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Effects of Coaction, Expected Evaluation, and Goal Setting on Creativity and Productivity

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Abstract

Social and contextual factors have been theorized to significantly influence creative performance. This research examined effects of three factors on individual creativity and productivity: coaction, expected evaluation, and goal setting. Study 1 indicated that high levels of creativity occurred when individuals worked alone, and productivity was high when they worked alone under no expectation of evaluation. Study 2 found the highest creativity occurred when individuals had a creativity goal and worked alone under expected evaluation. Productivity was low when people worked alone or were assigned a creativity goal. Implications of these results for models of creativity and managing creativity at work are discussed.

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... Still, innovation is more strongly connected with public administration, political science, management, and economics (Cardoso de Sousa et al., 2012). Although creativity has grown significantly across various professions, sectors, and work processes (Shalley & Gilson, 2004), it has also historically maintained organizational competitiveness (Shalley, 1995). Creative workers are valued organizational resources, particularly in firms emphasizing adaptation, variety, and change (Gilbert et al., 1996). ...
... McLean (2005) pointed out that autonomy and independence are also worthy of staff who stand out as highly creative. In addition, Shalley (1995) has shown that people appear to be more creative when they are free to concentrate on task activities. Support for the work group represents the social aspects of work groups. ...
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Aim/Purpose: This research explores the influence of organizational-level and individual-level creativity and innovation and the technology acceptance model toward the higher education creative environment that consists of research creativity and teaching creativity. Background: Creativity and innovation are essential pillars for higher education institutions (HEIs). The two terms are interconnected, where creativity is referring to finding better ideas to do the work, while innovation is referring to how to do and implement these creative ideas. Choosing the optimal creative process and the organizational support needed to develop it is an important goal in achieving a creative and inventive environment. For the success of the creative environment to ensure the improvement of higher education institutions, information technology as social networking sites plays a crucial part in the creative process within universities. However, assessing the creativity and innovation of Saudi higher education institutions has not been well recognized. Universities today serve as knowledge-based institutions because they are at the forefront of cutting-edge R&D and scientific innovations. Creating such a productive research environment in universities, however, necessitates a work culture that encourages employees to be more creative while also encouraging the creation of new ideas and innovations. Methodology: A survey instrument was utilized as a quantitative method for this research to gather data from the study sample on the influencing variables employed in the research framework. Respondent data were analyzed using a disjoint two-stage method using PLS-SEM path modelling. Contribution: The results of this research contribute to the theoretical and scientific literature by offering a model of creativity and innovation in higher education institutions. The model proposes an optimal blend of organizational, individual, and technology variables that contribute to the development of the Higher Education Creative Environment in HEIs via creativity in teaching and research and a culture of innovation. In another way, the proposed framework especially helps to comprehend the challenges regulating establishing teaching and research creativity in HEIs via the adoption of organizational, individual, and technology enablers identified as part of this study. Findings: According to the results, organizational factors such as organizational encouragement, freedom, and challenging work have a positive relationship with the higher education creative environment. However, realistic work pressure, a lack of organizational impediments, managerial encouragement, and work group support is insufficient to affect the creative environment in higher education in Saudi Arabia. Individual variables (creative thinking skills and expertise, for example) also have a positive impact on the higher education creative environment. In the higher education creative environment, however, the influence of intrinsic motivation is insignificant. Finally, technology factors such as social networking site adoption intention, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use have the potential to influence the higher education creative environment. Recommendations for Practitioners: On the practical front, the obvious recommendation of this research is that it enables top leadership in Saudi HEIs to rethink the norms of creativity and innovation in their institutions, thereby instilling a mindset guided by a flourishing culture of creativity in the HEI environment with a specific focus on creativity practices in research and teaching domains. Furthermore, to promote the environment’s creativity within Saudi Arabian HEIs, university leaders must consider the suggested Organizational, Individual, and Technology factors as key enablers of creativity and innovation, which will guide them in revisiting their strategic actions in terms of further augmenting the creative performance of their academic’s staff, thereby sustaining a culture of Higher Education Creative Environment (HECE). Recommendation for Researchers: This study addressed many organizational, individual, and technology variables that facilitate Saudi Arabian HECE accomplishment in the form of research and teaching creativity. Furthermore, fresh insights for Saudi public HEIs are revealed when the success aspects of the creative environment are considered. If academic leadership at Saudi HEIs is to encourage the creative environment in general and creativity in teaching and research, it would be suitable for them to highlight individual, organizational, and technology success elements. As a result, their HEIs will be able to produce more innovative research, products, and services that can support and meaningfully achieve national transformation initiatives, opening the path for a transition into a knowledge-based economy. Impact on Society: In fact, this research is based on a quantitative research method, and the findings were also significant especially considering the current global crises. It is clearly understood by this process that includes organizational, individual, and technology factors as key enablers of the creative performance of academic staff, thereby sustaining a culture of HECE. Future Research: While providing the research model, it is probable that this study overlooked any other crucial aspects influencing creativity and innovation. As a result, future research should look at additional variables that may impact HECE in Saudi Arabian HEIs. Furthermore, while this study focused on deriving HECE with a particular emphasis on research and teaching creativity as results, future research might look at deriving other creativity outcomes (e.g., entrepreneurial creativity) within the investigated HECE dimension.
... Today, organizations innovate to achieve sustained growth in response to rapid technological changes (Tierney and Farmer, 2011;Wang et al., 2021). Organizational innovation is important for ensuring that leaders and employees are aware of the flow of the market environment, respond actively to change, and exercise the necessary creativity (Amabile, 1988;Shalley, 1995;Shalley and Gilson, 2004). In other words, for a company to maintain continuous innovation, creative performance through various ideas must drive its success (Amabile, 1988;Shalley, 1995;Shalley and Gilson, 2004). ...
... Organizational innovation is important for ensuring that leaders and employees are aware of the flow of the market environment, respond actively to change, and exercise the necessary creativity (Amabile, 1988;Shalley, 1995;Shalley and Gilson, 2004). In other words, for a company to maintain continuous innovation, creative performance through various ideas must drive its success (Amabile, 1988;Shalley, 1995;Shalley and Gilson, 2004). Creative performance is the result of solving various problems that arise while performing tasks with creativity (Zhou and George, 2001;Choi et al., 2021). ...
