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Pascal, N., Seidl, A., 2013. Economic benefits of Marine Protected Areas: case studies in Vanuatu and Fiji, South Pacific. . International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Agence française de Développement (AFD) - Research report, IRCP (EPHE/CNRS) 261 pp.
Abstract and Figures
An appraisal of economic benefits of community-based Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has been conducted in 10 villages in Vanuatu and Fiji.
Community-based MPAs are considered among the main fisheries and coastal management tools adapted to the context of many Pacific countries, where intervention of government agencies is minimal and where community participation remains important. Governments, multilateral agencies and NGOs have supported community-based MPAs in the last 15 years and their number was estimated at more than 500 in the Pacific in 2007. Nonetheless, this support must now be improved with more stable financial funding and regulations adapted to this kind of management.
A bottom line analysis of their impacts on local development, poverty reduction and on world biodiversity as a public good was identified as a way to “inform & convince” decision-makers, budget-makers, local stakeholders and donors.
The principal effects of MPAs on selected ecosystem services (fisheries, tourism, coastal protection against flood and bequest value) have been assessed. Economic benefits and costs of MPAs have been valued for all local stakeholders in the spatial perimeter of effects of the MPA as well as for national and international stakeholders.
The study has proceeded through the following steps: (i) identification and valuation of ecosystem services (ES) in the spatial perimeter of MPA effects and (ii) estimation of the MPA effects on the stock and flow of ES values. Valuation is based on observed historic values (ex-post) collected during 2011-2012 and on discounted projections at 25 years.
The 5 MPAs in Vanuatu are placed in the North of Efate with villages summing 1200 habitants and 13 km2 of coral reef fishing ground. 4 MPAs in Fiji are in the tourism zone of the Coral Coast of Viti Levu with 1500 people living in the MPA villages (9 km2 of coral reef fishing ground). The other MPA in Fiji is closed to Suva, the country capital, with 900 habitants and 19 km2 of coral reef fishing ground.
Precise criteria on socio-ecological context and on the presence of MPA success key factors have been employed for the selection of the villages. Each of the sites fulfils the three following criteria: (i) proximity of economic activities (mainly fishing, tourism and human settlements), (ii) the MPA is actively managed and adequately enforced by communities for at least five years and, (iii) the reserve covers at least 10% of the fishing ground area.
RESULTS
The MPAs have been shown to generate benefits mainly improving the nature tourism attractiveness and maintaining the service of coastal protection as well as fishery productivity. Tourism business owners are the main beneficiaries (>60% of the total benefits in most of the cases) followed by village households.
The observed costs of community based MPA are between US 10k yr-1 km-2 of protected area. The economic effects of MPAs have been estimated between USUS 530k yr-1km-2 of protected area.
All the studied MPAs have produced positive C-B ratios demonstrating that investments in marine reserves, in addition to avoid the risk of overfishing and participate in the conservation of coral reefs, is an effective means to contribute to local economic development. The ecological effects on fish populations and habitats in the MPA have produced concrete and tangible benefits both for the villages with MPA and the surroundings villages.
The level of C-B ratios reflects a significant leverage of investments in MPAs for important impacts on tourism benefits (ES3) and costal protection values (ES5).
The economic value of ES in the study sites was between US 1.9M per year and per village. Cultural services with tourism revenues from divers, snorkelers, resorts and day tours comprise a large proportion of the total (>60% of the total) with almost 12 000 reef visitors per year in Vanuatu and 42 000 in the Fijian Coral Coast. In the study zones, the service of protection against coastal floods provides benefits for an important number of houses (>500 in some sites) and tourism buildings (>80 000 in some sites).
The main results per country are described below. Recommendations about the interpretation of results and orientation of coastal management policies have been provided.
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... ■ Surveys conducted during the IUCN-AFD Cost-Benefit Analysis of MPAs study . A Business Expenditure Survey of main tourism businesses (described in Pascal and Seidl 2013) was used for producer surplus estimates. Interviews with tourism service providers (n = 8) included a sample of diving clubs and most of the day tour operators. ...
... In the villages with the highest proportion of harvest sold (> 60%), fishing activity was predominantly by a small number of very active fishers. Similarly, on Malekula Island the reef fishery was mainly a subsistence fishery, with less than 15% of households (concentrated in 2-3 villages) selling their catches to a wholesaler (usually from the villages) or directly to the market in the capital (Vanuatu Environment Unit 2007;Pascal and Seidl 2013). The 2010 HIES identified that no more than 10% of households were involved in fishing activities that produced cash incomes. ...
