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Flora of the Shroud of Turin
... Nowadays, the only burial cloth attributed to have been used to wrap Jesus Christ is the relic of the Shroud of Turin. Remarkable scientific analyses have been carried out on this relic; palynological studies using pollen to point to Jerusalem as the geographical origin of the cloth (Frei 1976(Frei , 1979a(Frei , 1979b(Frei , 1982(Frei , 1983Ghio 1986;Danin et al. 1999;Barberis 2009). The sindonic pollen found was linked with common plants from the desert of Israel, Turkey and the Western Mediterranean region; the most abundant species being attributed to Gundelia tournefortii L. (Wilson 1978;Danin et al. 1999). ...
... Remarkable scientific analyses have been carried out on this relic; palynological studies using pollen to point to Jerusalem as the geographical origin of the cloth (Frei 1976(Frei , 1979a(Frei , 1979b(Frei , 1982(Frei , 1983Ghio 1986;Danin et al. 1999;Barberis 2009). The sindonic pollen found was linked with common plants from the desert of Israel, Turkey and the Western Mediterranean region; the most abundant species being attributed to Gundelia tournefortii L. (Wilson 1978;Danin et al. 1999). In general, the pollen of plants known to be spring-flowering in Israel was used to support the authenticity of the relic; today, the possibility of being able to pinpoint the geographical origin has been ruled out (Scannerini 1997;Scannerini and Caramiello 1989). ...
... Pollen samples were collected from the Shroud in 1973 and 1978 by Frei, using common adhesive tape. Different images of the sindonic pollen under the optical and scanning electron microscope were published by Frei (1976, 1979a, 1979b, 1985, Ghio (1986 and Danin et al. (1999). The pollen found in the greatest amount were identified by Frei and subsequently confirmed by Danin et al. (1999), who analysed a part of the Frei samples. ...
This study proposes an alternative interpretation of the pollen grains found on the Christian relic of the Shroud of Turin, the majority of which belong to entomogamous plants. The examination of the images in the literature and the observation of modern pollen under light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy reveal that the most abundant pollen on the relic may be attributed to the genus Helichrysum (Asteraceae family) instead of Gundelia tournefortii. The other most important pollen found belongs to the Cistaceae-Cistus spp.—the Apiaceae—probably Ferula spp.—and the Anacardianceae—the genus Pistacia. These pollen grains could have come from plants used to obtain expensive and valuable substances that would have been the basis for the oils of Helichrysum, ladanum and galbanum, as well as for mastic and terebinth products; this fact has not been considered by previous authors. Ancient historical records give us references that could link the pollen traces to a mixture of balms and ointments employed for preparing the body for funeral and burial. For this reason, the palynological study reveals coherency with these historical records about the rituals, as reported on by the important scientists Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides, dating back to the first century ad.
... The analysis has been focalized to verify the presence of pollen typical of flora living in zones described by the probable historical journey of the TS. This study has also been performed to verify some statements reported in previous papers [8][9][10] that suppose a particular historical journey of the TS in the first centuries, based on the pollen identification. ...
... During the analysis, some particles were associated, by size, to pollen grain, which, however, were not simple to identify due to surface alterations. In the Stub HH a grain identified as pollen grain of Phillyrea Angustifolia, has been observed ( fig. 3) in agreement with previous studies [8][9][10] where M. Frei's reported some SEM micrographs of 48 varieties of pollen. Among those SEM photos there is one of the same Phillyrea Angustifolia [9]. ...
... This analysis is obviously not conclusive and many open issues have to be clarified with future studies, also addressed to more specific tests. For example a larger number of dust particles should be used to confirm the results reported in the interesting studies on pollen [8,9,10] and in the comparisons between the mineral particles coming from the TS and the Jerusalem soil. This last study could be an additional clue in the TS research confirming its exposition in the Jerusalem environment. ...
The results of some Turin Shroud particles (3 to 30 µm) examination are presented. A research was performed with the aim to classify the particles in order to correlate them with the environments where, from historical information, the Shroud resulted to have been exposed. Grains of pollen, flax and cotton fibers, mites, spores and fungi, mineral particles and particles related to body fluids were detected and classified. Attention has been focalized to the pollen grains, to discuss M. Frei’s results, without forgetting a more general investigation aimed at evidencing new information for the Shroud studies. A few cotton fiber were found to be mixed with flax ones. Moreover, many mineral particles are compatible with the Jerusalem soil.
... In 1999, Danin et al. (1999) reported their results of TS pollen determination in the 1973 tapes and in fourteen of the twenty-seven sticky-tapes sampled by Frei in 1978. The most frequent type of pollen of all 313 grains studied is that of Gundelia tournefortii, which accounts for 29.1% of the grains investigated and identified (these are 44.6% of all pollen grains with positive identification). ...