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This study empirically analyzes the role of coaching leadership in enhancing an organization’s creative performance, discussing and evaluating important mediating paths of coaching leadership regarding creative performance. As a result of an empirical analysis based on survey data collected from 332 employees of Korean companies, this study first confirms that coaching leadership has a positive effect on both employees’ creative performance. We also found that psychological empowerment and constructive voice behavior positively mediated the relationship between coaching leadership and creative performance. Finally, the serial mediating effect of coaching leadership on creative performance was tested through psychological empowerment and constructive voice behavior and confirmed to have a positive effect. This study indicates the importance of leadership as a critical variable that promotes employees’ creative performance. In addition, by confirming the serial mediating role of psychological empowerment and constructive voice behavior, this study improves understanding of key mechanism in which coaching leadership leads to creative performance.
... On the one hand, standardized work potentially stifles creativity and innovation since these outcomes, by definition, require deviation from existing routines (Ford & Gioia, 2000;Gerpott et al., 2022). In addition, scholars have suggested that any kind of external control may reduce intrinsic motivation required for creativity (Amabile, 1996;Shalley, 1995). On the other hand, authors have argued that standardization or routinization may stimulate creativity and innovation by freeing up time and cognitive resources (Chae & Choi, 2019;Gilson et al., 2005;Ohly et al., 2006). ...
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Despite the established benefits of standardization, such as safety, reliability, and efficiency, its impact on creativity and innovation remains contentious, with existing research showing both detrimental and beneficial effects. This study proposes that the relationship between standardization of work and team innovation depends on the distinction between the generation and implementation of creative ideas. This study argues that standardization's benefits, through resource conservation, will mainly benefit the implementation of ideas. Further, it proposes that these beneficial effects of standardization hinge on the organization's explicit valuation and reward of innovation, shaping the allocation of conserved resources. The investigation utilizes a multilevel field data set (N = 119 teams) and an experimental approach (N = 81 teams) to examine how standardization and rewards for innovation moderate the relationship between team creativity and innovation outcomes. The findings contribute to understanding the multifaceted role of standard work procedures and rewards in fostering team innovation, arguing that these effects should be considered within the context of resource conservation and allocation.
... Creative performance was evaluated using a consensual assessment technique developed by Amabile (1982), which is commonly used in creativity research (Binnewies et al., 2007;Shalley, 1995;Zhou, 1998;Zhou & Oldham, 2001). Two independent raters, who were blind to the research question, hypotheses, and experimental conditions, rated the novelty, usefulness, and overall creativity of each slogan and article on a 6-point scale (1 = not creative at all; 6 = extremely creative). ...
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There is long-standing debate over whether pay-for-performance (PFP) enhances or undermines creative performance. Traditional motivation and revised creativity theories suggest that PFP and intrinsic task interest combine additively to enhance creative performance, whereas cognitive evaluation theory and self-determination theory posit that PFP undermines task interest and thus intrinsic motivation and creative performance. To help resolve these conflicting predictions and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how and when PFP influences creative performance, this study incorporates both the incentive and sorting mechanisms of PFP, varying strengths of PFP, and task autonomy as a key moderator. A novel laboratory experiment was designed to capture key elements of workplace contexts, including in the design of the creative tasks, PFP strengths based on benchmarking of U.S. companies’ practices, and allowing subjects to sort into different pay conditions, consistent with the opportunity for mobility in the labor market. The results showed that, through both incentive and sorting mechanisms, high PFP intensity enhanced creative performance more so than low PFP intensity, and both were superior to fixed pay. Importantly, task autonomy positively moderated the PFP–creative performance relationship, such that creative performance under PFP increased much more under higher task autonomy. Finally, the difference in creative performance under PFP versus fixed pay was greater when subjects were allowed to sort into their preferred pay conditions than when they worked only under randomly assigned pay conditions. Theoretical and practical implications and future research directions are discussed.
... Individuals experience higher cognitive load when they face open-ended and ill-structured tasks (Elsbach & Hargadon, 2006;Shalley, 1995) or they have lower verbal fluency to address them (Rothbard & Wilk, 2011). Overload may result from the information flows in excessive social capital, for instance of star employees (Oldroyd & Morris, 2013) or of experienced entrepreneurs who tend to have more opportunities available to them given their extensive networks. ...
Chapter
Today's technological advances hold great promise for managers, as they unleash unprecedented amounts of information. Whether and how managers will cope with the cognitive (over)load to effectively seize these opportunities remains underexplored. Extant organizational and management research has built on the assumption of managers' cognitive capacity limitations – a key aspect of their bounded rationality. Numerous studies have relied on this assumption and have contributed to our understanding of how individuals, groups, organizations, industries, and organizational fields cope with limited cognitive capacity. Based on a review of this research, this chapter uncovers how the organizational and management scholarship has applied and complemented the foundational work. It then sheds light on recent insights from parallel disciplines, and outlines avenues for future research to develop a broadened conceptualization of cognitive capacity and to further integrate the role of modern technologies in shaping cognitive capacity and in coping with cognitive (over)load in organizations.
... Creativity serves as a catalyst for new product innovation and is influenced by a spectrum of factors ranging from personal to social contexts (Amabile, 1988). It involves the presentation of inventive problem-solving solutions (Shalley, 1995) and cultivation of original ideas (Gallagher and Gallagher, 1994). While scholars such as Oldham and Cummings (1996) underscore individual contributions, Anderson and Dekker (2005) argue that creative organizations are pivotal in ensuring competitiveness and sustainable growth through innovation. ...
