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CLASSICAL GREEK
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN:
A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
PAPERS AND MONOGRAPHS OF THE FINNISH INSTITUTE AT ATHENS VOL. XVIII
Jari Pakkanen
CLASSICAL GREEK
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN:
A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Helsinki 2013
© Jari Pakkanen and Suomen Ateenan-instituutin säätiö (Foundation of the Finnish
Institute at Athens), Helsinki 2013
ISSN 1237-2684
ISBN 978-952-67211-6-3
Printed in Greece by Alphabet SA , Athens.
Cover: The temple of Zeus at Stratos, Jari Pakkanen
Layout: Jari Pakkanen
Contents
Preface i
I. Introduction 1
Methodological Approaches to Greek Architectural Design 2
II. Method 9
What to Look for in the Design Analyses? 9
Statistical Methods 14
III. Statistical Analysis of Architectural Design in Fifth-Century
Doric Temples 25
Evaluation of Design Hypotheses 25
Statistical Evaluation of Wilson Jones’s Modular Reading 28
Detecting Proportional Relationships in a Group of Buildings 32
Data Selection, Proportions and Modular Readings of Greek Architecture 39
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia 39
The Temple of the Athenians on Delos 43
Conclusions 47
IV. Further Case Studies on Classical Built Environment 51
Two Fifth-Century City Grids: the Piraeus and Naxos in Sicily 52
Analysis of the Piraeus Layout 53
The New Topographical Survey of Naxos 56
Analysis of the Town Layout at Naxos 57
Conclusions 58
The Erechtheion Foot-Unit and Plan Design 60
Previous Scholarship on the Erechtheion-Foot 61
IG I3 474 and the Length of the Erechtheion-Foot 63
Analysis of the Erechtheion Plan Dimensions 64
Conclusions 71
The Temple of Zeus at Stratos and Building Design 75
Introduction 75
Archaeological Work in the Sanctuary 78
Reconstructing the Building Height 79
Design-Unit of the Building 86
Conclusions 91
The Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea: Moulding, Block and Principal
Dimensions and Design-Unit Derivation 94
Bankel’s Analysis of the Foot-Unit at Tegea 95
Deriving Unit-Lengths from Moulding Dimensions 99
Deriving a Unit-Length from Block Dimensions 101
Plan Dimensions 102
Façade Dimensions 107
Finishing Remarks 108
V. Conclusions 111
Glossary of Architectural Terms 114
Glossary of Statistical Terms 115
Bibliography 117
Index 125
Preface
In many ways, this monograph is a methodological summary of the work I have carried
out on Greek architectural design over the past twenty years or more. The case studies
analysed here stretch from my first fieldwork project on the temple of Athena Alea at
Tegea which started in 1993 to the on-going research collaboration on the city-scape of
Naxos in Sicily. I took the first steps towards the statistical analysis of Greek foot-units
in 1999 by developing a computer program to analyse building dimensions: some of the
final motivation behind the software was to try to stop my post-graduate student Esko
Tikkala from being drawn into the shapeless muddle of architectural studies on Greek
foot-standards. I was soon nudged by Mike Baxter towards Kendall’s cosine quanto-
gram analysis as a useful statistical method and my work then evolved towards a quan-
titative analysis of Classical architectural design rather than just foot-units.
Three fieldwork projects are at the basis of case studies presented in Chapter IV.
My work in 1993–1998 on Classical architecture at Tegea was part of the Norwegian
excavation project directed by Erik Østby: I cannot thank him enough for the continu-
ous support over the years. I directed and carried out the fieldwork at the temple of Zeus
at Stratos under the auspices of the Finnish Institute at Athens in 2000–2001. The per-
missions to carry out the fieldwork at Tegea and Stratos were granted by the Hellenic
Ministry of Culture and supported by the local Ephorates of Prehistoric and Classical
Antiquities at Tripolis and Patras and their Ephors at the time, Theodoros Spyropoulos
and Lazaros Kolonas. Since 2006 I have collaborated with Maria Costanza Lentini, the
director of the Museum of Naxos in Sicily, on the architecture of the ancient town, and
our new co-operation concentrates on the overall city design: I am very grateful to her
for the chance to work at this unique site and the warm hospitality I have always been
shown.
During the final phase of writing, the comments on the manuscript by Ann
Brysbaert and Björn Forsén have been of especial value. The following persons have
also read various stages of the chapters of this book, and their comments have been
more than welcome: Jim Coulton, Manolis Korres, Seppo Mustonen, Erik Østby, Boris
Rankov, Esko Tikkala and Richard Tomlinson. Various anonymous referees have had
their input into this work, and I also wish to thank the publication committee of the
Papers and Monographs of the Finnish Institute at Athens, Björn Forsén, Mika Kajava,
Martti Leiwo and Manna Satama, for the prompt dealing with the book proposal and its
publication.
The final impetus to write this book came from the British Academy and its mid-
career fellowship: during the year I have enjoyed the possibility of concentrating on
quantum analyses and not only in relation to Greek architecture. My home institution,
Royal Holloway, University of London, has supported me in various ways over the
years, including the current possibility of being seconded to the Finnish Institute at
Athens where I have just started as the director. Financial support for the fieldwork case
studies has come from the Academy of Finland, the Emil Aaltonen Foundation, the
Finnish Institute at Athens and the Museum of Naxos. Numerous people have
collaborated with me in one way or another in the fieldwork projects: Anne-Claire
Chauveau, Øystein Ekroll, Anne Hooton, Christina M. Joslin, Marianne Knutsen, Jerrad
Lancaster, Tara McClenahan, Petra Pakkanen, Thomas Pfauth, Tuula Pöyhiä, Esko
Tikkala and Rauno Vaara.
ii
I have programmed the computer modules used in the cosine quantogram
analysis, Monte Carlo simulations and producing the kernel density estimation
distributions on top of the statistical package Survo MM. Cosine quantogram is now a
standard feature of Survo, and the module implemented by Seppo Mustonen is far faster
than the software I originally programmed.
The staff of the Finnish Institute has created a very positive working
environment, and I am also very grateful to Maria Martzoukou, Saara Kauppinen, Maria
Gourdouba and Joakim Stavropoulos for their help in all kinds of practical matters.
Without the continuous support of Ann Brysbaert this monograph would not
exist. I dedicate this book to the memory of my father Ahti Pakkanen. In 2002, he
located and sent me a copy of von Mises’ article published in 1918: it is the first study
which employs the sum of cosine values to determine the size of an unknown unit in a
data set.
Jari Pakkanen
At Athens, September 2013
I. Introduction
It is perhaps to be expected that different scholars analyse similar measurement sets
from the same building and come up with quite different hypotheses which type of a
proportional or modular design scheme was employed by the ancient architect. Never-
theless, I find the current state of architectural design studies intriguing. Are we now in
a situation where no consensus of how the fifth-century Greek architects worked out
their designs can be reached? If this question is deemed out of our grasp, would it at
least be feasible to evaluate the validity of the results obtained in previous design
studies and give guidance for future research as to which approaches will most likely
produce fruitful outcomes? I think the answer to the latter question is certainly positive,
and with the publication of this book I hope there will be more clarity how an agreement
among scholars can be achieved.
The ultimate aim of this book is to change the prevalent paradigm in Greek
architectural design studies: detecting patterns in a set of measurements is to a high
degree a statistical question and scholars who ignore this fact risk confusing the discus-
sion rather than clarifying it. A number of scholars will perhaps find it difficult to accept
some of the methodological critique and conclusions reached in this monograph. How-
ever, the foundations on which Greek architectural design analyses are built are not
necessarily as stable as is often taken for granted: for example, studies which assume a
high degree of foot-unit standardisation in the Hellenic world are in serious danger of
reaching false conclusions. Recognising complex patterns in data sets requires expertise
both in the field of the study in question and quantitative methods. It is possible to bring
together specialists in architecture and statistics for a particular project,1 but often real
insights come from an interdisciplinary understanding of the relevant fields and over a
long period of time. The critique I present here arises from twenty years’ experience of
systematic archaeological fieldwork on the Greek built environment and both sub-
sequent and intertwined studies on how the emerging problems can possibly be solved
by using computer-intensive statistical methods. The emphasis of this monograph is on
methodology and my aim is not to give an exhaustive analysis and criticism of previous
studies on Greek architectural design: given the number of suggestions for each monu-
ment this would be quite an impossible task. Taking relevant examples and examining
them in detail is a far more productive approach.
In the introduction I present a brief overview of how Greek architectural design
has been approached in previous scholarship and, thus, set the frame for the reasons
behind the current lack of consensus. What emerges from the review is that before some
general agreement can begin to form, it is necessary to find a more rigorous
methodological approach to the questions at hand.
Chapter II looks first at what types of issues related to building design might be
encountered in the statistical analyses. A quantitative method based on D.G. Kendall’s
cosine quantogram analysis (CQG) is also defined in the chapter, and in Chapter III this
method is used to analyse a group of fifth-century Doric temples. There are significant
benefits from initially analysing a relatively coherent group of buildings as a whole
rather than concentrating on single ones.
1 See e.g. Coulton 1979 for a very significant early example.
2 Jari Pakkanen
Chapter IV presents four case studies ranging in size from the design of the
Classical city grid at Naxos in Sicily to the moulding details of the temple of Athena
Alea at Tegea.2 The Erechtheion case study links the analysis of building dimensions
with inscriptional evidence, and I use the temple of Zeus at Stratos as an example of
how the plan and façade dimensions of a single building can produce varying levels of
statistical significance. All these studies highlight different aspects how CQG can be
used in the analysis of possible proportional and modular systems and potentially
employed foot-units in Greek architectural design. One recurring theme is how the
number of dimensions and the choice of data affect the results: different measurement
sets can highlight different aspects of the original building design and execution, or
sometimes also hide relevant patterns.
