcia et al., 2020). ...
... Alternatively, catchment-specific modelling could investigate if storing more surface water during winter in, for example, a small groundwater system, would aid in meeting the higher surface water demand in summer (Peñuela et al., 2020;Delaney et al., 2020) or allow for additional groundwater recharge (He et al., 2021). Reducing water demand (−5 %) results in shorter hydrological droughts and less imported water, but realising a permanent reduction in water demand can come at high costs for both drinking water providers and/or water users and might not always be successful (Low et al., 2015;Gonzales and Ajami, 2017;Muller, 2018;Caball and Malekpour, 2019;Simpson et al., 2019). Generating more awareness and reducing water demand prior to the actual water shortage might also result in better adaptive management of water resources (Garcia et al., 2016;Noorduijn et al., 2019;Garcia et al., 2020;Thomann et al., 2020). ...
Managing water–human systems during water shortages or droughts is key to avoid the overexploitation of water resources and, in particular, groundwater. Groundwater is a crucial water resource during droughts as it sustains both environmental and anthropogenic water demand. Drought management is often guided by drought policies, to avoid crisis management, and actively introduced management strategies. However, the impact of drought management strategies on hydrological droughts is rarely assessed. In this study, we present a newly developed socio-hydrological model, simulating the relation between water availability and managed water use over 3 decades. Thereby, we aim to assess the impact of drought policies on both baseflow and groundwater droughts. We tested this model in an idealised virtual catchment based on climate data, water resource management practices and drought policies in England. The model includes surface water storage (reservoir), groundwater storage for a range of hydrogeological conditions and optional imported surface water or groundwater. These modelled water sources can all be used to satisfy anthropogenic and environmental water demand. We tested the following four aspects of drought management strategies: (1) increased water supply, (2) restricted water demand, (3) conjunctive water use and (4) maintained environmental flow requirements by restricting groundwater abstractions. These four strategies were evaluated in separate and combined scenarios. Results show mitigated droughts for both baseflow and groundwater droughts in scenarios applying conjunctive use, particularly in systems with small groundwater storage. In systems with large groundwater storage, maintaining environmental flows reduces hydrological droughts most. Scenarios increasing water supply or restricting water demand have an opposing effect on hydrological droughts, although these scenarios are in balance when combined at the same time. Most combined scenarios reduce the severity and occurrence of hydrological droughts, given an incremental dependency on imported water that satisfies up to a third of the total anthropogenic water demand. The necessity for importing water shows the considerable pressure on water resources, and the delicate balance of water–human systems during droughts calls for short-term and long-term sustainability targets within drought policies.
... 20,21 The first can be accomplished by modifying conventional MS4 systems with gray and green infrastructure that captures, treats, and stores (e.g., in tanks) the runoff generated during storm events from roofs, parking lots, roads, and other impervious surfaces in the urban landscape 22,23 and then utilizes the captured runoff as a new water resource in the interval between storms for fit-for-purpose activities, including irrigation, freshwater aquatic habitats (so-called "environmental water"), and non-potable activities (e.g., toilet flushing), to name a few. 5 The second can be accomplished through a variety of green infrastructure approaches that remove pollutants and allow for infiltration (e.g., rain gardens) or controlled release of stormwater between storm events (e.g., rain tanks outfitted with outlets that slowly release captured water after treatment). 20,24−31 In addition to addressing the stream morphology, water quality, and ecological problems noted above, as well as providing a new (renewable) water supply, 32−34 many stormwater control measures also have the potential to reduce urban flood risk 35−37 and provide a greener urban environment with many human co-benefits. ...
Stormwater capture systems have the potential to address many urban stormwater management challenges, particularly in water-scarce regions like Southern California. Here, we investigate the potential best-case limits of water supply and stormwater retention benefits delivered by a 10,000 m 3 stormwater capture system equipped with real-time control (RTC) on a university campus in Southern California. Using a copula-based conditional probability analysis, two performance metrics (percent of water demand satisfied and the percent of stormwater runoff captured) are benchmarked relative to (1) precipitation seasonality (historical rainfall and a counterfactual in which the same average annual rainfall is distributed evenly over the year); (2) annual precipitation (dry, median, and wet years); and (3) three RTC algorithms (no knowledge of future rainfall or perfect knowledge of future rainfall 1 or 2 days in advance). RTC improves stormwater retention, particularly for the highly seasonal rainfall patterns in Southern California, but not water supply. Improvements to the latter will likely require implementing stormwater capture RTC in conjunction with other stormwater infrastructure innovations, such as spreading basins for groundwater recharge and widespread adoption of green stormwater infrastructure.