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Purpose This study aims to examine the effect of marketing agility of startup companies on their new product creativity and new product performance while examining the moderating role of technological turbulence. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from 319 South Korean startups and empirically analyzed using structural equations modeling technique. Findings First, marketing agility is a potent catalyst that positively influences the novelty and meaningfulness of new products, thereby enhancing new product creativity. Second, marketing agility contributes significantly to new product performance across multiple dimensions, including market, financial, and customer performances. Third, this study underscores the pivotal role of new product creativity, with both novelty and meaningfulness proving to be key drivers of improved new product performance. Technological turbulence is revealed as a moderating force, amplifying the positive relationship between new product novelty and performance. However, while it substantiates some moderating effects, the study does not find significant support for the role of technological turbulence in moderating the relationships among new product meaningfulness, marketing agility, and new product performance. Originality/value To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to analyze the effect of startups’ marketing agility on new product creativity and performance considering the moderating effect of technological turbulence, especially in the South Korean context. This study offers practical insights emphasizing the indispensability of marketing agility for startups operating in rapidly evolving markets. Additionally, it advocates a strategic emphasis on novelty in high-tech turbulence scenarios to bolster new product performance.
... This could facilitate employees' proactivity and ultimately enhance their creativity. Also, research has found that having creativity goals improves creative performance [65]. Given this, organizations could encourage leaders to set creativity goals for themselves, since this could potentially be associated with higher levels of employee creativity. ...
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Drawing on social learning theory, this study presents a moderated mediation model to examine the role of proactive behavior and conformity value in the positive relationship between creative leadership and employees’ creativity. Two-wave data are collected from 230 employees and their leaders in an automobile manufacturing enterprise in China, in which employees are encouraged to be creative because they need to implement novel designs and proposals to attract consumers. Statistical analysis reveals that proactive behavior partially mediates the influence of creative leadership on employees’ creativity. Conformity value moderates not only the relationship between creative leadership and proactive behavior but also the indirect effect of creative leadership on employees’ creativity via proactive behavior. The relationship and the mediating mechanism are stronger in the presence of employees’ higher conformity value. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications as well as future research directions of the findings.
... We then used the total number of words participants generated-unique or otherwise-to perform a robustness check of our results. This is consistent with the contention that output is the defining feature of productivity (Schmidt & Hunter, 1983) and with objective productivity measures used in existing management research (e.g., Aguinis et al., 2018;Grant, 2008; J. J. Lee et al., 2014;Shalley, 1991Shalley, , 1995. ...
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Boredom is an emotion that constantly fluctuates in employees of all ages and occupations. Here, we draw on functional theories of boredom and theories of emotion regulation to develop an episodic model of how boredom shapes employee attention and productivity over time. We argue that employees often suppress boredom at work to “power through” boring tasks and objectives, resulting in residual bouts of mind-wandering—and thus productivity deficits—during future performance episodes. However, following boredom on an initial task, the commencement of a subsequent task that employees perceive to be meaningful creates an attentional pull that breaks the link between boredom and future mind-wandering, preventing the effects of boredom from spilling over to inhibit future productivity. Study 1 draws on archival experience sampling data to test our hypotheses and examine whether boredom exhibits reciprocal relationships with mind-wandering and productivity over time. Study 2 uses an experimental design to determine whether boredom and task meaningfulness interact to exert a causal effect on future mind-wandering. Study 3 uses a time-separated single-day design to replicate Studies 1 and 2 and examine our contention that employees often suppress boredom at work which, rather than preventing the effects of boredom, puts them “on hold” until a later point in time. Our findings provide insight into how to mitigate the far-reaching effects of boredom at work; they also advance episodic accounts of emotions, attention, and performance in organizations.
... Because the characteristics of intrinsic motivation involve actively assimilating knowledge and creatively applying skills, it usually contributes to high-quality learning and creativity (Cheng & Yeh, 2009;Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Significantly, intrinsic motivation affects individuals' efforts and attention to problems (Shalley, 1995;Simon, 1967;Stipek, 2002). Although some studies also pointed out that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can work together optimally (Garaus et al., 2016;Liu et al., 2020;Lowman, 1990), in this study, we only investigated intrinsic motivation instead of external incentives for a particular action. ...
... However, high constraint can also sometimes improve intrinsic motivation because it promotes more optimal choice conditions when generating ideas (e.g., Chua & Iyengar, 2006. Similarly, low constraint on the problem can allow individuals to choose the particular goals they want to accomplish (e.g., Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976;Unsworth, 2001;Zhou & Shalley, 2003), but high constraint can help individuals focus on accomplishing specific goals when generating ideas (Carson & Carson, 1993;Roskes, 2015;Shalley, 1991Shalley, , 1995, helping them feel more competent as they make progress toward developing a viable solution (Deci et al., 1999;Ryan & Deci, 2000). ...
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Research suggests that extreme levels of constraint can push people to use different types of creative problem solving, but this conflicts with recent theory arguing that individuals are most creative under a moderate level of constraint. To resolve this issue, this paper proposes a combinatorial theory of constraints that argues it is necessary to understand how multiple dimensions of constraint (e.g., on problems and resources) work together to influence creativity, rather than study them in isolation. Accordingly, two conditions can enhance creativity—either through divergent problem solving or emergent problem solving—because they produce an overall balanced combination of constraint that improves important psychological mechanisms of creativity such as intrinsic motivation and creative search. Alternatively, two other conditions can hinder creativity—either due to ambiguous opportunity or futile effort—because they produce a combined low or high level of constraint on a task.
... Many academics believe that the ability to encourage employee creativity and employee innovative behavior is a crucial factor in determining survival and competitiveness (Oldham & Cummings, 1996;Li et al., 2019;Zhang & Yang, 2021;Farrukh et al., 2022). The discovery, promotion, modification, and ultimately implementation of creative ideas, are all examples of innovative conduct, which is crucial for organizational survival in a highly competitive business environment (Scott & Bruce, 1994;Shalley, 1995). ...
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Although the impact of transformational leadership on followers’ creativity and innovation has been well documented, the question of how transformational leadership enhances employee innovative behavior in the context of organizational change remains unanswered. In this research, we investigate the role of employee commitment to change as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and employee innovation such as innovative behavior and performance as measured by both objective and subjective measures. We further examine the moderating effect of organizational support for creativity on the link between employee innovation and commitment to change. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the assumptions using data gathered from 535 managers in 11 subsidiaries of a prominent financial institution in South Korea that underwent a dramatic mandated organizational change. The results showed that employee commitment to change mediated the positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee innovation. Additionally, we also found that individuals with high organizational support for creativity had a greater association between commitment to change and the innovation was stronger for employees with high organizational support for creativity than for those with poor organizational support. This study can contribute to the management discipline by resolving mixed outcomes between transformation leadership and innovation using both objective and subjective data. Also, our study finds that the effect of commitment to change on innovative behavior depends on the level of perceived organizational support for creativity in the relation between transformation leadership and innovation, which might be important in the changing environment. Finally, practitioners are aware of what leadership styles and organizational climate should be needed for the imposed change.