... A remarkable observation about the three plants (Ceratonia siliqua, Balanites aegyptiaca and Cercis siliquastrum) whose pollens we find are their geographic distributions (Table 3), mainly in the Near-East, as not being an absolute proof, represents an indicative strong argumentation in favour of the Palestinian origin of the TS. None of these three sorts of pollen grains were listed in Frei (1982) or in Danin et al. (1999). ...
... Over 10% of the pollens mentioned by Frei (1982) and by Danin et al. (1999) correspond to plants flowering in the second half of the year. Ceratonia siliqua is a distinctly thermophilic specie; it is the only Mediterranean tree with a main flowering season in autumn (July to October), similar to many truly tropical plants. ...
... Cistus and Cistaceae with a total of 8.2 %, Apiaceae (Ferula) with 4.2 %, and Pistacia spp. with 0.6 % are between the most abundant pollen registered by Danin et al. (1999). Pollen identified as Cistus and Cistaceae, Pistacia and Apiaceae can bring over to theorizing that are present from the moment in which the funeral ritual was realized, applied like oils and resins of these plants directly on the body and the Shroud, products that have also facilitated the pollen may be treasured between the fibers of the fabric. ...
... The most represented taxon (species) on the Shroud is Gundelia tournefortii, with a 29.1% of pollen total counted (Danin et al., 1999), does not seem to match with the identifications and checks that are presented in this study. ...
... If we allude to the conclusions carried out up to the moment, the great number of pollens identified in the samples collected by Frei and identified by him itself (1983) and confirmed in a second moment by Danin et al. (1999), belong to Gundelia tournefortii. This pollen represents the 29.1 % of the 313 pollens that have controlled in 23 tapes (22 of 1978 and 1 of 1973). ...
On the occasion of the exposition of the Holy Shroud of Turin in 2010, and after visiting the 'Museo de la Sindone' (Turin), I was interested in the palynological investigations that had been realized, supposing that they had come to unquestionable conclusions. After reviewing them, I noticed that the pollen identifications had not been studied with the greatest rigor and the ethnocultural meaning that was pointing to their presence was not well understood. Knowing that the observation of the adhesive tapes collected by Max Frei in the years 1973 and 1978 or other original material was unavailable at the moment, I made my study through observation of published pollen photos on the Shroud and the comparison with my own samples. My doctoral research has treated about the description of more than one hundred types of pollens of endemic plants from the Balearic Islands (Spain), giving me the opportunity to reveal that among the pollen of the Shroud, there is a copy, difficult to classify and recognize, which belongs to the Asteraceae family that may have been key in preparing the body during the funeral ritual. Other described pollens on the Shroud, which appear in counts with significant values, would also confirm the practiced ritual. The plants used in the funeral rites have witnessed, through pollen, the moment of death, which have been ethno culturally significant, reflecting the time in which the story begins of that funeral attire. The presence of these pollen guides on the fabric reveal the application of oils, balms and ointments, also explaining why it has been kept in excellent condition to this day. These small remnants, trapped for centuries, now become valuable items that may provide clues to the moments that occurred more than two thousand years and which are still shrouded in mystery. 1. From the Bible and other sources: what kind of plants were used 2000 years ago in funeral and grave rites?
... Although they sometimes differ on certain matters, all of the medical forensic examinations of the blood images are in agreement that they were exudates from clotted wounds transferred to the cloth by its being in contact with a wounded human male body consistent with the historic descriptions given for the Crucifixion of Christ (2,3,4,5,8,9,10,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,39,40). This conclusion is also consistent with the computer imaging evidence (28). ...
... This leaves us with only one more proposed image formation mechanism. Several people have championed a coronal discharge mechanism (18,70,71) and their experiments have provided samples (tested by the author of this paper) that come very close to meeting both the chemical and physical criteria. However, the images have always been of thin objects and one could not apply a meaningful VP-8 test. ...
... Fortunately this past summer, a mechanism generating such fields in seismic disturbances in piezoelectric rock chambers has been advanced and would seem to meet all our requirements (72). In further support of this mechanism is the observation that the Shroud image seems to show some underlying skeletal character, as in an X-ray image (18,73). In a high voltage, high frequency electric field, this could be viewed as field emission from the calcium of the skeleton to the calcium laden cloth as a detector in a resonance radiation process. ...