... For Melbourne, more than a decade of severe drought and water restrictions provided the opportunity to implement a water sensitive urban design (WSUD) approach for a more integrated and sustainable water management (Low et al., 2015). This included the development of stormwater harvesting projects to reuse stormwater runoff, thus providing alternative water sources for irrigating urban 70 green spaces (Martire, 2018). ...
Increasing urban green spaces and canopy cover requires careful planning of irrigation strategies, especially in arid and semiarid areas. This study investigates how vegetation cover and irrigation affect the water balance and vegetation productivity of a small urban reserve in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia. Using a mechanistic ecohydrological model, a series of numerical experiments were carried out for the period 1999–2018, which included a prolonged drought. Results indicated that irrigation played an essential role in helping both trees and grass productivity by increasing soil moisture and vegetation water access during the drought. With 10% tree cover, grass benefitted more than trees by increasing irrigation, and trees coped well with drought even without additional water. However, trees strongly relied on irrigation to maintain productivity when tree cover increased, highlighting the need for a sustainable balance between increasing urban greening and water conservation. Differences in soil properties and rooting strategies were also found to strongly modify the need for irrigation and the competition for water. These results provide quantitative insights on how increasing tree cover and vegetation diversity may impact irrigation requirements, highlighting the key role of mechanistic numerical models to support urban planners in the evaluation and design of urban green spaces.
... In this context, the vulnerability of cities to droughts is increasing in many world regions (Wang et al., 2020;Sudradjat et al., 2020;Elmqvist et al., 2019;UNDESA, 2018;UNISDR, 2013). The millennium drought [2000][2001][2002][2003][2004][2005][2006][2007][2008][2009] in Australia, California's 2012-2016 drought, and the countdown to "day 0" exhaustion of the water supply in 2018 in Cape Town, are all clear examples of the complex relationship between urban systems and water demand/supply, and showcase the different ways in which cities have dealt with water shortages: mainly by imposing severe restrictions in urban areas and diverting environmental water flows for human use (Simpson et al., 2019;Lund et al., 2018;Low et al., 2015). (See Figs. 1 and 2.) Here we address the following overarching question: how can changes in available water under climate change be translated into attainable options for long-term sustainability in urban systems? ...
Climate change is likely to increase droughts. The vulnerability of cities to droughts is increasing worldwide. Policy responses from cities to droughts lack consideration of long-term climatic and socio-economic scenarios, and focus on short-term emergency actions that disregard sustainability in the connected regional and river basin systems. We aim to explore the dynamics of the water-energy-land nexus in urban systems suffering increased climate change-related droughts, and their implications for sustainability. We complement a case study with a literature review providing cross-regional insights, and detail pervasive knowledge, policy and ambition gaps in the interaction between cities and droughts. We show that water availability with low emissions, without compromising ecosystems and with low costs to society, poses a local-scale limit to sustainable urban growth, a new concept delineating the limits to growth in cities. We conclude that urban and river basin planners need to institutionalize transparency and cross-sectoral integration in multi-sector partnerships, to consider long-term land use planning together with water and energy, and to apply integrated climate services to cities. Our study reveals the importance of including land, water and energy in long-term urban planning, and to connect them with the county, region, river basin and global scales.
... Esto condujo a que el gobierno sudafricano implementara restricciones en la cantidad de agua que cada persona podía usar. Otros ejemplos que se encuentran muy cerca de esta situación son la Ciudad de México, Sao Paulo o Melbourne (Ceratti, 2016;Low et al., 2015). Este problema revela la importancia de analizar el papel que puede jugar el derecho internacional en la solución y prevención de este tipo de problemáticas, que son cada vez más comunes y para las cuales parece necesaria la articulación entre estados (Rojas-Quesada & Valenciano-Hernández, 2019). ...