... Motivated personnel tend to be more inquisitive and adaptable in their thinking as well as more committed to the company's long-term goals and values (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Oldham & Cummings, 1996;Zhou, 2003). As a result of this research, it has been shown that people who feel genuinely driven at work are more likely to seek information, open their minds to new ideas, and adopt unconventional methods of decision-making when faced with barriers (Oldham & Cummings, 1996;Shalley, 1995). People who are selfmotivated are more likely to seek out new experiences and take on new tasks (George, 2007;Zhou, 1998). ...
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The goal of this study was to figure out what kind of link there was between Meaningfulness, a psychological empowerment characteristic, and employee innovative behaviour. The study was done in the telecommunications industry, which is a big business in Nigeria's south-south area. It used a lot of questionnaires to get the information it needed. Using metrics like idea generation, idea development, and idea implementation, the researchers were able to measure how creative each employee was. They were chosen from a pool of 310 people in the telecommunications industry. The data was looked at both descriptively and inferentially. We used the Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (rho) in the descriptive analysis, while regression analysis and the Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (rho) were used in the inferential analysis. Based on what the research said, meaningfulness had a mild positive relationship on idea formation and development. However, it also had a high and significant effect on how the concept was put into practice. Thus, the data showed, among other things, that meaningfulness is important when it comes to certain tasks, and it also plays a big role in the collective action that positions businesses in their industry.
... Clear goals help students understand the task at hand and create a space for students to focus on the present task without distractions (Mainemelis, 2001). While the design of class activities is typically shaped around the goals of the class itself, the activity must have a goal contained within itself for students to experience flow as it provides a target goal for students to focus on during the activity (Shalley, 1995). In turn, these target goals direct students' attention to the task and away from distractions, allowing students to be fully engrossed in the activity and potentially experience flow. ...
Article
Based on the tenets of Flow Theory, the study proposes that in-class activities that have the potential to induce the experience of flow—a state of deep absorption and enjoyment of tasks at hand—among students are likely to increase students’ engagement. Specifically, the study examined the effects of three in-class activity factors (i.e., optimal challenges, immediate feedback, clear goals) on students’ flow experiences and the impact of flow experiences on three classroom engagement behaviors (i.e., silent in-class behaviors, oral in-class behaviors, and thinking about course content). The results of the path analysis conducted on the data collected from N = 213 students revealed that optimal challenges and immediate feedback significantly predicted students’ flow experiences. Additionally, students’ flow experiences influenced students’ engagement behaviors and mediated the relationship between optimal challenges and immediate feedback and the three engagement behaviors. Key findings, teaching implications, and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... В исследованиях инновационной активности предприятий долгое время внимание было направлено или на макроуровень, то есть на страны и отдельные отрасли, или на изучение отдельных компаний (OECD, 2008;Козлов и др., 2004;Гурков и др., 2005;Кузнецова, Рудь, 2011, 2013Roud, 2018 и др.). Однако степень инновационности предприятия зависит не только от скорости внедрения новых технологий и разработок извне, но и от условий, которые способствуют или препятствуют созданию и внедрению новых идей внутри предприятия, от степени вовлечения сотрудников в этот процесс (West, Farr, 1989;Shalley, 1995;Dyer et al., 2009). В последние 20 лет наблюдается поворот к изучению субъектов инновационного процесса на микроуровне, или «низового» потенциала инноваций, -на уровне групп и отдельных сотрудников, инициирую щих и реализующих инновации внутри организации, в том числе с использованием социологических, эконометрических и психологических методов (Anderson et al., 2014;Kurz et al., 2018). ...
Article
For a long time, innovation studies mainly focused on the macrolevel, i.e. country- or industry-level analysis of the innovation process. Nevertheless, throughout the last decade, there has been a methodological bias towards the study of the innovation process at the micro- or grassroots-level, i.e. at the level of social groups and employees who initiate and implement innovations within their organizations. This study is conducted in the grassroots-level framework. The focus is made both on the individual-level characteristics of employees who suggest innovative ideas, and on the organization-level factors that can affect employees’ involvement in the innovation process. Unlike similar studies, current research is focused not on high-skilled employees who are responsible for the innovation generation and implementation by their job duties, but rather on ordinary employees who voluntarily propose new ideas (“volunteer innovators”). Data from the Monitoring of Innovative Behavior of the Population by the Higher School of Economics for 2018 is used for the analysis. The results confirm low innovative activity of Russian enterprises as only 7% of the 4821 surveyed Russian employees aged from 18 to 65 offered innovative ideas. However, more than half of them (4%) were “volunteer innovators”. By using a binary logistic regression, a set of individual-level characteristics of “volunteer innovators” and organization-level factors that can promote volunteer innovative activity is outlined. The results of the study can be used by organizations to promote changes aimed at increasing innovative activity.
... Historically, research and conventional wisdom has advocated that creativity should be absent of any boundaries or limitations, leaving those engaging in creative tasks with ample space and time to develop truly novel ideas (Amabile, 1996;Amabile & Gryskiewicz, 1987;Friedman, 2009;Shalley, 1995). Scholars argued that constraints act as a form of external control on the creative process and that external control undermined an essential ingredient for creative performanceintrinsic motivation (Amabile, 1983;Amabile & Gryskiewicz, 1987). ...