The conclusions of the monograph are presented in Chapter V. The first of the
two glossaries at the end gives definitions for the architectural and the second for the
statistical terms.
Methodological Approaches to Greek Architectural Design
Previous studies on Greek architectural design have used slightly differing strategies in
arguing how the Doric temples of the fifth century were planned. Frequently the analy-
ses of single buildings start with the hypothesis that one or more of its dimensions, such
as the intercolumniation, the width and the length of the building or the size of a typical
wall block, can be expressed as round numbers or simple fractions of an ancient foot-
unit. The approach can be called the ‘standard metrological method’ or ‘inductive
metrology.’3 Other dimensions are subsequently given in terms of the initially detected
unit, but almost invariably small fractions are needed to guarantee a reasonably success-
ful fit between the measurements and the foot-standard.4 Frequently, the precision with
which the length of the unit is expressed does not follow the rules on the number of
significant digits. Most often, the relevant dimensions can only be established with the
precision of three or four digits, such as the triglyph width or the column interaxial: the
derived unit should not have more significant digits than the element with the least
number of significant digits used in the calculations.5
Problems of relating actual building measurements to the two ‘standardized’
units, the ‘Attic–Ionic’ foot of c. 294 mm and the ‘Doric–Pheidonic’ foot of c. 326
2 Three of the case studies have been previously published (Pakkanen 2004b; Pakkanen 2005; Pakkanen
2006–2007), but they have appeared in journals or books with limited circulation. Also, new material has been
incorporated into the case studies on Stratos and Tegea. I have re-edited the original publications for this
monograph and their analyses and conclusions have been updated.
3 Pakkanen 2004a, 258; Dinsmoor and Dinsmoor 2004, 5.
4 The Dinsmoorian analysis of the Propylaia is a good example: the length of the ‘Doric’ foot-unit is derived
from the wall blocks as 0.32723 m, and the smallest fraction used in their metrological analyses is 1/192 of
this unit (0.0017 m); Di nsmoor and Dinsmoor 2004, 5 –7, 447–449. Eiteljorg (2005, 41–44) has recently
argued that on the basis of the wall blocks the unit should be defined as 0.295 m, so that it is the ‘Attic’ foot
which is used in the building rather than the ‘Doric.’
5 E.g. in case of triglyph width of, say, 0.647 m and an interaxial of 1.632 m, it can be suggested that the
related foot-unit is 0.647 / 2 ≈ 0.324 m or 1.632 / 5 = 0.3264 m. It is incorrect to propose that the length of the
unit could be calculated as the average result, (0.3235 m + 0.3264 m) / 2 ≈ 0.3250 m. Based on two
dimensions it can only be proposed that they point towards a possible foot-standard in the range 0.324–0.326
m.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 3
Fig. 1.1. Hypothetica l regular and realised plan s of the Hephaisteion (t op: based on Zwarte 1996, fig. 2;
below: J.P., based on the quantum detected in the façade analysis of Chapter III and Camp 1986, fig. 59).
mm,6 have resulted in a number of modified approaches and reactions against the stand-
ard design analyses. One way of reconciling the differences has been to assume a hypo-
thetical regular scheme for the building and explain the observed discrepancies as the
results of modifications to the original regular plan (Figure 1.1).7 H. Bankel’s ‘metro-
logical scale’ makes it possible to study simultaneously how well a number of architec-
tural dimensions fit to particular subdivisions of feet:8 the benefit of the method is that it
does not start with a presupposition of the size of the foot-unit, but as a graphic method
only a very limited number of measurements can be studied in one drawing.9 Several
6 The most frequently quot ed analysis on recognizin g two principal units in Gre ek architecture is Din smoor
1961.
7 See e.g. Riemann 1951; Ri emann 1960; Zwarte 1996. Wils on Jones (2001, 677) right ly observes that there
is no need to link changes of the type h ypothesized b y Riemann to a single project bu t that they rather
characterize a development over a longer period of time.
8 See e.g. Bankel 1983; Bank el 1984. For an example of his metrological scale, see Figure 4.20 below.
9 Both Bankel’s methodology and his results have been criticised; see Wesenberg 1984, 549–553; Büsing
1985, 159–160; Pakkanen 2004b, 111–119; Pakkanen 2005, 170–173. See also pp. 68–70 and 95–97.
4 Jari Pakkanen
scholars have recognized the fact that the question of the degree of standardization of
measurement units in the Greek world has not been satisfactorily solved10 and suggested
alternative approaches. One has been to continue using the standard metrological
method but accept non-standard units as possible results of the analyses. The most radi-
cal hypothesis has been proposed by W. Koenigs: his suggestion is that every single
monumental Greek building employs a measurement-unit particular to that design
scheme. The length of this ‘Iochmodul’ is related to the interaxial column spacing.11
Since Koenig’s core idea is that the derived length is a non-standard measurement-unit,
J.J. Coulton argues that an architecturally more correct term for the Iochmodul would be
‘Iochfuss’.12
This standard metrological approach to Greek design has resulted in quite a
bewildering picture what the length of measurement or design units employed in each
particular building is. The temple of ‘Hera Lakinia’ at Akragas can be listed as a typical
rather than an extreme example:
1. A foot-unit of 296 mm is suggested by H. Riemann based on principal plan
dimensions expressed in round numbers of feet, though also smaller
subdivisions are needed.13
2. A foot-unit of c. 307 mm is mostly used by J.A.K.E. de Waele in his
analysis, and I. Ceretto Castigliano and C. Savio express the principal plan
dimensions in round numbers of feet of this unit, but they need to also resort
to smaller subdivisions. Ch. Höcker gives his unit as 307.2 mm.14
3. Rather confusingly, de Waele also suggests that the cella design fits better a
unit of c. 320 mm than his other unit.15
4. A ‘Doric’ foot of 325.86 mm is derived by D. Mertens from the stylobate
width, but then smaller subdivisions of this foot are needed to match it to the
other analysed elements.16
5. An oversize ‘Doric’ foot of 328.8 mm is suggested by M. Wilson Jones
based on his ‘triglyph module’ of 616.5 mm;17
Since a similar situation is encountered in relation to nearly all monumental Greek
buildings of the fifth century BC, it is no wonder that it has not been possible to build
up a consensus regarding the architectural design principles of the period.
Wilson Jones has relatively recently published a highly developed argument that
the Doric façade design was based on a module derived from the triglyph width. This
hypothesis is studied in detail in Chapter III, so it is useful to present his criteria for
establishing the design scheme of a Doric temple. It is in essence a variant of the stand-
ard design analysis method:
1. Start with the actual triglyph width.
10 The sceptical attitude is best summarized by Coulton (1974, 62): ‘As far as measurement is concerned, the
assumption that only two foot-standards were used throughout the Greek world needs to be proved, not just
accepted, and the chaotic situation in other branches of Greek metrology suggests that this is unfounded.’
11 Koenigs 1979.
12 Coulton 1989, 87.
13 Riemann 1935, 149.
14 Waele 1980, 219–222; Ceretto Castigliano and Savio 1983, 36; Höcker 1993, 89 –93.
15 Waele 1980, 220–222.
16 Mertens 1984, 105–107. Dinsmoor (1961, 360) very probably supports this identification: the temple is not
specifically mentioned by him, but it is likely in the group of 16 non-named examples – according to him the
unit of 326–7 mm was in use throughout the Sicilian Greek colonies .
17 Wilson Jones 2001, 707.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 5
2. Find an approximate unit which fits one fifth of the normal column
interaxial and produces a neat pattern when compared with the principal
plan and elevation dimensions; this is the potential design module.
3. Control that the module relates to the schematic proportions of the whole
façade and that the proportions expressed in terms of the module are
convenient.
4. Control that the module can be given in terms of known feet and/or dactyls.
5. Check the relationship between the smaller components of the façade and
the module.
6. Check similarly the plan.18
The proposed procedure sounds perfectly reasonable, but it is methodologically
highly problematic. For example, taking into consideration how close to each other the
notions of the Iochfuss (or Iochmodule) and Wilson Jones’s ideal triglyph width are,
both of them can surely pass the tests put forward by Wilson Jones.19 The criteria cannot
compensate for the basic problem inherent in standard design analyses. The method
simply cannot adequately differentiate between the possible design strategies the fifth-
century architect could have employed: using quite similar sets of architectural
measurements it is possible to argue that Doric temple designs are based on a modular
design system starting with the triglyph width, foot-standards or modules derived from
the intercolumniation, standard or non-standard foot-units, or on a non-modular design
system based on proportional relationships between the elements, or a successive design
system. Even if a particular study is on the right track, the scholar has no tools with
which to convince the others that this is the case. Hypotheses of several scholars are
supported by the statistical analyses presented in this monograph, but they are perhaps
not among the most widely cited ones in Greek architectural studies. Koenigs’ and
Coulton’s Iochfuss-hypothesis can be given as an example, and Höcker has observed
that in four of the six classical temples at Akragas a module based on one tenth of the
intercolumniation produces systematically relatively good results when the principal
dimensions of the buildings are expressed in terms of this module; for the two
remaining buildings he identifies the module as one eighth and one twelfth of the
interaxial distance.20
Even though the traditional analyses of architectural design and ancient met-
rology do not use mathematical methods to any great extent, all these studies employ a
system where the discrepancies between the advocated design system and the actual
measurements taken of the buildings are calculated. Furthermore, these calculations are
then used to argue for the validity of the proposed system – surely the earlier a proper
quantitative method is introduced into the analysis, the less scope there is for an incon-
gruous interpretation being put forward. For example, I think Wilson Jones’s basic aim
in his Doric design studies can fairly be summarized as trying to find a general trend in
ten different sets of architectural measurements.21 The starting point of the research is a
large and complex set of dimensions, and based on previous scholarship we can assume
that a number of different types of factors could have had a role in shaping them.22 It is
18 Wilson Jones 2001, 683.
19 This has been also obs erved by G. Waddell who u ses a variation of the stan dard method to argue th at the
design unit was derived from the krepis dimensions (Waddell 2002).