Desde principios de la década de los años noventa, la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo está inmersa en un proceso de transformación integral, sistemático y continuo para responder con oportunidad y niveles crecientes de calidad a las demandas cambiantes de formación de profesionales y del desarrollo social y económico de la entidad y el país. Actualmente, su proceso de transformación institucional está orientado por el Plan de Desarrollo 2018-2023, en el cual se establece el escenario a hacer realidad en el año 2023: “La UAEH es una universidad visible internacionalmente y aceptada por sus resultados en materia de calidad académica y administrativa”. El surgimiento de la contingencia sanitaria debida a la COVID-19, a principios de 2020, ha alterado el proceso de transformación institucional en curso y la realización de las actividades académicas y de gestión. La Universidad tuvo que suspender sus labores presenciales e implementar un conjunto de políticas y estrategias para superar los desafíos creados por la contingencia y continuar con el desarrollo de las funciones que la sociedad hidalguense le ha encomendado. Con el propósito de documentar lo ocurrido en la realización de las actividades universitarias, así como su contribución en el ámbito de su compromiso educativo y social durante la pandemia, la Universidad invitó a su comunidad a presentar investigaciones, discusiones teóricas, reflexiones y experiencias al respecto. Aquellas aportaciones que fueron dictaminadas favorablemente (sesenta en total) integran el contenido de esta obra, que usted, estimado lector, tiene entre sus manos. Muchas son las experiencias, vivencias, percepciones, hallazgos y dificultades que se documentan en los estudios, investigaciones y reflexiones acerca de la realización de las actividades académicas y administrativas por parte de la comunidad universitaria entre marzo y junio de 2020. De las diferentes contribuciones es posible inferir que la contingencia sanitaria aceleró, no sin dificultades, el aprendizaje virtual en la Universidad; evidenció las brechas digitales existentes entre los estudiantes y su exigua capacidad lectora, así como la escasa experiencia de profesores y estudiantes con la educación virtual; obligó a la migración hacia escenarios virtuales de trabajo y a la utilización intensiva de los sistemas de información y de plataformas digitales que facilitaron el paso de las clases presenciales a las virtuales; detonó la innovación de algunos procesos de gestión académico-administrativos; alteró prácticas sociales entre universitarios y modificó esquemas de trabajo de profesores, estudiantes y personal administrativo.
Melbourne, Australia is a city of nearly five million people facing multiple threats to water security, in particular, climate change and population growth. Rising temperatures and reduced rainfall are prolonging droughts and depleting storage water levels. At the same time, an increasing population is creating greater demand despite decreasing stocks. In response, authorities have adopted a strategy meant to enhance their capacity to provide water, based on the concept of ‘security through diversity’. This approach, however, is neither sustainable nor a true embodiment of the principle of diversification. It is predicated on a centralized system of urban water management that is unsuited for present circumstances and places greater importance on supply-side interventions—such as desalination—than on initiatives meant to address demand. Thus, the strategy needs to be transformed if it is to better embody the principle of diversification and ensure water security. This could be accomplished by including a broader range of relevant stakeholders, such as Indigenous and other civil society groups, to improve the city’s current water management strategies and tackle its dependence on a centralized urban water management system.
The level of water resource development was not at a critically high level when climate change dramatically reduced runoff and recharge in South-west Western Australia. This was because of the state’s relatively low population for its size, a small irrigation industry (mainly based on self-supply groundwater) and the low level of secondary industry. Few resources were heavily over allocated despite the need to significantly de-rate water supply systems. The strong uni-directional drying signal in the south-west of WA has been an advantage in that new water supplies have been developed and/or demands reduced as conditions continued to dry, reinforcing the decisions made. Strong government leadership in adapting to a drying climate in the south-west, through accelerated and alternate water source developments has been extremely successful in mitigating dire impacts, especially in the Perth-Peel region. However, as drying and warming trends continue, there is less opportunity to develop new sources and a need to consider a wider array of sources, especially use in water resource planning. More nuanced planning requires stronger governance settings and increased engagement of stakeholders. A step change in the governance and sophistication of water planning and management could be achieved through new legislation in coming years.
In this article, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to investigate why urban water organisations are still lacking climate change adaptation in their water security management and planning, the key barriers and how they could be solved and enabled. In addition, urban water crises in the last decade have been examined to emphasise what happened in recent times due to ignorance of water policy makers and decision takers to understand the significance of potential climate impacts on water, and to embark on adaptation measures. Barriers and success parameters in the literature were discussed with local water professionals of the Queensland tropics, Australia, to understand the applicability and importance of these parameters in the region. A selected group of 20 water professionals were interviewed to validate the climate change adaptation barriers and enablers in the broader context of the tropical Queensland. The study shows a strong need for case study-based research to capture in-depth understanding and challenges of climate change adaptation in the region. Lack of support from stakeholders, lack of holistic guidelines and ambiguous policy frameworks were identified as the most critical barriers for climate change adaptation in the Queensland tropics. Quantifiable terminologies to assess the success of climate change adaptation practice are preferred in the water sector, and calculable water security indicators, if correctly developed, can be valuable tools to measure and track the progress of climate change adaptation success in a local water sector.