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The influence of constraints (i.e., barriers or limitations) on creativity has drawn attention from various fields but has largely yielded conflicting findings. Some studies suggest constraints may have a positive impact on creativity while others find a negative impact. In an effort to clarify this debate and provide direction for future efforts, this meta‐analysis examined the relationship between constraints and creativity. Using a sample of 111 published and unpublished studies, a series of random‐effects meta‐regression models and subgroup analyses were conducted and identified a significant positive relationship between constraints and creativity. Moderator analyses confirmed the relationship differed substantially depending on the constraint type, study design, funding status, and creativity operationalization and measurement. These findings suggest that constraints may not be detrimental to creativity, despite prior assumptions. Findings further suggest that constraint type may be less influential than typically assumed. Instead, methodological artifacts provide a better explanation for the varying existing findings in how constraints benefit or hinder creativity. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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How can leaders effectively navigate challenges and drive positive change in the workplace? This research introduces reflective conversations as a powerful catalyst for leaders’ change-oriented initiatives. Integrating transformative learning theory and hope theory, we suggest that reflective conversations improve leaders’ sense of hope and subsequently facilitate their transformational leadership and creative behaviors. We further introduce hardships (Study 1) and relationship quality (Studies 2 and 3) as key boundary conditions. We conducted a content validation study to validate our measure of reflection conversation and further conducted two experience sampling studies and one online experiment to test the transformational power of daily reflective conversations. The results reveal that when leaders experience hardships or have high-quality relationships with others, reflective conversations can be a powerful force in terms of fueling their sense of hope and inspiring them to exercise transformational leadership and creative behaviors.
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The present research examines how creative process engagement (information gathering, idea generation, idea evaluation, and idea pitch) influences the affective states of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). Drawing from motivation theory and research, we proposed that creative process behaviors that are more autonomous and less constrained will increase positive affect. Additionally, creative process behaviors that are more likely to be perceived as making negative goal progress are expected to result in higher levels of negative affect. We also examine boundary conditions of these effects including task‐relevant knowledge, perceived performance, and baseline affect. Results from two studies confirm that idea generation, which is considered an autonomous activity, increases PA levels. This effect holds true across varying starting affect levels (excited, calm, and neutral). Moreover, results confirm that information search, which may be perceived as making negative goal progress, increases NA levels and PA levels decrease when task‐relevant knowledge is low. The effects of idea evaluation and idea pitch on PA and NA are mixed across the two studies. The implications of these findings for understanding how the creative process impacts affect are discussed.
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Creativity is usually seen as a good thing, but why? The Creativity Advantage first offers an overview of creativity studies with an emphasis on the little-discussed benefits of being creative. These include how creativity can lead to self-insight, help people heal, forge connections with others, inspire drive, and enable people to leave behind a meaningful legacy. Written in an engaging style and illustrated with interesting anecdotal material, this book offers a new perspective on creativity scholarship that can serve as an introduction to the field for newcomers or as a way to encourage new avenues for research.
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Purpose This study aims to explore the mediating role played by the contradictory behaviour of knowledge sharing and knowledge hiding in the relationship between paradoxical leadership and employee creativity. Design/methodology/approach A survey was conducted with 276 employees working in information technology firms in India. “To assess the relationship between the constructs, single and parallel mediation analysis of structural equation modelling (SEM) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) have been performed”. Findings This study found that paradoxical leadership is significantly associated with employee creativity. Besides, it has also been found that knowledge sharing has emerged as a mediator that explains the relationship between paradoxical leadership and creativity, while knowledge hiding has not been a mediator to explain the relationship between paradoxical leadership and creativity among employees. According to the study, it was found that discouraging knowledge-hiding behaviour can increase employee knowledge sharing, which in turn fosters employee creativity. Research limitations/implications Research has examined the relationship between paradoxical leadership and employee creativity in this paradigm, as well as the roles of knowledge sharing and knowledge hiding as mediators. Practical implications The results of this study will help top management to create strategies for enhancing the relationship between a leader and their subordinates by using effective knowledge management strategies that foster employee creativity. Employee creativity would be facilitated effectively by the paradoxical leader who regulates knowledge-hiding behaviour among employees and promotes knowledge-sharing behaviour. Originality/value This study addresses the gap in prior research by investigating the role of paradoxical leadership in managing the contradictory behaviours of knowledge sharing and hiding and their impact on employee creativity. As the motivation for knowledge sharing and hiding are inherently distinct, leaders with paradoxical qualities foster a culture of openness and trust to encourage knowledge-sharing while discouraging knowledge-hiding behaviour. By controlling knowledge-hiding behavior empowers employees to make meaningful contributions to the organization’s success through effective collaboration and teamwork, allowing for a more innovative and creative workplace. Because preventing knowledge-hiding behaviour is a means to promote knowledge sharing and ultimately foster creativity in an organisation. Overall, this paper offers unique insights into the intricate dynamics of knowledge management and provides valuable recommendations for leaders managing employees exhibiting contradictory behaviours in the workplace.
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Creative frontline service employees play an important role in delivering customer satisfaction, improving organizational learning and innovation, and particularly, in promoting organizational change and performance. This study examines the relationship between the mindfulness of frontline service employees and their creativity in a retail context. Anchored in the Self Determination Theory (SDT) and the Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), we investigate the extent to which intrinsic motivation and creative process engagement (i.e., problem identification, information search, and idea generation) are transmission mechanisms for the relationship between mindfulness and creativity. The findings revealed that mindful employees exhibited higher levels of creativity at work, and that intrinsic motivation and creative process engagement have a mediational role on the relationship between mindfulness and creativity. The results also indicated that creative process engagement explained the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity. This research offers new insights for research on creativity and for retail management practices.KeywordsMindfulnessCreativityMotivationCreative process engagementFrontline employees
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Purpose Leader–member exchange (LMX) relationship is a crucial context for individuals’ generation of creative ideas. Unlike the fruit research between LMX quality and employee creativity, the relationship between LMX ambivalence and employee creativity is scarce. This study thus aims to examine the effect of LMX ambivalence on employee creativity. Design/methodology/approach This study conducted an on-site survey of research and development teams in China and distributed paired questionnaires with a time lag of one month. Data from 116 leaders and 484 subordinates were collected and analyzed. Findings The results showed that LMX ambivalence was directly negatively or indirectly negatively related to employee creativity via self-efficacy. Employee cynicism acted as a potential personal moderator of the effect of LMX ambivalence, specifically, employee cynicism attenuated the negative influence of LMX ambivalence on employee creativity via self-efficacy. Originality/value This study extends our knowledge of the complex effects of LMX relationships by empirically exploring whether and how LMX ambivalence influences employee creativity, with self-efficacy introduced as one crucial underlying mechanism. Meanwhile, this study enriches the existing cynicism literature by demonstrating the role of employee cynicism as a buffer in the relationship between LMX ambivalence and employee creativity.