The Shroud of Turin is a 4.4 X 1.1 m linen cloth bearing the front and back body images, accompanied by blood images, of what appears to be a crucified man. As it is alleged to be the actual burial cloth of Jesus, it is a most controversial object. Many of those not accepting this claim have asserted that it is just a painting, although it is now clear that the blood images are due to the cloth having been in contact with a wounded human body. A large body of scientific evidence has now been accumulated on this object and will be reviewed in some detail, including the question of authenticity. It will be clear that it is not a painting, nor any of several other recently suggested explanations such as a photograph, although the mechanism of the formation of the body images remains a mystery. Matters concerning its conservation will also be briefly touched upon.
... However, numerous other factors affect the size of ancient DNA fragments besides age, like preservation method and environmental factors like temperature, moisture content, and pH (e.g., museum specimens vs. freshly unearthed remains). To put it briefly, DNA degradation only becomes more successful over lengthy time spans; over shorter time spans, like those suggested for the DNA traces on the TS, and when considering the multiple copies of extra-nuclear DNA molecules, it becomes de facto unpredictable [23][24][25][26] . Following the supplier's recommendations, PCR products obtained from the amplification of several samples were combined and purified using the QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN). ...
... C15) There are many identified floral images on the TS, which indicate that the Shroud originated in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the spring of the year, and which have the appearance expected from corona discharge. Some images are consistent with the fruits of pistacia plants, which were used as burial spices (Danin, 1999;Whanger, 2000). C16) Human DNA comes from Riggi's blood samples from the TS, t his because three gene segments were cloned and studied (Garza Valdes 2001). ...
FOREWORD This paper has been written in honour of the lamented Raymond Rogers who first proposed this work and dedicated many hours of his life to improve this collection of information; he wrote: " No matter what the truth is about the Shroud, it is a fascinating study. It can be studied according to the rigorous Scientific Method, and it is too bad that so many wild flights of fancy have destroyed the credibility of the studies. Maybe we can restore some science to the discussions. " ShroudScience Group and the present paper are a first effort to realize Ray's hope.
... In particular clumps of these particles have been used to DNA tests in order to determine either which kind of plants contaminated the linen fabric or which kind of persons polluted the Relic by touching or kissing it. Clumps of particles, having sizes of the order of 10 micrometers, coming from the vacuumed dusts have been also mounted on proper stubs to perform SEM, ESEM and EDX analysis to verify the presence of pollen grains, blood, spices, fungi and bacteria and hopefully to classify them in order to confirm previous analyses [33,34,35,36,37,38,39] performed on different samples coming from the TS. ...
Turin Shroud (TS) is a linen cloth 4.4 m long and 1.1 m wide which shows two, front and back images of a man scourged, crowned with thorns and crucified, who died on a cross and was stabbed in the side with a lance after his death. The Catholic Christian tradition identifies this Man as Jesus Christ resurrected after dead, but not all are unanimous in this identification, partly because science has not been able to give definitive answers. To try to improve a bit the inconclusive answers to which the Science is arrived, a Research Project entitled: “Multidisciplinary analysis applied to the Turin Shroud: study of the body image, of possible ambient pollution and of micro-particles capable to characterize the linen fabric.” has been assigned by the University of Padua (Italy) to the Author, who performed various studies on this theme in collaboration with other experts, also of other Italian Universities. In reference to the body image, that is not explainable by Science nor reproducible up to now, experimental tests based on Corona Discharge, produced by intense electric fields, have shown that it is possible to reproduce many of these very peculiar image features. Regarding the TS dating, after the demonstration that the 1988 radiocarbon result is not statistically reliable, probably because of environmental pollution, alternative dating methods based on chemical and mechanical tests showed that its age is compatible with the period in which Jesus Christ lived in Palestine.
... Finally, while compatible with a European Medieval origin of the linen, studies on dust particles (pollen grains, cell debris and other minuscule organic specimens, such as plant-derived fibers and blood-like clots) do not rule out the reported historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during the postulated 2000-year journey from the Near East. After classifying pollen grains to the genus and species levels, the geographic areas where the corresponding plants originated and now inhabit proved to be compatible with the journey from the Near East [68]. In keeping with this, genomic DNA identified several plant taxa native to the Mediterranean area as well as species with a primary origin in Asia and in the Middle East [69]. ...