20 Module identified as 1/10: the temples of ‘Concord’, ‘Hera Lakinia’, the ‘Dioscuri’ and Temple L; as
1/8:Temple E; as 1/12: temple of Hephaistos; see Höcker 1993, 79–117.
21 Wilson Jones 2001; Wilson Jones 2006.
22 For the most in depth discussion of these factors, see Coulton 1975a.
6 Jari Pakkanen
generally agreed that the sizes of the various building elements are proportionally
related to each other and scholars tend to regard it as very likely that a number of
dimensions were rounded to the nearest comfortable fractions of the employed
measurement-unit. This often creates, however, difficulties to determine what the exact
relationship between the original design and the finished structure is. Also, substantial
variation in the size of identical elements was tolerated by the ancient architects and
builders, as can perhaps be expected due to the nature of the building process and
materials used. In addition, the buildings’ state of preservation is often not perfect, and
errors in modern measurements and their publication cannot be excluded. It is unlikely
that any scholar is able to take into account simultaneously all these factors by testing
various alternatives with a pocket calculator, so in trying to make sense out of complex
data sets and evaluating the relevance of different types of factors a solid mathematical
method is of vital importance.
A more extensive overview of the various design features identified in earlier
research is given on pages 9–14, but there are two topics which are not usually given the
emphasis they would deserve in architectural design analyses. The question of what
types of foot-standards were employed in Greek building has not been satisfactorily
solved. The disagreements among the scholars could be due to lack of general stand-
ardization,23 but the situation has not been helped by the use of inappropriate methods to
tackle the issue.24 Deriving the length of Greek measurement-units from a set of
building dimensions is a problem which can best be approached by statistical means, as
is demonstrated in this monograph. Wilson Jones shows that similar proportional
relationships between different parts of a building could hypothetically be a result of
either employing a proportional design scheme for the façade or equally well a system
based on a strictly defined module,25 but I think that Coulton’s suggestion that Greek
architects probably used a successive system of proportion should be given more
consideration than is generally done in design studies (Figure 1.2). Coulton
demonstrates that there is a clear difference between Vitruvius’ definitions for the Doric
and Ionic orders. The Doric has a radial pattern with most of the dimensions derived
fairly directly from the module, while the Ionic is much more linear.26 Following
Vitruvius’ rules for the Doric produces a transparent design, and establishing the
relationships between the various parts of the building should be quite a simple task
involving not much more than testing the different possibilities with a calculator or a
spreadsheet. Analysing a successive system such as Vitruvius’ Ionic can be a much
more difficult exercise. If the dimensions are rounded at each step, it is possible that the
sizes of the elements higher up in the façade bear no precise proportional relationship to
the size of the module: the whole design is likely to be far more opaque than the Doric.
A successive system is also compatible with the evidence for incomplete preliminary
planning of fifth-century Greek monumental architecture which is best exemplified by
the frequent problems the architects had in designing the sizes of the frieze elements.27
23 Cf. Coulton 1974, 62; Waele 19 88, 205–206; 1990, 1; Cooper 1 996, 131–132; Wilson Jones 2000 , 75.
24 See Pakkanen 2004a, 258; Pakkan en 2005, 167–174.
25 Wilson Jones 2001, 680–682.
26 Vitr.4.3.3–10, 3.5.1–15; Coulton 1975a, 68–73; Coulton 1977, 66–67. Successive systems also fit Coulton’s
(1975a, 64) idea of governing and defining factors in Greek architectural design: ‘We can, however, suppose
that the dimensions of each part of a building were governed by a system of proportion, but defined by being
rounded out to the nearest convenient dimension. That might explain, theoretically at least, the general
uniformity of Doric proportions and at the same time the infrequency of simple ratios.’
27 Coulton 1975b; Coulton 1977, 60 –64.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 7
Statistical studies can clarify the issue. As will be shown in Chapters III and IV,
CQG analysis provides a robust method for detecting signals resulting from both pro-
portional relationships and rounding of building dimensions to the nearest convenient
fraction of a foot. Analyses suggest that a new definition of ‘modular’ can be put for-
ward: there are good grounds to call an architectural design being based on a single
module in cases which are transparent enough to produce a single statistically signifi-
cant peak in the CGQ analyses. For the other buildings an alternative explanation needs
to be sought, so perhaps their scheme was non-modular or their execution did not pre-
cisely follow the initial design.
Fig. 1.2. Modular and succ essive design systems in Vitruvius according to Coulton 1975a, fig. 1.
II. Method
The method used in this monograph is very different from the standard approach to
architectural design principles and metrology: establishing how the Greek architects
worked out their designs is a far more complex task than is taken for granted in most of
the earlier scholarship.1 The Parthenon is a good example of the confusion created by
the standard method. Different scholars have suggested a whole array of foot-standards,
modules or cubits which can be fitted to the building dimensions: 29.366–29.436 cm,
30.5–30.7 cm, 32.6–32.8 cm, 49.02857 cm, and 61.2857 cm.2 Most of the studies are
accompanied by a proportional design scheme which can be fitted to modern
measurements more or less successfully. If the standard method of design analysis was
not used as widely as it is in architectural studies, it would be needless to point out that
it is not a valid method of conducting research. I argue that if our aim is to understand
how architects designed their projects in ancient Greece in the Classical period, a proper
statistical analysis should be an essential part of all metrological and design studies.
What to Look for in the Design Analyses?
Before defining the quantitative approach used in this book it is necessary to discuss
what types of possible design patterns it is indispensable to keep an eye on in the
analysis of the statistical results.
The most important single ancient source on Greek classical foot-standards is
Herodotos: from the fifth-century historian we learn that different foot lengths were in
use, and he discusses some of the relationships between the different units.3 Unlike the
later Roman foot which was divided into twelve inches, the Greek foot was divided into
four palms and a palm into four dactyls or finger-breadths. Contrary to the well
documented Roman foot,4 the lengths of suggested Greek units are usually derived from
analyses of building dimensions. Some indications on the lengths of the standards may
possibly be derived from two preserved metrological reliefs5 and combining the
information of a length given in an ancient inscription with the actual measurement of
the element.6 There is some evidence, both empirical and textual, that ancient building
dimensions could have been rounded to the nearest full feet or simple fractions of feet.7
As we saw in the example given in the introduction on the temple of ‘Hera Lakinia’ at
Akragas, the possibility of expressing the principal plan dimensions in round numbers
of feet is a key point in the traditional arguments on the length of foot-units employed
by the architect. However, this cannot be taken for granted, and the observation that the
dimensions can conveniently be expressed in round numbers should be an end result of
the analysis, not part of its premises. The Greek architectural inscriptions rarely refer to
1 For further criticism and evaluations of previous metrological studies on Greek architecture, see Pakkanen
2002; Pakkanen 2004a; Chapt ers III and IV in this book.
2 Sonntagbauer 1998, 136.
3 Hdt. 1.60, 1.178, 2.149, 2.168, 6.127.
4 See e.g. Röttlander 1993 , 85–107.
5 Michaelis 1883, 335–350; Dekoulakou-Sideris 1990, 445–451; Slapšak 1993, 119–136; Wilson Jones 2000,
73–93.
6 See e.g. Haselberger 198 3, 115–121; pp. 14–20 and 60–64 below.
7 Coulton 1975a, 62–65, 85–89.
10 Jari Pakkanen
fractions smaller than a quarter foot.8 For example, the building blocks of the still
incomplete Erechtheion at Athens were inventoried in the late fifth century, and most
dimensions are expressed in terms of either full or half feet (see also Table 2.1 below).
Simple arithmetical proportions are one effective way of designing a well-
balanced building and their use could also explain the slight changes from one building
to the next.9 The use of simple fractions is very conspicuous in Vitruvius, and from his
references we know that the practice went back at least to the Greek second-century BC
architect Hermogenes and his Ionic buildings, but very likely Hermogenes was using
much earlier design principles.10
Fig. 2.1. Ionic temple plans imposed on a uniform grid. On the left the temple of Athena at Priene and on the
right the temple of Artemis at Magnesia (Coulton 1977 , fig. 23).
Architectural scholars agree that a modular design pattern can quite easily be
detected in fourth-century and Hellenistic Ionic architecture: the temples of Athena at
Priene and of Artemis at Magnesia are typical examples (Figure 2.1).11 Both temple
plans are strictly modular, and the axes of the surrounding colonnade and the cella walls
match very closely. In the temple of Artemis the central bays at the front and the back
are wider than others, but the cella design follows this wider spacing. Coulton’s
proposition that successive proportional design schemes could be an important factor
behind the opacity of Doric architectural design was discussed in the introduction (page
6 and Figure 1.2): successive systems can be far less transparent than modular ones.
8 Coulton 1975a, 92–93.
9 See e.g. Coulton 1977, 64–68 ; Mertens 1984, 104 –105.
10 Vitr. 3 and 4; on Hermogenes, see Vitr. 3.3.8. Cf. Coulton 1975a, 63; Coulton 1977, 70–71. In general on
the architect, see Hoep fner and Schwandner 199 0.
11 See e.g. Coulton 1977, 71; Wils on Jones 2001, 675–676.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 11
Fig. 2.2. Superimposed plans of the Archaic and Classical temples of Poseidon at Sounion (Dörpfeld 1884, pl.