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The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity and Emotions provides a state-of-the-art review of research on the role of emotions in creativity. This volume presents the insights and perspectives of sixty creativity scholars from thirteen countries who span multiple disciplines, including developmental, social, and personality psychology; industrial and organizational psychology; neuroscience; education; art therapy, and sociology. It discusses affective processes – emotion states, traits, and emotion abilities – in relation to the creative process, person, and product, as well as two major contexts for expression of creativity: school, and work. It is a go-to source for scholars who need to enhance their understanding of a specific topic relating to creativity and emotion, and it provides students and researchers with a comprehensive introduction to creativity and emotion broadly.
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The current research examines the utility of using creative outcome goals and process goals to enhance creativity. We propose that although creative outcome goals are likely to have a direct positive impact on creativity, the relationship between process goals and creativity is mediated by creative process engagement. Results from an experimental study demonstrated that creative outcome goals, particularly specific creative outcome goals, relate directly as well as indirectly to outcome creativity through creative process engagement. Creative process goals, however, impact outcome creativity only indirectly through creative process engagement. Process goals also had a negative impact on perceptions of autonomy, which resulted in lower levels of intrinsic motivation and ultimately creativity. The findings suggest that goals can be effective for enhancing both creative process engagement and outcome creativity; however, care should be taken to ensure that goals do not negatively impact autonomy.
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Vi vet lite om hvordan arbeidslivet ser ut om 30 år. Likevel er det en del utviklingstrekk som har gjort seg gjeldende de senere årene og som det kan være grunn til å tro vil forsterke seg i årene framover. Overordnet handler dette blant annet om en økende globalisering, automatisering og autonome systemer og nye måter å organisere arbeid og verdikjeder på. Mer konkret ser vi raskere og større omstillingsprosesser, løsere arbeidsmarkedstilknytninger blant arbeidstakere og økende tjenesteproduksjon. Gjennom bidrag fra en rekke forskere og kommentarer fra partene i arbeidslivet ser vi i denne boken på hvilke konsekvenser slike utviklingstrekk kan få for norsk arbeidsliv, hvordan vi best kan forberede oss på endringer som kommer, og hvilke nye muligheter som kan oppstå. Hvilke nye krav og utfordringer ser vi for arbeidstakere og bedrifter, og hvordan kan vi sikre gode arbeidsbetingelser og videre konkurransekraft framover?
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We explore why teams with the same level of cultural diversity can differ in their level of creativity. To this end, we introduce the concept of paradox mindsets to research on multicultural teams. We argue that team members with a high multicultural paradox mindset are accepting of and energized by intercultural tensions, both emphasizing cultural differences and finding common ground. Their presence thus enables multicultural teams to embrace these tensions and leverage their cultural diversity toward team creativity. Specifically, we hypothesize that teams with members that have a high multicultural paradox mindset are more creative because these members promote information elaboration at the team level, which in turn fosters creativity. We test our hypotheses in a study of 217 individuals randomly assigned to 63 culturally diverse teams. Results provide support for our overarching theory.
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Purpose Drawing upon the literature on person-leader supplementary fit literature, this study aims to positions dissatisfaction with organizational performance as a difficult condition that moderates the relationship between leader-employee congruence/incongruence in creativity goal and employee innovative performance. Design/methodology/approach In this paper data were collected from 226 leader-employee dyads from several information technology companies in China. Polynomial regression combined with the response surface methodology was used to test the hypotheses. Findings Three conclusions were drawn. First, employee innovative performance was maximized when leaders and employees were congruence in creativity goal. Second, in the case of congruence, employee had higher innovative performance when a leader's and an employee's creativity goal matched at high levels. Third, dissatisfaction with organizational performance moderated the effect of leader – employee congruence in creativity goal on employee innovative performance. Originality/value This study enhanced theoretical developments by considering the importance of leaders' congruence with employees in creativity goal for the first time. Additionally, the research results provided better practical guidance for how to help employees recover from difficult condition and continue to participate in innovation.
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The first purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating effect of feedback seeking behavior in the process of openness to experience and perceived organizational support for creativity on creative performance. The second purpose was to examine whether self-efficacy moderates the effects of openness to experience and perceived organizational support for creativity on feedback seeking behavior. An online survey was conducted on employees from domestic companies and a total of 284 data were analyzed. The structural equation modeling and multiple regression analysis results are as follows. First, the effects of openness to experience and perceived organizational support for creativity on creative performance was statistically significant. Second, the mediating effect of feedback-seeking behavior was significant in the openness to experience and perceived organizational support for creativity on creative performance. Third, the moderating effect of self-efficacy was significant in the relationship between perceived organizational support for creativity and feedback-seeking behavior. Specifically, the positive relationship between perceived organizational support for creativity and feedback-seeking behavior was stronger when the self-efficacy was high rather than low. The implications and limitations of this study are discussed.
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One of the key roles of an educator or manager is to provide feedback to students and direct reports, but what effect does this expectation of evaluation have on the creativity of the individuals who receive it? This synthetic review examined 20 published, peer-reviewed journal articles on the topic of evaluation expectation and its effects on creativity. The research in this area comes from the diverse fields of education, psychology, and organizational behavior, and therefore it approaches the question from many different points of view. However, a broadly similar methodological approach was observed among the surveyed articles. The review identified four creativity domains that have been used in these studies—creative writing, visual arts, creative problem-solving, and scientific creativity—as well as domain-general approaches focused on “divergent” and “convergent” thinking. To synthesize the information in this literature, findings of the prior studies were examined through the lens of self-determination theory, an outlook on motivation and personality in social contexts that views motivation as being either of a controlling or autonomous nature. The componential theory of creativity, which holds that there are specific intrinsic and extrinsic factors that shape creative variance in the population, was also used to organize and interpret the prior findings. The results of the literature review generally supported the self-determination theory, but they also indicate a need for stronger methodological approaches in this area to improve our understanding of the mediating and moderating roles of internal and external variables. Recommendations are provided for applying these findings to teaching and management, along with suggestions for future research.