... No recent official statistics of catches are available from the Fisheries Department and local commercial fishers are not obliged to declare their activity. Due to this and the fact that commercial activity is undertaken mostly in an informal and opportunistic manner to cover specific cash needs, special events, etc. (described in Pascal and Seidl 2013) we have chosen to rely mainly on the surveys of the 2010 HIES. ...
... ■ Surveys conducted during the IUCN-AFD Cost-Benefit Analysis of MPAs study . A Business Expenditure Survey of main tourism businesses (described in Pascal and Seidl 2013) was used for producer surplus estimates. Interviews with tourism service providers (n = 8) included a sample of diving clubs and most of the day tour operators. ...
... In the villages with the highest proportion of harvest sold (> 60%), fishing activity was predominantly by a small number of very active fishers. Similarly, on Malekula Island the reef fishery was mainly a subsistence fishery, with less than 15% of households (concentrated in 2-3 villages) selling their catches to a wholesaler (usually from the villages) or directly to the market in the capital (Vanuatu Environment Unit 2007;Pascal and Seidl 2013). The 2010 HIES identified that no more than 10% of households were involved in fishing activities that produced cash incomes. ...
... No recent official statistics of catches are available from the Fisheries Department and local commercial fishers are not obliged to declare their activity. Due to this and the fact that commercial activity is undertaken mostly in an informal and opportunistic manner to cover specific cash needs, special events, etc. (described in Pascal and Seidl 2013) we have chosen to rely mainly on the surveys of the 2010 HIES. ...
The living resources of the Pacific Ocean are part of the region's rich natural capital. Marine and coastal ecosystems provide benefits for all people in and beyond the region. These benefits are called ecosystem services and include a broad range of values linking the environment with development and human well-being. Yet, the natural capital of the ocean often remains invisible. Truly recognizing the value of such resources can help to highlight their importance and prevent their unnecessary loss. The MACBIO project provides technical support to the governments of Fiji, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu in identifying and highlighting the values of marine and coastal resources and their ecosystem services. Once values are more visible, governments and stakeholders can plan and manage resources more sustainably, and maintain economic and social benefits of marine and coastal biodiversity in the medium and long term. The MACBIO Project has undertaken economic assessments of Vanuatu's marine and coastal ecosystem services, and supports the integration of results into national policies and development planning. For a copy of all report and communication material please visit www.macbio.pacific.info.
... The projections cover a period of 20 years after the creation of the LMS. This range is most often proposed in similar studies to reflect the ecological responses of ecosystems to the tested scenario ( Pascal and Seidl, 2013 and carried out a sensitivity analysis on three different rates (3%, 7% and 10%) The range of discount rates chosen is the most usually used in cost-benefit analysis of environmental projects (Irvin, 1986;OECD, 2006;Pearce et al., 2006;Tisdell, 1993;Weitzman, 2001). and the sensitivity analysis will allow us to compare results with different level of discount rates. ...
An increasing amount of information is being collected on the ecological and socio-economic value of goods and services provided by natural and semi-natural ecosystems. However, much of this information appears scattered throughout a disciplinary academic literature, unpublished government agency reports, and across the World Wide Web. In addition, data on ecosystem goods and services often appears at incompatible scales of analysis and is classified differently by different authors. In order to make comparative ecological economic analysis possible, a standardized framework for the comprehensive assessment of ecosystem functions, goods and services is needed. In response to this challenge, this paper presents a conceptual framework and typology for describing, classifying and valuing ecosystem functions, goods and services in a clear and consistent manner. In the following analysis, a classification is given for the fullest possible range of 23 ecosystem functions that provide a much larger number of goods and services. In the second part of the paper, a checklist and matrix is provided, linking these ecosystem functions to the main ecological, socio–cultural and economic valuation methods.