15). The equal interaxials on the long and short sides of the Archaic temple marked with x and y.
In most fifth-century-BC Doric architecture the stylobate proportions seem to be
secondary to column spacing.12 Remains of the Old Temple of Poseidon are incorpo-
rated as part of the foundations of the later temple at the site (Figure 2.2). In the Old
Temple of Poseidon the front and flank interaxials are the same, so the architect obvi-
ously fixed this distance first and sacrificed the overall proportions at the stylobate
level.13 Koenigs has suggested that monumental Greek buildings were designed using a
measurement unit unique to each building.14 This is not as an unlikely proposition as it
initially sounds and could explain why there is so little consensus what comes to fifth-
century Doric design. The length of this ‘Iochmodul’ or ‘Iochfuss’ would have been
derived from the interaxial column spacing. One practical result of this suggestion is
that it would be nonsensical to try to derive the standard foot-unit lengths from building
dimensions: this has been one of the common approaches in Greek architectural
analyses, so Koenigs’ hypothesis needs to be taken very seriously.
Taking building dimensions and expressing them in terms of possible Greek
measurement units does not advance our understanding of Greek architectural design,
and the reason is simple: almost any metric dimension can be expressed quite well in
terms of at least one of the proposed units. The unit selection and measurement ranges
presented here are based on a relatively recent article, and it shows the situation around
the one meter mark (Figure 2.3).15 The darker vertical zone indicates the only measure-
ment range which cannot be given as feet and dactyls as defined in this particular study,
and the lighter area gives the short stretch not covered by the ‘Attic’ and ‘Doric’ units.
So, for example, a dimension measured as 0.98 m could be three ‘Attic’ feet and five
dactyls, three ‘Doric’ feet, two ‘Samian’ feet and thirteen dactyls, or three ‘common’
12 Coulton 1974, 74–77.
13 Coulton 1974, 74; Dinsmoor (1950, 107) notes that the stylobate had ‘simple dimensions of 40 by 921/2
feet’, but the dimensions do not translate into a simple proportion as was typical for sixth-century temples.
14 Koenigs 1979. See also Coulton 1974, 62; Waele 1988, 205–206; Waele 1990, 1; Cooper 1 996, 131–132;
Wilson Jones 2000, 75.
15 Wilson Jones 2001. For a more thorough discussion, see pp. 67–68.
12 Jari Pakkanen
Fig. 2.3. Standard Greek foot -units and measurement s in the range 0.975–1.025 m.
Fig. 2.4. Hypothetica l design of a regular Doric frieze ( Coulton 1977, fig. 18).
feet and three dactyls. Stretching the size and number of possibly used foot-units
renders most metrological analyses rather empty exercises. But again, I hope to show in
this monograph that an approach which does not start with predefined notions of the
foot-unit sizes can actually avoid the dangers underlined here.
The layout of a Doric building is rarely as transparent as an Ionic one. This is
due to the relationship between the columns and the frieze. In a hypothetical wooden
peristyle there would have been no corner conflict since the triglyph width matches the
architrave depth.16 In stone buildings the depth of the architrave is greater than the tri-
glyph width, so either the frieze elements have to be stretched or the distance between
the two corner columns shortened to produce a regular frieze (Figure 2.4). What can be
observed in Classical Greek buildings is a compromise: the architects most probably
used a thumb rule for placing the columns which, in most cases, produced a more or
less regular frieze, but almost always some adjustment in the width of the frieze ele-
ments was required.17 However, at least by the end of the fourth century there were
architects who were willing to test whether Ionic modularity could be introduced into
Doric buildings: the temple of Zeus at Stratos in western Greece is analysed in detail on
pages 75–93 below.18
16 See e.g. Gruben 2001, fig. 25 .
17 Coulton 1974, 72–73; Coulton 1975b, 15–16; Coulton 1977, 60–64.
18 For the most recent ov erview of the genera l trends in Hellen istic temple design , see Sioumpara 2011 , 244–
263.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 13
Fig. 2.5. Hypothetical reconstruction of the construction site of the first marble Parthenon
(Korres 1995, pl. 19).
One very significant factor in the analysis of an original building design is the
degree of precision which can be expected in the finished building. The architects and
construction workers tolerated quite substantial variations in the execution of their
monumental buildings. This is not surprising since all the blocks were finally cut to size
at the building site and fitted to the stones next to it (Figure 2.5). Variation of r0.01 m
between similar smaller architectural elements is quite typical of Greek building
practice.19 However, even the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis provides several
larger examples, such as the abacus width of the normal column capitals which varies
by almost 6 cm,20 and the variation in the length of the five architrave blocks on top of
the normal column bays of the east front of the Parthenon: they should all be of equal
length, but the difference between the shortest and longest block is 0.18 m. The bays
vary only by 0.01 m, thus causing the architrave joints to be significantly off the
alignment of the columns.21 J.A. Bundgaard suggests that the differences in block
lengths are explained by the reluctance of the masons to cut away more than was
19 Coulton 1975a, 94.
20 1.997–2.055 m; Balanos 1938, 38.
21 Balanos 1938, dépliant no. 10.
14 Jari Pakkanen
absolutely necessary of the blocks coming from the quarry: the four largest blocks were
probably used to the full and only the shortest block cut down.22 Quite often these
examples have been overlooked even in modern studies, and the precision of the
workmanship – for example, the jointing of blocks is very accurate – is taken to apply to
all of the building.23
There is wide agreement between scholars of Greek architecture that propor-
tional systems relating the size of the building elements to each other were used b y
Greek architects and that these proportional relationships can be detected by studying
the actual dimensions of the building. Proportional analyses often seem rather con-
vincing, but one question invariably rises: how precisely should the actual building
dimensions fit to the presented scheme? This basic question is rarely satisfactorily
solved in architectural studies. It naturally varies from building to building depending
on the ancient execution, current state of preservation and the skill and tools of the
modern scholar. This question will be one of the recurring themes in this book.
Statistical Methods
The approach adapted in this book was originally published in 1974 by D.G. Kendall.
Basically, it is a statistical analysis of whether the hypothesis that the diameter of Brit-
ish megalithic circles was designed using a measurement unit of 1.66 m is supported by
the measurement data;24 it should be emphasised that Kendall’s study is a methodo-
logical one and that the modern understanding of the archaeological significance of the
original question is distinct from the proposed method. His approach is built on earlier
studies by R. von Mises and S.R. Broadbent how to detect a quantum of unknown size
in a set of measurements, but his cosine quantogram (CQG) method proposes a modi-
fied algorithm for the data analysis; he also suggests that the validity of the obtained
results needs to be assessed by Monte Carlo computer simulations.25 Revisions to
Kendall’s method have recently been suggested by the author of this monograph and by
E. Çankaya and N.R.J. Fieller.26
Going through a relatively simple and concrete metrological example is the best
way to understand how CQG can be used to study architectural design principles, and I
will use the Erechtheion block measurements as such an example.27 Several currently
existing marble blocks can be identified in the late fifth-century BC building inventory
22 Bundgaard 1957, 140 –141.
23 On variation and precision in Greek building more in genera l, see Coulton 1975a, 89 –98.
24 Kendall did detect a ‘real quantum’ in the data, but he demonstrated that it could equally well be a result of
laying out the relevant dimensions by pacing (Kendall 1974, 258); a synopsis of the discussion is presented by
Renfrew and Bahn (2000, 401) and Baxter (2 003, 235) sums up the argument as follows: ‘Although the
megalithic yard may be dead, the methodology that some regard as having buried it lives on.’ Several more
relevant examples of quantal problems in archaeology are discussed in Fieller 1993, 282–286. Kendall 1977 is
mainly a reprint of the origina l article, but on pp. 156–159 he presents a reply to some of the comments on his
method.
25 Mises 1918, 490–500; Br oadbent 1955, 45 –57; Broadbent 1956, 32–44; Kendall 1974, 234. A review of
Kendall’s method with a larger number of executed simulati ons is presented i n Baxter 2003, 228–235. On the
use of Monte Carlo methods in archaeology, see Pakkanen 1998a, 54–55, esp. n. 18; Baxter 2003, 147–158.
26 Use of kernel density estimates to produce non-quantal simulation distributions: Pakkanen 2002; Pakkanen
2004a; multimodality: Çankaya and Fieller 2009.
27 For a previous analysis of the data, see Pakkanen 2006–2007.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 15
Table 2.1. The Erechth eion building block dimensions in IG I3 474
(for sources of the dimensions in column 3, see Pakkanen 2006, table 1).
1. Block
2. IG I3 474
(feet)
3. Measured
dimension (m)
4 wall blocks
L (line s 10–11)
4
1.30
W (line 11)
2
0.652
H (lines 11–12)
11/2
0.490
5 epikranitis blocks
L (line s 16–17)
4
1.301
H (lines 17–18)
11/2
0.492
Corner epikranitis
W (line 20)
4
1.242
H (lines 20–21)
11/2
0.492
8 architrave blocks
L (line s 33–4, 37–8)
8
2.608
W (lines 3 4–5, 38–9)
21/4
0.77
H (lines 35, 39)
2
0.63
3 Karyatid Porch
L (line s 87–8)
13
4.200
roof blocks
W (lines 8 8–9)
5
1.648
East frieze block
L (line s 115 –19)
6 & 8
1.940 & 2.675
W (lines 1 15–27)
1
0.285, 0.315
H
2
0.617
North frieze block
W (lines 1 15–27)
1
0.298
H
2
0.683
Geison block
L (line s 128 –55)
4
1.301
W
3
0.998
IG I3 474: their dimensions are given in the inscription and these can be compared to
modern measurements. The full results of the Erechtheion analysis are presented in
detail on pages 60–74. I start by taking the block dimensions listed in column 3 of Table
2.1 and subject them to independent statistical analysis: this means that the information
given in IG I3 474 is solely used to select the analysed blocks and the data on their size
in feet are disregarded at this stage. This gives a set of measurements which should have
an underlying basic dimension, a foot-standard in this case, which produces the
observable lengths. In statistical terms this dimension is called a quantum; in the case of
the Erechtheion the ‘quantum hypothesis’ is that a block dimension X can be expressed
as the product of an integral multiple M times the quantum q plus an error component
H
.