Academic contributions in environmental science and engineering (ESE) research are needed to ensure a cleaner, productive, and environmentally conscious society. Hence, an understanding of the critical trends, topics, and research developments in the field is crucial towards facilitating the identification, communication, and improved research collaboration of nascent and increasingly complex environmental problems. As a deeper analysis of the broader trend evolution of ESE research is lacking in the literature, we employ a more robust content analysis approach in the form of a topic modeling computational text analysis method to unearth key temporal and regional insights in the field. As such, we apply a latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) model on abstract metadata based on 3572 articles procured from reputable journals that published subject matter related to ESE research from 2005 to 2019 inclusive. We analyze the statistical composition of each inferred topic in the form of word clouds and uncover general research trends, such as topics related to environmental impact assessments, improved clean cookstoves, solid waste management, and environmental lead pollution. We also perform temporal analysis experiments across each respective journal observe a high degree of consistency and variance among topic focuses. Moreover, whilst quantifying trends at the regional level, we detect that certain countries display clearly discernible patterns, suggesting that research communities in ESE from various countries tend to focus on different sub-fields. The main contribution of our work is the application of a more refined computer-assisted content analysis method in ESE trend analysis research that can serve as the foundation for future exploratory trend analysis investigations in ESE and other related fields.
The installation of satellite water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs) has strengthened the ability to provide cheap and reliable recycled water to meet the increasing water demand of expanding cities. As a result, recent studies have attempted to address the problem of how to optimally integrate satellite systems with other sectors of the urban sphere, such as the local economy, the power supply, and the regional carbon footprint. However, such studies are merely based on the spatial domain, thus neglecting potential time-dependent strategies that could further improve the sustainability of metropolitan water systems. Therefore, in this study a new conceptual framework is proposed for the dynamic management of hybrid systems comprised of both centralized and satellite WRRFs. Furthermore, a novel set of integrated real-time control (RTC) strategies are considered to analyse three different scenarios: 1) demand response, 2) flow equalization of the centralized WRRF and 3) reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Data from a case study in California is used to develop an integrated dynamic model of a system of 8 facilities. Our results show that by dynamically shifting the dry-weather influent wastewater flows between hydraulically connected WRRFs, a reduction in power demand (up to 25%), energy use (4%), operating costs (8.5%) and indirect carbon emissions (4.5%) can be achieved. Therefore, this study suggests that a certain degree of hydraulic interconnection coupled with dynamic load-shifting strategies, can broaden the operational flexibility and overall sustainability of hybrid WRRF systems.
Investigation of non-revenue water in Yarra Valley Water, a retail water company in Melbourne
People, planet, prosperity and peace are four priorities shared by Africa and Europe, and areas where opportunities for beneficial cooperation abound. Over the past three decades, the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC) has worked with many organisations and institutions across Africa. This report and its accompanying interactive online service, ‘Africa StoryMaps’, present the key findings from this collaboration, and set out options the decision-making, research and education communities may consider. The report focuses on the African dimension of the partnership. It explores the opportunities and challenges arising from the fact that Africa has over twice the population of the European Union (EU), is the world’s most youthful continent, has an economy that is growing faster than that of the EU, is almost seven times larger geographically, yet is vulnerable to diverse internal and external stresses.