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Team innovation is innovation by a team, for the team, organization, or a broader group of stakeholders and is ever more prevalent in the workplace. Consequently, developing students' competence therein is of increasing importance. The development of team innovation competence is, however, not a priority in most education settings. To contribute towards addressing this shortcoming, this study reports on the use of a project-based assessment for learning, requiring team innovation, in an undergraduate accounting course. In particular, this study documents the design of the project, analyses the student teams' innovative outputs, and reports the students' individual reflections on collaboratively creating these outputs. The analysis of the students' outputs and their responses to a survey, suggest that most of the students' experience of the team innovation project was positive and the project enabled them to socially construct their knowledge of accounting and to develop their team innovation competence. This study contributes towards bridging the gap between professional education and practice and provides a basis for instructors to further develop students’ team innovation competence, even in disciplines not typically characterized as being innovative.
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When participants engage twice in the same creative problem-solving task with educational robots, they have the possibility to repeat the same solution, allowing them to complete the task faster, or to show a creative intention and behavior, engaging them in developing a new solution. In this study, we aim to analyze the creative process considering the creative intention and the persistence in the creative process. For this purpose, we engaged 115 adults to perform twice the same problem-solving task using modular robotic cubes without specific instruction concerning the way to solve the task the second time. Creative intention is observed when the participant tests a new solution in the beginning of the second realization of the task, creative persistence behavior is show when participant stay engaged in a new plan although it requires time and efforts. Results show that participants’ effective creative solution is related to their creative intention and the time engaged in the second occurrence of the educational robotic task (assessing the creative behavior persistence). These results suggest that the creative process leading to an effective creative solution in a repeated task requires an initial creative intention, but also a higher creative behavior persistence than engaging in a conservative behavior.
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Contextual influences in the workplace have been increasingly acknowledged as being crucial for enhancing creativity. Among various factors in the context surrounding employees, organizational culture and organizational climate have gained much attention in creativity research over the last decades. However, still many challenges exist about the role of culture and climate on creativity. For example, the literature stresses the importance of the physical work environment but research addressing physical aspects of the organizational context has received little attention. This chapter attempts to provide an overview of existing knowledge by synthesizing previous literature on organizational culture and climate influencing creativity. We focus on key issues and major trends. We further discuss perspectives for future research and important questions that remain to be answered. Finally, the chapter suggests some practical recommendations for organizational promotion of creativity.
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How employees mentally break up or segment time likely influences key performance behaviors. Thus, it is important to understand how features of the work environment influence the mental time segments employees create. Consistent with my predictions, I provide evidence across four experiments that feedback systems can alter the way employees segment their work time—a process that I refer to as feedback‐driven time segmenting. Consistent with the theory of feedback‐driven time segmenting, the experiments demonstrate that more (less) frequent feedback leads employees to create smaller (larger) mental time segments. Further, the results indicate that employees who create smaller mental time segments are less likely to find efficiencies at work, suggesting an unintended cost of increasing feedback frequency. However, I also find that employees with smaller mental time segments work with higher levels of effort intensity. Together, these experiments provide evidence that the economically meaningless time segments employees create can significantly influence their behavior. Consequently, firms and future researchers should carefully consider how features of the work environment influence the mental time segments employees create. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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263 undergraduates participated in a factorial design consisting of 4 goal conditions (no goal, do your best, easy goal, and difficult goal) × 3 evaluative contexts (control, peer evaluation, and compliance) × 2 task characteristics (low and high variety) × 2 (order of task presentation); all Ss worked on 2 tasks (manual and cognitive). Univariate MANOVAs revealed that performance on the cognitive task was significantly affected by type of goal, task variety, and evaluative context. Performance on the manual task was affected by task variety and evaluative context but not by type of goal. For both tasks, satisfaction was adversely affected by the presence of goals but was unaffected by evaluative contexts. For the cognitive task only, satisfaction was significantly higher in the low-variety condition. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Reviews recent experimental literature on reward contingency effects on intrinsic motivation. Agreement emerges among investigators for most contingency effects when experimental procedures use standard terminology. However, some discrepancies are apparent, especially with respect to performance-contingent effects that both increased and decreased intrinsic motivation relative to task-contingent effects. These discrepancies are discussed in terms of cognitive evaluation theory (E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan, 1980). An integration of the various effects was tested using 96 college students working on a puzzle-solving activity for whom various reward conditions were in effect. Results of the study and review suggest that it is the relative salience of controlling and informational aspects of rewards that mediate the contingency effects. The importance of the interpersonal context of reward administration for the facilitation or undermining of intrinsic motivation is underscored. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Hypothesized that the presence of an audience serves as a drive energizer, leading to an increased probability of a dominant response and to a decreased latency of its emission. 40 male undergraduate Ss supplied associations to 184 words both alone and in the presence of an audience. 1/2 of the Ss worked 1st alone and then in the presence of an audience, and 1/2 in the reverse order. Latency was substantially shorter in social condition. Probability of emission of dominant responses was measured by the commonality of association and also by their uniqueness. Social condition increased the commonality of association in 1 of the 2 orders. When Ss began alone and finished in the presence of an audience, no effects were found in the commonality of their response. There was a significant difference in commonality on the 1st 1/2 of the session between Ss responding alone and those responding in the presence of an audience. The 2nd measure of dominance, uniqueness of responses, was affected by the presence of an audience consistently with results on commonality. Ss emitted fewer unique responses when in the presence of an audience. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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A review is made of all of the experimental literature on social facilitation to examine the effects of the mere presence of another person. Mere presence effects are viewed as a minimal condition for social facilitation effects. Criteria are proposed for what will be accepted as clear tests of mere presence, clear tests of other social facilitation effects, and tests of the effects of the presence of an experimenter. All the social facilitation studies are listed in tables which detail either the findings of the study or the reason for its exclusion. From the review of studies it is suggested that there are at least two major social facilitation phenomena. First, there is evidence for the existence of effects due to just the mere presence of another person but only when there is some uncertainty in the behavior of the person present. This is related to controlling for unsafe situations. Second, there is evidence for a tendency to conform to public standards or norms when in the presence of another person. This is stronger both when the person is observing the subject and when the person present is the experimenter. This effect is related to controlling social approval and disapproval. It is argued that the main theories of observer effects are equivalent and merely describe different levels of the same process.