In the early '80s, evidence was provided that, rather than a dye (red okra), hemoglobin was indeed responsible for the alleged blood stains of the Turin Shroud. Such stains were shown to belong to an MNS positive individual of the AB group, and the halos surrounding the blood stains were compatible with serum containing trace amounts of bilirubin, albumin and immunoglobulins. However, being only based on indirect and circumstantial evidence, most of these data were challenged. In the late '90s, together with the evidence of the gene coding β-globin, contamination between male and female DNA was documented on the Turin Shroud. Although the presence of male was more noticeable than female DNA, these data were considered null and void. These days, to establish that blood indisputably belongs to an MNS positive individual of the AB group, and to exclude DNA contamination, high-specificity techniques with monoclonal antibodies and molecular studies on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA are needed. Indeed, consistent with DNA contamination on the Turin Shroud, sequences from multiple subjects of different ethnic origins have been recently detected on the human mitochondrial genome extracted from dust particles of the linen. Innovative concepts are likely to come up using modern research approaches to evaluate the issue of blood stains of the Turin Shroud. Nor can we rule out the possibility that religious implications of the new findings on the Turin Shroud might be envisaged. Conceivably enough, the ongoing debate will be fierce and passionate, especially in the media.
... In the past decades, hundreds of pollen grains have been identified and classified in terms of genus and species, using both optical and scanning electron microscopes, in order to be compared with geographic areas in which the corresponding plants did originate and now live. Independent cytological observations have clearly demonstrated that the identified geographic areas are fully compatible with the supposed historic paths travelled by the Turin Shroud [6][7][8][9][10]. In more recent years, molecular results have apparently supported the existence of human DNA. ...
The Turin Shroud is traditionally considered the burial cloth in which the body of Jesus Christ was enveloped after his dead about 2000 years ago. Here we report the main findings from the analysis of genomic DNA extracted from dust particles, which were vacuumed from the backside of Turin Shroud
corresponding to internal parts of the body image and the lateral edge used for its radiocarbon dating.
Specific plant chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) and human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) target regions were
analyzed to identify plant taxonomic entities and human genetic lineages. Plant species native to the
Mediterranean countries and widespread in the Middle East (Vavilov’s centers of origin V and IV,
respectively) were identified, in addition to others living in temperate and boreal regions of the northern
hemisphere or having their primary center of origin and distribution in central and eastern Asia (mainly
China, I) or native only to the Americas. Since many of these species were introduced into Europe after the Marco Polo travels and Christopher Columbus voyages, our findings suggest a geographic scenario for which only some of the detected plant cpDNAs are compatible with the supposed origin and trail of the relic, whereas others are likely from a historical interval later than the Medieval period. As for human
mtDNAs, our analyses allowed the detection of sequences from multiple subjects, which clustered into a
number of western Eurasian haplogroups, including some known to be typical of western Europe (H1 and H3), the Near East (H13 and H33), the Arabian Peninsula (R0a) and the Indian sub-continent (M56 and R8). Such mitogenome diversity could be due to contacts with subjects of different ethnic origins in recent centuries, but it is also compatible with the historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during its supposed 2000-year journey from the Near East. Furthermore it raises the possibility of an Indian manufacture of the linen cloth.
... The composition of the particles was later studied in great detail by optical microscopy, and specimens from different filters were retained and characterized for their contents 6,13 . In past decades, pollen grains were classified to the genus and species levels using microscopy [14][15][16] , and the geographic areas where the corresponding plants originated and now inhabit proved to be compatible with the reported historic path followed by TS during the postulated 2000-year journey from the Near East 3 , thus supporting the authenticity of the relic. ...
The Turin Shroud is traditionally considered to be the burial cloth in which the body of Jesus Christ was wrapped after his death approximately 2000 years ago. Here, we report the main findings from the analysis of genomic DNA extracted from dust particles vacuumed from parts of the body image and the lateral edge used for radiocarbon dating. Several plant taxa native to the Mediterranean area were identified as well as species with a primary center of origin in Asia, the Middle East or the Americas but introduced in a historical interval later than the Medieval period. Regarding human mitogenome lineages, our analyses detected sequences from multiple subjects of different ethnic origins, which clustered into a number of Western Eurasian haplogroups, including some known to be typical of Western Europe, the Near East, the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian sub-continent. Such diversity does not exclude a Medieval origin in Europe but it would be also compatible with the historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during its presumed journey from the Near East. Furthermore, the results raise the possibility of an Indian manufacture of the linen cloth.
... There are details, invisible to the naked eye, in the blood flows and chemistry of the blood on the Shroud that medical doctors and chemists have documented to be medically accurate. The microscopic pollen found on the Shroud indicate an origin in Jerusalem (Danin, Whanger, Baruch & Whanger, 1999). In addition, how would a medieval forger know to put microscopic amounts of calcium, unique to Jerusalem, in the areas of the feet and the knees? ...