In the last decade, many communities in Australia have faced prolonged drought periods. Water authorities have responded with various demand and supply measures ranging from water conservation and water restrictions to seawater desalination. Most of the above measures are associated with some environmental, economic and/or social impacts. These measures can also affect the key objectives of water utilities such as providing a reliable supply of low cost, high quality water while maintaining the environmental health. Some of the above objectives tend to be mutually conflicting, highlighting that decisions associated with key operations and system planning must be based on an assessment of such multiple objectives. For many water authorities, the multi-objective decisions on key operations and system planning need to be made considering uncertainties in future streamflow conditions. For water supply systems that have the capacity to store large volumes of water, this may require the consideration of potential streamflow conditions over many future years. In addition, the decisions may also involve trading-off short-term operations such as greater use of higher-cost water sources with longer-term solutions to supply-demand balance. The latter may include a range of demand management or supply augmentation measures. The complexity of making the above decisions calls for a multi-objective optimisation approach that considers key operation decisions and supply-demand balance decisions over temporal and spatial scales ranging from long-term strategic decisions down to more detailed annual system operation planning. Despite this clear need, optimisation tools are not widely available or used in the water industry. In contrast, simulation modelling tools, such as REALM, have been widely used by many water authorities in Australia to assist with system planning and operations. REALM simulates the water allocation within a system in accordance with user-defined operating rules, but does not optimise the system operations over time. The integration of new supplies and the need to consider multiple objectives in water system planning and operations prompted Melbourne Water to engage water system optimisation specialists Optimatics to develop a decision support system, Optimizer WSS, for water supply system optimisation. Optimizer WSS employs a Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) optimisation which in turn uses Melbourne Water's existing REALM simulation model to efficiently assess the consequences of millions of combinations of alternative decisions on key operations and the long-term supply-demand balance for a range of potential future hydrological scenarios. The optimisation identifies superior solutions termed 'Pareto-Optimal solutions' considering the range of water supply objectives. The Pareto-Optimal solutions enable Melbourne Water and its stakeholders to select the most suitable solution by optimally balancing one or more water supply objectives against the others, through a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) considering an array of additional assessment criteria as well. The complex issue of streamflow uncertainty is addressed through a streamflow-scenario based optimisation followed by testing of optimal solutions for their robustness under different streamflow scenarios. The whole process is built on a high level of stakeholder engagement.
Stormwater biofilters (also called rain gardens, bioretention systems, and bioswales) are used to manage stormwater runoff in urbanized environments. Some benefits of biofilters include flood prevention, stormwater runoff water quality improvement, and wildlife habitat. This technology has been implemented on a larger scale in southeast Australia, but cities and counties in southern California just beginning to construct biofilter systems to manage stormwater runoff. Biofilters tend to be larger in southern California than in southeast Australia. Differences in rainfall patterns likely affect biofilter function. Southern California has much longer periods between rain events than southeast Australia, providing challenges to establishing and maintaining vegetation in biofilters. The use of biofilters for restoring predevelopment flow regimes has been studied in a peri-urban watershed in southeast Australia, but flow regime restoration is not likely in highly urbanized locations in both Australia and southern California. However, stormwater runoff treatment and harvesting in decentralized biofilters could substantially reduce storm flows and improve water quality in receiving waters while improving urban water supply and extending the life of existing stormwater management infrastructure.For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.Conflict of interest: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
Most of California is suffering from an extreme drought, and storage levels in the major reservoirs are well below historic levels. For the past several months, an unusually stubborn ridge of high pressure off the West Coast of the United States has been blocking normal winter storms and the rain
Current design of bioretention systems is intended to intercept and retain stormwater, enhance infiltration, and remove organic particulates, nutrients, pathogens, metals, and other contaminants using natural processes that derive from the interactions of water, soil, microbes, plants, and animals. Most bioretention systems function as isolated patches of various shapes and sizes surrounded by impervious surface. A significant body of ecological theory has been developed that addresses the relationships among species composition, diversity, and ecosystem function, and how these vary with spatial structure. Here we highlight how such theories may be applied to improve the efficiency or effectiveness of bioretention systems. We consider (1) the role of plant and animal species that function as ecosystem engineers, (2) biodiversity–ecosystem function relationships, (3) complexity and stability, (4) disturbance and succession, and (5) spatial theory. Future testing of the utility of these theories may occur through incorporation of experiments into the design of bioretention systems or through meta-analysis of systems that span a range of configurations and biotic features.For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.Conflict of interest: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
Transition to a water-cycle city, a sustainable urban water management future, requires the implementation of centralised and decentralised systems to augment potable water supply, protect waterways and enhance urban liveability. Risk is simultaneously driving and impeding this transition. However, risk perceptions of water practitioners and how they affect practitioner receptivity to future modes of urban water supply are poorly understood. This study characterises risk perceptions and attitudes of Australian urban water practitioners towards alternative water systems and uses a receptivity framework to suggest how receptive practitioners are to these systems. Differences between cities are identified, suggesting how familiarity might influence receptivity. These results can inform strategies to enhance receptivity, including improved communication within the water industry and beyond with its various stakeholders, improved cost-projection frameworks
to provide a quantitative metric of the benefits of sustainable water options, and a shift from ‘learning to manage’ to ‘managing to learn’.