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Conducted 6 experiments with a total of 338 undergraduates to determine the existence of a linear effect of goal level on performance. Exp I failed to replicate such an effect with a standard addition task. Exps II–IV did replicate a goal effect with several "creativity" tasks; the higher the goal, the more responses given. The quality of responses also changed as a systematic function of the goal level, with higher goal levels producing responses that were farther from ideal, in Euclidean distance. Exp V showed the same effect, using selection of geometric figures from a fixed set with systematically varied properties. In Exp VI, the addition task was changed to estimation of sums, to permit qualitative variations in response. Under these conditions, both quantity and quality of response changed as a function of goal level, as predicted. A cognitive theory is offered in place of the previous motivational theories: The goal level defines the task for the S and induces a systematic trade-off of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of responses. Extensions into related work that can also be seen as quantity–quality trade-offs are discussed. (French summary) (38 ref)
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Reports a meta-analysis of the effects of the presence of others on human task performance and physiology. In 241 studies involving nearly 24,000 Ss, the presence of others had small effects, accounting for .3% to 3% of the variance in the typical experiment. It is concluded that (a) the presence of others heightens an individual's physiological arousal only if the individual is performing a complex task; (b) the presence of others increases the speed of simple task performance and decreases the speed of complex task performance; (c) the presence of others impairs complex performance accuracy and slightly facilitates simple performance accuracy, although the facilitation is vulnerable to the "file drawer problem" of unreported null results; and (d) social facilitation effects are surprisingly unrelated to the performer's evaluation apprehension. These meta-analytic conclusions are contrasted with conclusions reached by narrative literature reviews, and implications for theories of social facilitation are discussed. A list of the studies analyzed is appended. (51 ref)
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A solution is suggested for an old unresolved social psychological problem.
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In this article we develop a theoretical framework for understanding creativity in complex social settings. We define organizational creativity as the creation of a valuable, useful new product, service, idea, procedure, or process by individuals working together in a complex social system. The starting point for our theoretical development is provided by the interactionist model of creative behavior developed by Woodman and Schoenfeldt (1989). This model and supporting literature on creative behavior and organizational innovation are used to develop an interactional framework for organizational creativity. The theoretical framework is summarized by three propositions that can effectively guide the development of testable hypotheses.
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The present investigation was designed to study the effect of competition on ideational fluency and flexibility. A sample of 40 students - 20 in Experimental and 20 in the Control Group matched for intelligence, age, class and creativity was used. Both the Groups were administered Test of Imagination (Product Improvement and Unusual Uses) and the results showed that the Experimental Group in this and under the conditions of this study differed significantly In the mean number of ideas and flexibility of ideas. The ratio between the means of the two groups for Fluency and Flexibility was 4.30 and 5.43 respectively, significant at .01 level of confidence. The replication of this study was also suggested on large and different samples.
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This research examines changes in reactions of employees to work after they moved from a conventional office to an open-plan office design (i.e., an office with no interior walls or partitions). Data were collected from 81 employees three times, once, before the move to the open-plan office and twice after the facility change. Results show that employee satisfaction and internal motivation decreased significantly after the move to the open office. Moreover, analyses suggest that changes in job characteristics that accompanied the change in facilities explain much of the decline in satisfaction and motivation. Implications of these results are discussed.
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The chapter discusses the empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. Intrinsically motivated behaviors, motivated by the underlying need for competence and self-determination, are investigated in a variety of ways at the physiological, psychological, and operational levels. One of the two general approaches; the incongruity theories and the competence and/or self-determination theories generally guides those focused on the psychological level. The chapter presents the performance-contingent rewards that actually enhance intrinsic motivation when administered in a way that places emphasis on effective performance rather than on reward acquisition. The research literature that explored the nature of intrinsic motivation and the effects of rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation highly support the competence and self-determination formulation of intrinsic motivation and also the propositions of cognitive evaluation theory. The results of individual studies provided the basis for greater understanding of the phenomena and greater specificity of the theory. Understanding of motivational processes is critical for explicating and predicting human behavior as well as a variety of interrelated beliefs, attitudes, and affects, the complex referred to as motivational subsystems. The chapter also describes a field study conducted in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of four elementary schools.
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The innovating organization described is one that recognizes and formalizes the roles, processes, rewards, and people practices that naturally lead to innovations. The point we have emphasized throughout this article is that the organization that purposely designs these roles and processes is more likely to generate innovations than is an organization that doesn't plan for this function. Such a purposely designed organization is needed to overcome the obstacles to innovation. Because innovation is destructive to many established groups, it will be resisted. Innovation is contrary to operations and will be ignored. These and other obstacles are more likely to be overcome if the organization is designed specifically to innovate.Managers have tried to overcome these obstacles by creating venture groups, by hiring some entrepreneurs, by creating “breakthrough funds,” or by offering special incentives. These are good policies but by themselves will not accomplish the goal. Figure 1 conveyed the message that a consistent set of policies concerning structure, process, rewards, and people are needed. The innovating organization is illustrated in Figure 7. It is the combination of idea people, reservations in which they can operate, sponsors to supervise them, funding for their ideas, and rewards for their success that increase the odds in favor of innovation. Simply implementing one or two of these practices will result in failure and will only give people the impression that such practices do not work. A consistent combination of such practices will create an innovating organization that will work.
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The relative salience of the competency information and compliance aspects of the goal-setting context was manipulated to study its effect on affective task reactions to an interesting and a boring task. The results indicated that task satisfaction was the highest when goal attainment was essential for obtaining monetary incentives but highly salient competency information was also provided. This effect, however, held only for the boring task. On the interesting task, there was no evidence of an adverse effect for goals on task satisfaction regardless of the relative salience of the two aspects. Subjects performing either task were, however, significantly more satisfied with the goal-setting process itself when the goals conveyed competency information than when the goals failed to convey this information.