In mathematical terms this can be denoted as
X = Mq +
H
. (1)
The critical factor in the formula is error
H
: it sets a lower limit for quantum q. In
any case
H
or q–
H
should be substantially smaller than any considered q.28 Variation of
r0.01 m between similar smaller architectural elements is quite typical of Greek
building practice,29 but by computer simulations it can be demonstrated that an error of
this size has no effect on detecting a quantum in the region of c. 0.08 m, or
approximately one quarter of a ‘Doric’ foot, even when the number of analysed building
dimensions is small.30 The case study on the Classical grid layout at Naxos in Sicily
demonstrates that CQG can find a statistically highly significant design module of c. 1.6
m in a group of 40 measurements even with an average discrepancy of c. 0.2 m in the
28 Since
H
has a value between 0 and q, q –
H
can also produce an error significantly smaller than q.
29 Coulton 1975a, 94. From a stat istical point of view it does n ot matter whether the ob served variation is due
to factors in Greek building design and execution, the current condition of the blocks or modern measurement
errors.
30 Cf. Pakkanen 2002, 502 –503; see also p. 20 below.
16 Jari Pakkanen
Fig. 2.6.Two examples of cosine values produced by dimensions in Table 2.1 Column 3.
executed dimensions. In the case of the Erechtheion, in order to give due consideration
to units slightly smaller than a ‘normal’ quarter-foot or palm, I use a range of 0.06–0.40
m in the following analyses. The upper end is chosen so that it is greater than any
suggested Greek foot-standard.31
In order to determine how well a block measurement X can be expressed in terms
of quantum q, X needs to be divided by q and the remainder
H
analysed. The value of
H
will be between 0 and q, and the less it deviates from either 0 or q, the better the fit
between X and q. In Kendall’s cosine quantogram analysis
H
is first divided by q and
then the cosine of the quotient
H
/q is taken: this gives a value of +1 for dimensions X
which are an exact multiple of q, and the worst fitting measurements produce a value of
–1. Figure 2.6 presents on the left the cosine values by the well-fitting q value of 0.162
m and on the right the pattern produced by the ill-fitting value of 0.196 m.
To find out which q is the best candidate for the quantum, it is necessary to
compute the cosine value for all the measurements X and the full quantum range. How
well the tested q-values fit the data can be determined from the cosine quantogram
where the sum of the cosine values is plotted against q: the highest observable peak in
the graph is the most likely quantum candidate (Figure 2.7). All this can be expressed as
the following mathematical function
I
(q) for calculating the quantum score:
I
(q) = (2)
Here N is the number of measurements and the first term
N/2
a scaling factor: in
order to avoid getting a higher value for
I
(q) by simply introducing more
measurements, the cosine sum needs to be scaled down.32
Figure 2.7 presents the CQG plot of the measurement data in Column 3 of Table
2.1. There are two apparent peaks, the first at 0.162 m and the second almost exactly
twice the first at 0.325 m; the first corresponds obviously to the half-foot of the
employed unit and second to the full foot. Since the statistical analysis makes no a
31 The ‘Samian’ foot of c. 0.35 m; for references to the foot, see Wilson Jones 2000 , 75 n. 16. There is n o need
to consider longer units such as cubits in this case since based on IG I3 474 it is known tha t a foot-standard
rather than anything substantially longer was employed in the construction process.
32 Kendall 1974, 235–239.
¦
n
iiq
1),/2cos(
SH
N/2
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 17
Fig. 2.7. CQG plot of the Er echtheion building block m easurements listed in Tab le 2.1. Column 3.
priori assumption about the quantum size, or even its existence, it is highly significant
that the cosine quantogram method points towards a slightly shorter unit than the
current consensus on the length of the ‘Doric’ foot. The quantum score of the first peak
is 3.70 and the second significantly less, 3.28. The next task is to find out whether the
peaks are sufficiently high to be considered real quanta and not just background noise; if
they are, then it would be convenient to know how precisely the length of the unit can
be defined on the basis of the building block measurements.
The best means of evaluating whether the highest quantum score produced in the
initial analysis is statistically significant is to build mathematical models of the data and
use them to produce random non-quantal simulation data sets. These should have the
same general statistical properties as the original set of measurements but lack the
quantal ones. The replica data sets are then analysed in the same way as the primary
data, and if the simulated function peaks are systematically lower than in the initial
analysis, it is possible to accept the quantum hypothesis: the highest origina l peak can in
that case be regarded as a valid candidate for the quantum33 and directly related to the
foot-standard used in the Erechtheion. Due to the random nature of the computer
simulations, the method for testing the validity of the results is often called Monte Carlo
analysis.
I have previously proposed that kernel density estimation (KDE) distributions
are an effective way of producing the non-quantal data sets needed in the simulations.34
33 Kendall 1974, 241–249; Fieller 1993, 282–283; Pakkanen 2002, 501–502; Baxter 2003, 231–233 ; Pakkanen
2004a, 263–270.
34 On KDE distributions used as ma thematical models to p roduce non-quanta l data sets, see Pakkanen 2002,
501–502; Pakkanen 2004a, 268–270; Pakk anen 2011, 148–157; on KDE in gen eral, see Silverman 1986 , 7–
74; on archaeological an alysis and KDE, see Baxter an d Beardah 1996; Beardah and Baxt er 1999; Baxter
2003, 29–37. Kendall (1974, 245–249) used in his simulations one half of the Gaussian normal distribution,
but even though the method fits his case study, it is not a general solution to the production of simulation data
sets. Histograms are commonly used as input distributions in computer simulations (see e.g. Law and Kelton
2000, 335–337), but the stepped structu re may produce inadvertent quantal qua lities in the simula ted data sets
18 Jari Pakkanen
Figure 2.8. Kernel density estimation distributions used to produce simulation data sets. The curves are based
on the Erechtheion build ing block measurements li sted in Table 2.1.
The idea behind the KDE is that a small continuous distribution is placed at the position
of each observation and these are then added together to create a smooth curve (Figure
2.8). The shape of an individual ‘bump’ can be seen at the right of the figure (solid line).
Employing KDE to produce distribution models emphasises the notion that the existing
measurements are the most reliable guide to what the general characteristics of the non-
quantal data sets should be.35 In order to avoid producing the quantal properties of the
original data, it is necessary to smooth the KDE curve, and this can be done by
manipulating the window- or band-width h which corresponds to the class-width in
histograms:36 when h is small, the data structure of the original dimensions can be
observed more in detail, and when large, the KDE distribution is very smooth ( Figure
2.8).
Since the effect of the input distributions on Monte Carlo simulation and cosine
quantogram analysis has been questioned by P.R. Freeman,37 several different KDE
distributions with slightly varying band-widths will be used in the following. One
thousand simulations are usually regarded sufficient for a statistical test at the 5% level
of significance, but I have run three sets of 1,000 simulations for each data model to
examine the variation between different Monte Carlo runs.38 The range for the window-
(Pakkanen 2004a, 267). The computer modules used in the cosine quantogram analysis, Monte Carlo
simulations, and producing the KDE distributions have been programmed by the author of this paper on top of
Survo MM. Cosine quantogram analysi s is now a standard feature of Survo MM (this module has been
implemented by Seppo Mustonen).
35 The parallel with bootstrap-techniques is evident (cf. Manly 1997, 34), though bootstrapping itself cannot
be used to produce replica data sets: since bootstrap is based on the possibility of an observation being
replicated in the resampled data set, the method produces emphasised quantum peaks which is exactly the
opposite than what th e properties of a si mulation data set should be; Pakkan en 2002, 502; Pak kanen 2004a,
264–266.
36 The optimal width of h in the KDEs can be calculated in several different ways. I have used C.C. Beardah’s
MATLAB routines to calculate the optimal window-widths of the KDEs; see Baxter and Beardah 1996, 405–
408.
37 Freeman 1976, 23. Freeman’s Bayesian posterior distributions can be shown to be very closely related to
Kendall’s cosine quantogram method; see Silverman 1976, 44–45.
38 On the number of random data sets, see e.g. Manly 1997, 80–84.
00.5 11.5 22.5 33.5 44.5
Length (m)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
density
h = 0.2
h
h
= 0.3
= 0.4
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 19
Table 2.2. Results of the Monte Carlo simulations (n = 1,000 for each run). The KDE
distributions used as simulation data models are based on Table 2.1, Column 3.
1. KDE Distribution
2.
I
(q) , D = 5%
3. D,
I
(q) = 3.70
a. h = 0.2, 1st run
3.44
1.4%
b. 2nd run
3.36
1.7%
c. 3rd run
3.38
1.2%
d. h = 0.3, 1st run
3.43
2.1%
e. 2nd run
3.45
1.9%
f. 3rd run
3.41
1.1%
g. h = 0.4, 1st run
3.43
1.4%
h. 2nd run
3.39
1.6%
i. 3rd run
3.38
1.5%
j. Combined results of a–i, n = 9,000
3.41
1.5%
widths used in the Erechtheion inscription dimension simulations is 0.2–0.4 (Figure
2.8); the objective values for h vary between 0.24–0.40.39
The results of the Monte Carlo simulations using the different KDE data models
are presented in Table 2.2: no differences can be observed between the simulations
using the various band-widths to produce the replica data sets; also, discrepancies
between the different simulation runs are rather small. All runs have recognised the
higher quantum peak of 3.70 at 0.162 m as significant at the 5% level and rejected the
second peak at 0.325 m. The results of the different simulations can be combined to
obtain more accurate values based on 9,000 runs (line j in Table 2.2): the score for 5%
significance level can be determined as 3.41 (the dotted line in Figure 2.7), and the
Erechtheion peak height at the half-foot mark of 0.162 m is topped in only 1.5% of the
simulations.