A major reason that the Shroud of Turin is dismissed from serious study is the radiocarbon date of 1260 to 1390 A.D. by laboratories in Oxford, Zurich, and Arizona. The dating was done in 1988 and reported in 1989. Because the dates given were so out of keeping with other evidence indicating that the Shroud is much older, researchers have proposed a number of ideas as to how such a recent date could have been given. The proposal with the most evidence is explained in this paper. It appears that little attention was given to selecting suitable samples of the Shroud for radiocarbon dating. Thus, a sample was selected which is not representative of the whole cloth. How this happened and evidence for it are explained.
... C15) There are many identified floral images on the TS, which indicate that the Shroud originated in the vicinity of Jerusalem in the spring of the year, and which have the appearance expected from corona discharge. Some images are consistent with the fruits of pistacia plants, which were used as burial spices (Danin, 1999;Whanger, 2000). C16) Human DNA comes from Riggi's blood samples from the TS, t his because three gene segments were cloned and studied (Garza Valdes 2001). ...
Pollen, as a microscopic element, has an important role in forensic investigation and in other scientific disciplines; its detection in different materials or objects can help to throw light on a detail which is invisible to the naked eye. For this reason, the diverse types of adhesion of pollen of five anemophilous taxa and one entomophilous on common materials have been investigated. The botanical species used are: Asphodelus aestivus, Cupressus sempervirens, Olea europaea, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, and Quercus ilex. The materials used are: cotton, denim, latex, leather, newspaper, paper, and polyester textile. Samples of materials with each type of imprinted pollen are thrown down from a height, then transported by car, and finally are rinsed in water simulating the evidence of a direct or indirect contact with flowers, a natural contamination by air of objects and clothes, or a dumping of a body followed by a soaking in fresh water. This research underlines the importance of pollen evidence in forensic investigations, but also exposes the behaviour of anemophilous pollen on materials. Pollen examined present different ways of attaching, depending on the species and/or types of material; although the adhesion is strongest within the fabric materials, Cupressus have the high value particularly on smooth ones. The pollen of Cupressus, Olea, and Pistacia show a significant adhesion, followed by Quercus, Pinus and, finally, the entomophilous Asphodelus which reveals a very low power of adhesion. The total concentration of pollen count after rinsed in water is of 34,690 grains in the whole surface of 126 cm2 of the materials examined. An average of 275 pollen grains/cm2 indicate that a high number of allergenic pollen still remain fixed on materials; in the case of the adhesion on clothes, it can being cause of aggravation of allergies and asthma in people who suffering from these ailments.
Karis, P. O., Eldenäs, P. & Källersjö, M.: New evidence for the systematic position of Gundelia L. with notes on delimitation of Arctoteae ( Asteraceae ). – Taxon 50: 105–114. 2001. – ISSN 0040‐0262.
The systematic position of the thistle‐like Gundelia of Asteraceae‐Arctoteae is investigated by using sequences from the chloroplast gene ndhF in a parsimony jackknife analysis. Unexpectedly, the analysis indicates strong support for placing Gundelia with tribe Lactuceae, rather than with tribe Arctoteae. Gundelia's morphology is discussed in light of this new grouping. Another clade, although weakly supported, is formed by representatives of Arctoteae, including the two South African genera Eremothamnus and Hoplophyllum. The latter two form a sister group with 100 % support.
We discuss the potentially misleading effect of software techniques for elaborating low-contrast images. In particular, we present the example of the stains embedded into one of the most studied archeological objects in history, the Shroud of Turin. We show for the first time that image processing of both old and recent photographs of the Shroud may lead some researchers to perceive inscriptions and patterns that do not actually exist, confirming that there is a narrow boundary between image enhancement and manipulation.
A response to the possible enveloping of the Man of the Turin Shroud results from the analysis of the three-dimensionality of the body image. The 3-D analysis is based on the correspondence between image luminance levels and body-sheet distance. The sum, point by point, of the body-sheet distance, measured on the basis of the luminance levels, with the corresponding position of the external surface of a man gives the Turin Shroud outline of the enveloping. The frontal and dorsal body images were trimmed of different noises such as traces of water, blood, fires, etc.; such images were then reconstructed for the lacking parts (arms) through a kinematic analysis associated with a computerized anthropometric analysis. On the basis of experimental data, some points were chosen in which the body-sheet distance is lifelike and the condition is set so that a defined measured distance must be associated to the corresponding levels of image luminance. From the analysis of the luminance levels, segments reconstruct the assumptive distance between the Man and the sheet. From the three-dimensional analysis it is confirmed that the Man was not enveloped in the Turin Shroud with bandages. The sheet was simply laid on the outstretched body, in a position conformable to the one taken on during the crucifixion (except the arms) and maintained during the entombment because of the strong rigor mortis.
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