Research for this study was carried out under a two-year project to support the implementation of Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) to enhance food security from marine resources in the traditional fishing grounds (qoliqoli) of Kubulau District, Vanua Levu, Fiji. Weekly catch per unit effort (CPUE) information was monitored for one year between May 2008 and June 2009 from four villages within Kubulau District in order to assess the fishing effort and the current status of Kubulau’s inshore fisheries following establishment in 2005 of a network of 17 traditionally- managed, periodically harvested areas (tabu) and 3 district-wide, no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) within the qoliqoli. The four aims of the study were to:
1. Evaluate differences in CPUE from villages with differing dependencies on marine resources;
2. Assess the different types and preferences of fishing gear used;
3. Determine the main targeted fish and their exploitation rates; and
4. Compare the use of the catch, in terms of relative influence of market pressures.
Mean CPUE values varied greatly across villages and temporally over the study period but were generally very high compared with other records from across the Pacific, suggesting that Kubulau qoliqoli may support a very productive fishery that is not yet overexploited. These results are further supported by fish size: for 17 of 19 species identified in Kubulau catches for which length at maturity in known, >60% were above mimimum size for reproduction.
Even though accurate records of catch were only collected from Navatu village during less than six months of the survey, Navatu fishers caught 3-4 times as much fish biomass as any other village and these catches were dominated by surgeonfish (Acanthuridae) and parrotfish (Scaridae) caught using spearguns. Their catch was predominantly sold to a middleman who is based in the village and sells catch approximately three times per week to a vendor at the closest urban fish market in Savusavu town. With the income earned, Navatu fishers have been able to purchase more boats with outboard engines and more spearguns, thereby creating a feedback loop that can result in increased catch efficiency and rapid depletion of fish stocks. This situation is likely to become pronounced in the near future.
As many acanthurids and scarids are important reef grazers and scrapers/excavators, their feeding behaviour provides a critical function to maintain resilience on coral reefs. Gear-based management through selective bans on night spearfishing could potentially confer greater ability to recover from climate-related disturbance However, as these management decisions would disproportionately affect Navatu fishers, there would have to be open and honest discussion of cost compensation. Given that the biomass of fish recorded on Kubulau reefs is relatively high, current management strategies that emphasize no-take protected areas should be continued, and gear-based management should only be implemented if fishing intensity substantially increases.
Ce rapport a deux objectifs principaux : – réaliser une présentation et une analyse critique des méthodes utilisables pour estimer des valeurs économiques de la biodiversité et des services écosystémiques ; – appliquer ces méthodes aux écosystèmes présents sur le territoire national, afin de fournir des « valeurs de référence » pouvant être utilisées en particulier dans l’évaluation socioéconomique des investissements publics.
Functional analysis of the structure of marine benthic communities has a chequered history. On the one hand, proponents of such analyses point to the increased understanding of the ecology of communities gained when their component species are grouped into units with comparable functions. On the other hand, critics of the concept suggest that such analyses are both superficial and misleading without a much better knowledge of the life histories and behaviour of benthic organisms than is available at present. Both these points of view are considered in the light of experience gained from some recent functional group analyses of soft-sediment benthos. It is concluded that these analyses have provided a clearer understanding of the influence on benthic faunal distributions of changing environmental conditions along vertical and latitudinal gradients. They have also produced some new insights into the relative importance of differing environmental variables in structuring benthic communities. The role of bioturbation in soft-sediment benthic communities is examined in some detail. The various ways in which bioturbatory roles have been partitioned into functional groups are discussed and a tentative scheme for characterising such roles on the basis of behaviour is suggested as an adjunct to process-based partitioning. It is suggested that the delimitation of groups based on a number of functions that are adapted to a particular environmental pressure is the best means of gaining ecological insights from this type of analysis.
Qu'allaient-ils donc chercher ces navigateurs européens au début du XVIIe siècle dans les mers du Sud ? La "Terra Australis Incognita"... Une curiosité fantastique les motivait. Mais, bientôt, à ces explorateurs téméraires vont succéder des aventuriers sans scrupules. Les Nouvelles Hébrides et les îles de la Mélanésie vont être soumises à la violence "des trafiquants de santal et d'esclaves puis au prosélitisme musclé des missionnaires d'alors." Les Etats européens : Angleterre et France se disputent la domination politique et économique : spoliation des terres, marginalisation ou intégration culturelle. Violence et résistance : telle est l'histoire des habitants de Tanna que nous relate avec précision et connivence Joël Bonnemaison. La stratégie déployée par une partie de la population de Tanna pour vivre selon "la coutume" de leurs ancêtres et préserver leur identité culturelle fait l'objet d'un récit passionnant enraciné dans la vie quotidienne.