Based on comparison of the inscription and the actual block measurements, the
95% bootstrap confidence interval for the Erechtheion foot-standard length can be
established as 0.316–0.327 m.40 It remains to be seen whether cosine quantogram
analysis could be used to determine a more precise range than this. Kendall suggests
that the precision with which the size of the quantum is known can be calculated as
follows: a mathematical model of the data is first used to create a random sample of
dimensions X and quantal properties are introduced to these values by first calculating
the nearest integer L to X / q and then replacing each X by
X’ = Lq +
V
e, (3)
where
V
is standard deviation and e a standardised Gaussian random variable: Lq can be
defined as a quantal target length disturbed by the error
V
e. Kendall also showed that
the expectation value for the standard deviation
V
can be determined as
V
=
22 2/)2/ln(
S
u NSq
, (4)
39 The band-width h calculated using Solve-The-Equation method (STE) is 0.236, one-, two- and three-stage
Direct-Plug-In (DPI) methods 0.345, 0.305 and 0.269 respec tively, Smooth-C ross-Validation (SCV) 0.305,
and Normal method 0.396. For the methods, see Baxter and Beardah 1996, 397–408.
40 See pp. 63–64 below, esp. n. 52.
20 Jari Pakkanen
where S is the maximum quantum score; the only restriction is that the number of
measurements N should be large.41 For the Erechtheion block measurements q is 0.1619
m and S 3.70, so
V
can be calculated as 0.0273 m. Since N = 21 and cannot be classified
as large, it is necessary to compare the values of sample standard deviation s for error
H
in formula (1) and
V
: s can be calculated as 0.0282 m, which is almost identical with
V
.
Therefore, the expectation value
V
can be used in the simulations.
The new X values were produced using a KDE distribution with h = 0.3. Two
hundred new sets of simulated X’-values were created and analysed using CQG method:
the maximum peaks had a range of 0.1604–0.1640 m and standard deviation of 0.0009
m; the 95% confidence interval for the mean can be calculated as 0.3237–0.3244 m.
Therefore, based on cosine quantogram analysis of the block dimensions named in IG I3
474, the best estimate for the Erechtheion foot-unit can be defined with 95% probability
as 324.0 r 0.4 mm. This is approximately 15 times more precise than the initial
comparison of block measurements and inscription data would have indicated, so the
benefits of employing CQG are quite obvious.
CQG and simulations can also be used to analyse the effect of measurement
noise. The data set used in these computer simulations is based on 18 theoretical
Skeuotheke inscription dimensions.42 They are all part of the building plan or individual
blocks which could possibly be discovered in a modern excavation of a Greek building,
even if it was not well preserved. I have intentionally kept the size of the data set very
small: larger data sets are better able to tolerate higher levels of noise. The dimensions
and their lengths in feet given in the inscription are listed in Table 2.3. The calculated
size in millimetres (Column 3) is based on the above determined Erechtheion average
foot length of 0.324 m; actually, any other length within the range of supposed Greek
foot units would have served the analysis equally well. One of the measurements, the
width of the wall orthostate block, is given in the inscription with the precision of one-
sixteenth of a foot,43 all others in terms of quarter-, half- or a round number of feet.
Figure 2.9 presents a summary of the Skeuotheke simulations. Adding uniform
noise of r10 mm to the building dimensions does not have any effect on the quantogram
analysis: the top two KDE plots in Figure 2.9 show that all 50 simulations picked the
quarter-foot mark of c. 81 mm as the quantum (top left) and all had a very high maxi-
mum peak score of 4 or more (top right). The second set of simulations demonstrates
that even noise at the level of r20 mm has very little effect on the length of detected
quantum, though peak scores are significantly lower than in the first set. The vertical
line at 3.5 indicates a peak score which most often will be recognized as significant in
Monte Carlo simulations, depending of course on the data set: only 22 of 50 simulations
produced a peak of 3.5 or higher. As we see in the third set of simulations, a noise-level
of r30 mm is enough to collapse the peak at quarter-foot and make the half-foot mark of
c. 162 mm the mode of the distribution; 29 simulations peak in the region of 81 and 162
mm, and only a few produce significantly high peaks. Addition of noise at r40 mm and
r50 mm gradually diminishes the proportion of correct quanta being detected while
there is very little change in the height of maximum peaks produced in the simulations.
41 Kendall 1974, 253–254, 258–260. More observations increase the reliability of statistical inference, so the
larger the sample, the better the results usually are.
42 IG II2 1668. For an analysis of the building in the Piraeus and the relationship between the preserved
dimensions and the inscription data, see Pakkanen 2002.
43 The reason for this is that the width is one dactyl or finger-breat h wider than the normal wall block width of
21/2 feet.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 21
Figure 2.9. KDEs of noise effect on the reliability of CQG analyses based on simulated inscription data (n =
50 for each run). Length of maximum quantum (on the left, band-width h = 4) and maximum peak score (on
the right, h = 0.14).
22 Jari Pakkanen
Table 2.3. Simulated inscription data for Skeuotheke in the Piraeus (1 foot = 0.324 m).
1. Element
2. IG II2 1668
(feet)
3. Calculated
dimension (m)
Building W
55
17.820
Doorpost L
10
3.240
Doorpost W
2
0.648
Door W
9
2.916
Centre-nave W
20
6.480
Side-nave W
121/4
3.969
Euthynteria block L
4
1.296
Euthynteria block W
3
0.972
Euthynteria block H
11/2
0.486
Corner euthynter ia block L
43/4
1.539
Orthostate block L
4
1.296
Orthostate block W
29/16
0.830
Orthostate block H
3
0.972
Wall block W
21/2
0.810
Wall block H
11/2
0.486
Pillar W
23/4
0.891
Pillar stylobate L
4
1.296
Pillar stylobate W
3 1/4
1.053
Pages 23–109 are missing from this file.
V. Conclusions
The principal aim of this monograph has been to demonstrate how a more rigorous
methodological approach to the question of Greek architectural design could be the
starting point towards a scholarly consensus on the topic. It has been my intention to
demonstrate why the standard design analysis method has resulted in the current lack of
agreement and this can best be done by studying previous case studies in detail. Cosine
quantogram analyses and determining the statistical significance levels by subsequent
computer simulations is very well-suited to both pinpointing where the shortcomings of
the earlier research are and suggesting what the best way forward is. Mathematical
algorithms are far better equipped in finding out significant patterns at the core of a
complicated set of measurements than intuitive studies. The lack of scholarly agreement
is a strong indication that the question of Classical Greek architectural design is a very
complex one: the opacity of the design principles behind these masterworks of western
architecture makes them an even more fascinating focus of research. I find it intriguing
that in order to understand how the Greek architect thought out the design of his
buildings we need to resort almost 2,500 years later to quite complicated quantitative
analyses. Statistics can also help us to understand what the relationship between the
initial plan and the completed structure is and thus enhance our knowledge of the whole
process of monumental building. Research in the field and working directly on the
building blocks has always filled me with respect of the skill of the ancient mason, but
the theoretical analysis is necessary to get closer to the thinking process of the architect.
Application of an appropriate rigorous quantitative method should also bring an end to
the practice of proposing different hypothetical proportional and modular design
schemes based on a similar set of dimensions. However, this will not happen until the
use of the standard design analysis method comes to an end.
A joint analysis of a group of ten fifth-century Doric temples presented in
Chapter III demonstrates that the most constant ratios in the group can be interpreted as
an indication of the design rules used by the architect. The building proportions derived
from elements at the stylobate level produce systematically higher levels of significance
than features further up in the façade. The most probable explanation for this
observation is that the Greek temples were designed from bottom up and not top down:
they are ‘plan-driven’ rather than ‘façade-driven’. Also, the results of statistical analyses
are coherent with Coulton’s proposal that the opacity of Doric design is due to
successive systems of proportion involving rounding of dimensions at various stages of
the design and execution process rather than a strictly modular design system. The
exceptionally good fit produced by the proportions expressed in terms of the stylobate
block width is consistent with Coulton’s suggestion that Vitruvius’ term for the module,
embater, is related to the size of the stylobate block.
When the data sets forming this group are studied building by building, it
emerges that only three of the façade measurement sets support a modular hypothesis.
These temples could reasonably be described as having a design based on a ‘bay
module’. A detailed study of the temple of Zeus at Olympia on pages 39–43 reveals that
the three highest peaks of the CQG analysis can all be interpreted in terms of the
proportional relationships of the stylobate: they match 1/12, 1/10 and 1/7 of the stylobate
block width and give an indication which fractions can be matched with the façade
proportions. All three quanta can also be interpreted not only in terms of the ‘Doric’
foot of 0.326–0.327 m but also the ‘Samian’ cubit of 0.521–0.523 m. The analysis of
112 Jari Pakkanen
the temple of the Athenians on Delos (pages 43–46) demonstrates how different data
sets result in recognizing various aspects of the building design. The plan dimensions
produce a statistically significant peak, but its relationship to the foot-unit is not entirely
clear. The façade measurements reflect the proportional relationships between the
various parts, but a peak linked with a quarter-foot also emerges. A larger set of plan
and elevation dimensions complicates the overall picture, but peaks relating to both
proportions and dimensions rounded to quarter and full feet are present. The final data
set also confirms that a foot-standard of 0.293–0.294 m was used in the design and
execution of the building.
In general, the principal dimensions of the temples discussed in Chapter III are
mainly linked with the proportional ratios of the buildings, so metrological studies
attempting to establish the lengths of measurement-units used in the Greek world might
be more successful by omitting these dimensions from their analyses. Based on the
Erechtheion and Tegea studies presented in Chapter IV it is possible to propose that
using sets of block measurements will more probably result in the discovery of a
statistically valid foot-unit. A quantitative method makes it possible to base the analyses
on large data sets, but inclusion of more data can also hide significant patterns, as the
temple of the Athenians demonstrates. The detected peaks can, for example, be caused
by proportional relationships between the dimensions but also by rounding of the
element sizes to the nearest comfortable fraction of a foot.
Chapter IV broadens the range of studied themes beyond fifth-century BC Doric
temple design: the four case studies are on the orthogonal town plan of Naxos in Sicily,
the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis and two fourth-century temples at Stratos
and Tegea. All four sections use a combination of previously published and new data.
The fifth-century grid inside the area of the city walls at Naxos is one of the best
preserved examples of regular town planning in the Greek world (pages 56–58). CQG
analysis of the new measurements reveals what was the initial design of the orthogonal
layout of the city blocks and streets and how this is linked to its execution on the
ground. The module is 1.627 m, or in ancient terms five feet of 0.325 m. The execution
of the city layout does not precisely follow the original plan in all places: for example,
the narrow cross-roads are typically made slightly wider than their modular width and
the principal avenues a little narrower. The average discrepancy is as much as 0.19 m
(12 per cent of the employed module or nearly two thirds of the foot-unit). Even though
the interpretation of the Piraeus case study is not as straight-forward as at Naxos
because of the imprecise measurements and small data set, the same module and foot-
standard emerge from the analysis of the grid dimensions (pages 53–56). It can be
suggested that even though the Sicilian grid employed narrower Archaic proportions for
the city blocks than in the ‘Hippodamian’ Piraeus, the two architects employed the same
design-unit.
The section on the Erechtheion (pages 60–74) concentrates on determining the
length of the foot-standard used in the construction of the temple: using the block
inventory inscription (IG I3 474) as a data selection guide, the length of the foot-unit can
with 95% probability be established as 324.0 r 0.4 mm; the result is further supported
by a study of the temple plan dimensions. The case study also shows that discrepancies
of up to r25 mm in the execution of the building elements do not prevent CQG analysis
from detecting the unit length: the reason is that a sufficient number of blocks were cut
reasonably accurately in multiples of half-feet. The key issues in the analyses are the
use of an appropriate quantitative method, data selection, and the size of the data set.
The standard metrological approach has previously failed to correctly identify the size
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 113
of the Erechtheion unit, despite the preserved inventory inscription listing the building
block dimensions. The section further emphasises the need of a fresh approach in
metrological research: the results reached in earlier studies cannot be taken as the
starting point of further analyses and the available data should be thoroughly re-
examined using a robust statistical method.
The new fieldwork at Stratos (pages 75–93) strongly suggests that the design of
the temple of Zeus was changed in the middle of the building process: the temple was
originally planned with one more drum per column shaft. This design change would
explain the very conservative proportional height of the temple façade. At the end of the
fourth century BC Stratos was under economic strain due to its large-scale urban
development programmes: the unfinished temple is a clear indication of the state of the
finances of the polis. CQG analysis of the building dimensions reveals a strictly
modular design pattern: the length of the module is 0.1053 m. The overall design
follows the patterns established for fifth-century monumental architecture in Chapter
III: the module is directly related to the stylobate-level dimensions, and the worse fit of
the façade dimensions supports the use of a successive proportional design system. The
length of the module suggests that the temple construction could be linked with a foot-
unit of 0.316 m, but its relationship to the local unit at Stratos cannot be determined on
the basis of one structure.
The final case study on the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea presents analyses of
the building block dimensions and principal dimensions but it also concentrates on the
dimensions of moulding details (pages 94–109). Textual sources on Greek architecture
are silent about the measurement-units used in the design and execution of small
building elements, but the statistical analysis of the Parthenon mouldings returns a
highly significant peak related to the quarter-dactyl of a foot-unit of c. 0.295–0.296 m.
The moulding measurements of the temple of Athena Alea do not give a statistically
significant result, but a relatively large set of block dimensions indicates a unit of c.
0.099 m. Following the results of the Erechtheion study it very likely arises from the
foot-unit employed in the dimensioning of the blocks. If this the case, length of the
Athena Alea foot-standard was c. 0.297–0.298 m and, as at Stratos, it suggests that
division of feet into thirds instead of quarters was possible in fourth-century archi-
tecture. The analysis of the newly established plan dimensions demonstrate that Skopas
employed a very unusual design principle for the Late-Classical temple: the stylobate
has a simple width to length proportion of 2 to 5 and he derived the differing front and
flank column spacings from the stylobate dimensions. The plan is very likely linked
with its Archaic predecessor, and even though its anachronistic design features render it
difficult to decipher in detail, CQG analysis can reveal the proportional schemes of both
the plan and the façade.
All in all, this monograph demonstrates that a shift in design analysis paradigm
is in place: there is excellent previous research on Greek architectural design and, espe-
cially, the ever expanding series of building monographs provides the essential data to
be used in these studies, but the standard methodological approaches are not robust
enough to separate between successful and unsuccessful hypotheses. Research employ-
ing proper quantitative methods in the analysis of measurement sets can detect meaning-
ful patterns in the data: perhaps one day scholars will be able to agree how the Classical
Greek architects designed their buildings.
114 Jari Pakkanen
Glossary of Architectural Terms
Abacus The flat element forming the top part of the capital.
Anta Wall-end, thicker than the rest of the wall. Can also terminate a
colonnade: e.g. the porch order columns of a Doric temple are
typically in antis, so between two antae.
Architrave Lintel block carried by columns, also called the epistyle; lowest
part of the entablature; see Figure 3.1.
Arris Sharp edge between two column flutes of a Doric column.
Cella Central room of a temple.
Column drum One section of a column shaft; see Figure 3.1.
Embater Vitruvius’ Greek term for the module or basic design-unit of an
architectural order (Vitr. 4.3.3).
Entasis The slightly convex curve of the column taper.
Entablature Superstructure of a building carried by columns; includes the
architrave, frieze and geison; see Figure 3.1.
Epikranitis The crowning moulding of the cella wall; also used for the top
course of blocks of the wall.
Euthynteria Top course of the foundations, and the very top of the blocks was
visible above the ground in antiquity; see Figure 3.1.
Flute Vertical channel of a column shaft.
Frieze Central part of an entablature; see Figure 3.1.
Geison The Greek term for the cornice, the top projecting part of the
entablature; see Figure 3.1.
Geison-via The space between projecting parts of the geison, the mutules.
Krepidoma/krepis Platform of a temple, usually consisting of three steps; see Figure
3.1.
Metope Panels of a Doric frieze between the triglyphs; see Figure 3.1.
Opisthodomos Rear porch of a temple; cf. pronaos.
Orthostate The lowest course of the walls, upright blocks which are higher
than typical wall blocks.
Pronaos Front porch of a temple enclosed by side walls and with columns
in front.
Pteroma The passage between the exterior colonnade and the cella.
Regula Rectangular strip under the taenia (the continuous band) of a Doric
architrave.
Sima The gutter of a building, usually of terracotta but in monumental
temples can also be carved of marble.
Stylobate The top step of the krepidoma; see Figure 3.1.
Toichobate The base of a wall corresponding to the stylobate under the col-
umns.
Triglyph Tripartite projecting member of a Doric frieze, between the
metopes; see Figure 3.1.
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 115
Glossary of Statistical Terms
Band-width (h) Factor determining the width of the kernel (‘bump’) placed at each
observation in KDE: when h is small, the data structure of the
original dimensions can be observed more in detail, and when
large, the KDE curve becomes very smooth. In histograms, the
class interval controls similarly the appearance of the plot.
Bayesian posterior distribution
In Bayesian statistics the prior probabilities are modified in light of
available data to produce the posterior probabilities. Correspond-
ingly, Bayesian posterior distribution is the distribution (how the
set of numerical data are distributed) of a variable based on the
available evidence.
Bootstrap techniques
The basic principle behind bootstrap methods is that since the
existing sample provides the best knowledge of the studied
phenomenon, the sample can be used as a guide to the population
distribution. For example, obtaining bootstrap confidence intervals
involves taking several random resamples of the sample with
replacement in order to approximate the confidence interval range.
The name for the technique comes from the saying “to pull oneself
up by one’s bootstraps”.
Confidence interval A confidence interval for a parameter is an interval calculated on
the basis of the sample data so that there is a certain probability,
often 95%, that the unknown population mean is within this
interval.
Cosine quantogram (CQG) analysis
A statistical method for calculating clustering of data around a
particular basic dimension, a quantum, and estimating its statistical
significance by computer simulations. See quantum hypothesis
below.
Gaussian normal distribution
A common continuous symmetric bell-shaped probability distribu-
tion: if the observations are normally distributed, a constant pro-
portion of the cases are between the mean and a certain distance
from the mean. The curve is named after the German mathemati-
cian C.F. Gauss.
Kernel density estimate (KDE)
An alternative method of displaying a summary of the form of the
data to a histogram: it avoids the frequent problems related to the
choice of origin in histograms. The principal behind the KDE is
that a small continuous distribution is placed at the position of
each observation and these are then added together to create a
smooth curve; see Figure 2.8.
Monte Carlo simulations
Random computer simulations. In this monograph, Monte Carlo
simulations are used to create random samples of data from KDE
distributions: the artificial data sets derived from the smooth
distributions do not have the quantal properties of the original data
116 Jari Pakkanen
and, therefore, they can be used to test the statistical validity of the
highest obtained quantum peaks in CQG, so whether they are
statistically significant or not.
Quantum hypothesis
The hypothesis assumes that in a data set there is an underlying
quantum or basic dimension so that an observation X can be
expressed as the product of an integral multiple M times the
quantum q plus a small error component
H
(X = Mq +
H
). The
clustering around q can be tested by calculating the CQG score for
the data set and, subsequently, Monte Carlo simulations can be
used to test the statistical validity of the quantum hypothesis.
Window-width See band-width above.
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Index
abacus 13, 37, 40, 44, 87, 96, 103 n.
160, 107, 114
Agrinion 77 n. 80
Akarnania 77
Akragas
temple of ‘Concord’ 5 n. 19, 27,
30–32, 38, 47
temple of ‘Dioscuri’ 5 n. 19, 27,
31–32, 38
temple of Hephaistos 5 n. 19
temple of ‘Hera Lakinia’ 4, 5 n.
19, 9, 27, 31–32, 38
Temple E 5 n. 19
Temple L 5 n. 19
Alexander the Great 77 n. 80
anta 24, 45, 66, 75, 79–81, 86, 88, 93,
104, 107, 114
architectural orders
Doric 4–6, 40, 44, 88–90
Ionic 6, 10, 88–90
architrave 12–13, 24, 36, 40, 44, 63,
87, 90, 101, 107
arris 82 n. 105, 114
Athens
Erechtheion 14–20, 51, 58, 60–74
Hephaisteion 3, 27, 29–32, 38–39,
47
Old Temple of Athena 63 n. 48
Parthenon 9, 13–14, 51, 61, 98–99
Propylaia 61
stoa of Eumenes 61
theatre of Dionysos 61
axial width, axial length 24, 34–36, 40,
44, 86–87, 107
background noise 17, 20, 68
band-width 18–19, 30 n. 17, 31 n. 19,
65, 88 n. 124, 97 n. 143, 100 n.
149, 101 n. 151, 115–116
Bassai
temple of Apollo 27, 31–32, 38
Bayesian posterior distribution 18 n.
37, 115
bootstrap techniques 18 n. 35, 19, 61,
64, 80 n. 94, 81 n. 95, 115
capital 36–37, 40, 44, 87, 101, 107
ceiling 101, 103–104
cella 4, 10, 40, 44, 75, 78–81, 83, 86–
88, 91, 101–104, 107, 114
wall blocks 2, 15, 40, 44, 62–63,
66, 81, 83 n. 113, 93, 101
column
dimensions 36–37, 40, 44, 81, 87–
88, 95–96, 107
drums 24, 64 n. 52, 75–77, 79–86,
91–93, 96, 114
proportions 75, 79 n. 93, 81, 91
computer simulations, see Monte Carlo
simulations
confidence interval 19–20, 61, 64, 79,
81, 83, 93, 115
cosine quantogram (CQG) analysis 7,
14–20, 28–35, 39–47, 54–56, 61,
64–65, 68–71, 86–91, 96–102,
106–109, 115–116
cubit 9, 28–29, 41
dactyl 5, 9, 20 n. 43, 28, 39, 42–43,
95–96, 99–100
Delos
peripteral temple of Apollo 82
temple of the Athenians 26–27,
31–32, 38, 43–48
Delphi
Tholos 79 n. 93
design analysis 4–7, 28–29, 47–49
see also metrology
‘façade-‘ and ‘plan-driven’ designs
26, 48, 86–91, 102–109
module 5–7, 9–10, 12, 16–17, 25–
32, 42, 47, 54, 57–58, 75, 86–
91
proportional relationships 4–7, 11,
14, 32–38, 43–48, 75, 100–
101, 106–108
successive systems of proportion
6–7, 10, 31, 73–74
dimensions
building blocks 14–20, 62–66, 73,
100–102
mouldings 94, 98–100, 108
principal 4–5, 9, 43–46, 48, 65,
70–73, 86-89, 94, 103, 106–
107
126 Jari Pakkanen
dimensions continued
rounding 7, 31, 43, 45–46, 100,
108
Dionysios of Syracuse 53
embater 37–38, 42, 48, 114
entablature 24, 40, 44, 75, 81 n. 99, 87,
96, 101–102, 107
entasis 82 n. 110, 114
epikranitis 15, 51, 63, 101, 114
euthynteria 22, 24, 26, 35–36, 40, 44,
48, 86–88, 101, 103, 107, 114
flute 75, 82 n. 105, 114
foot-standards, see foot-units
foot-units 2–6, 9–11, 15, 28–29, 39,
42–43, 60–61, 67–70, 91, 94
‘Attic–Ionic’ 2–3, 11–12, 43–46,
68–69, 86, 88, 94–99, 102
‘common’ 11–12, 69
‘Doric-Pheidonic’ 2–4, 11–12, 15,
26–28, 40–43, 48, 57–74, 86,
88, 94
‘Drusian’ 63
Iochfuss 4–5, 11
Roman 9, 51
‘Samian’ 11–12, 29 n. 15, 41–42,
48, 69
fractions 5–6, 10
frieze 6, 12, 15, 24, 25, 35–38, 40, 44,
63, 81 n. 99, 87–88, 101, 103, 104
n. 161, 107, 114
Gaussian normal distribution 17 n. 34,
19, 115
geison 15, 24, 40, 40, 44–45, 63, 77,
87, 90, 96, 101, 107–108, 114
geison-via 38 n. 40
Hermogenes 10
Herodotos 9
Hieron of Syracuse 52
Hippodamos of Miletos 52
Hippokrates of Gela 52
Iktinos 100
inductive metrology, see metrology
inscriptional evidence 9–10, 14–20,
60–64, 84 n. 117, 99
interaxial, -columniation 4–5, 11, 24,
26, 35–38, 47, 66, 86–87, 103–
104, 107
Iochmodul, -fuss 4–5, 11, 26, 91
Kallimachos 42 n. 54
Kassander 77 n. 80
Katane 52
kernel density estimation (KDE)
14 n. 26, 17–20, 30–31 nn. 17–19,
65, 88 nn. 124 & 126, 97 n. 143,
99 n. 147, 100 n. 149, 101 n. 151,
115
krepidoma, krepis 5 n. 19, 24, 40, 44,
66, 75, 85, 87–88, 91, 101, 103,
106–107, 114
Leontinoi 52
Magnesia
temple of Artemis 10
Messene
Asklepieion 85–86
North Stoa 85–86
metope 24, 35–37, 40, 44, 48, 87, 96,
103 n. 160, 107, 114
metrology 2–5, 60–61, 68–70
inductive metrology 2
metrological reliefs 9, 73 n. 70
metrological scale 3, 62–63, 68–
70, 94–97, 108
standard metrological method 2, 9,
67, 73
module, see design analysis
Monte Carlo simulations 17–20, 29–
31, 36, 54, 57, 64–65, 70 n. 63,
86–88, 97–101, 106, 108, 115–116
Naxos in Sicily 51
altar of Apollo Archegetes 52
city layout 15–16, 51–53, 56–59
noise, see background noise
Olympia
temple of Zeus 27, 30–32, 38–43,
47–48
opisthodomos 92, 104, 107, 114
orthostate 20, 22, 75, 81 n. 98, 83 n.
113, 101, 114
palm 9, 15–16
pediment 40, 44
Paros
Archilocheion 82–83
Pausanias 63 n. 48, 94
Pheidias 42 n. 54
Persian wars 52, 63 n. 48
Piraeus
city layout 52–56
Skeuotheke 20–22, 52, 63 n. 47
Classical Greek Architectural Design: a Quantitative Approach 127
precision 2, 13–14, 19–20, 36 n. 27,
54, 56–58, 62, 65, 68, 79, 100, 102
n. 156
Priene
temple of Athena 10
principal component analysis 33 n. 24
pronaos 44, 75, 86, 92, 101, 104, 107,
114
proportional relationships, see design
analysis
pteroma 101, 114
quantum, see cosine quantogram
analysis
quantum hypothesis 15–19
regula 96, 114
Rhamnous
temple of Nemesis 27, 31–32, 38,
82
roof 15, 63, 101
Saurias 77 n. 80
Segesta
unfinished temple 26–27, 30–32,
38–39, 82 n. 105
significance level 19, 28 n.11, 29–31,
35, 39, 54 n. 23, 57 n. 28, 65, 70,
88, 97–101, 106, 108 n. 174, 115
significant digits 2
sima 45, 101, 114
Skopas of Paros 52 n. 10, 94, 100, 106
Sounion
Archaic temple of Poseidon 11
Classical temple of Poseidon 11,
27, 31–32, 38
standard metrological method, see
metrology
Stratos 77–78, 84
quarries 78, 82–83
temple of Zeus 51, 75–93
stylobate 4, 11, 22, 24, 35–48, 62, 65–
66, 68, 75,81 n. 99, 86–88, 96,
101, 103 n. 159, 104, 106–107
successive systems of proportion, see
design analysis
Tegea
Archaic temple of Athena Alea 94,
106–107
Classical temple of Athena Alea
51, 64 n. 52, 85, 94–109
Themistokles 52
Thorikos
unfinished double stoa 82
toichobate 75, 86, 88, 101, 104, 107,
114
triglyph 2, 4–5, 12, 24–27, 31–37, 40,
44, 47, 87, 96, 103 n. 160, 107,
114
variation in building element sizes 6,
13–15, 62, 81, 83
Vitruvius 6, 90
window-width, see band-width
