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Are male leaders penalized for seeking help? The influence of gender and asking behaviors on competence perceptions
... To study the costs, individuals may face when seeking knowledge from others, we build on work showing that seeking resources, such as help or knowledge, might also come with negative consequences for the individual (Borgatti & Cross, 2003;Rosette et al., 2015). We propose two types of expected costs when individuals seek knowledge from coworkers: social psychological and economic costs. 2 2.2.1 | Social psychological costs Social psychological costs are driven by others' perception of oneself. ...
... Examples of social psychological costs of knowledge seeking include feelings of inferiority or shame (Ames & Lau, 1982;Gouldner, 1960;Lee, 2002;Wills & DePaulo, 1991). Psychological costs have been studied in a variety of settings and contexts, such as advice- (Brooks et al., 2015), feedback- (Ashford, 1986) and help-seeking behavior (Rosette et al., 2015). Since psychological costs originate from a process involving both cognitive and affective evaluation by the individual, emotions matter for individual decision-making when searching for knowledge (Ames, 1983;Hofmann et al., 2009). ...
... Economic costs refer to future tangible losses affecting the individual when deciding to seek knowledge from others. In organizations, this could be lost bonuses, being passed over for 2 Most prior work focuses on individuals' reputational costs when seeking resources from others in organizational contexts (Borgatti & Cross, 2003;Rosette et al., 2015). We propose that, ultimately, these costs either translate into economic (tangible) outcomes or come with social consequences. ...
Research Summary
Employees often need knowledge from colleagues to complete tasks successfully. With distributed and remote work becoming more common, organizations increasingly rely on digital technologies, such as organizational platforms, to support members' knowledge exchange. We study factors that hinder employees from seeking knowledge from others on such platforms. We argue that individuals' seeking decisions depend on expected social‐psychological costs and economic considerations and posit that both can be muted by anonymizing seekers. In two experiments, we test our conjectures and find that both types of expected costs reduce knowledge seeking. Social‐psychological costs decrease individuals' knowledge seeking, while adding economic costs further reduces seeking. Moreover, in digital settings, female knowledge seekers are more sensitive to their identity being known than males and thus benefit more from anonymity.
Managerial Summary
Distributed and remote work arrangements, often subsumed under the label “new work”, often rely on digital technologies to enable the exchange of relevant knowledge among colleagues. For example, in the US, two‐thirds of S&P 500 firms already maintain some form of digital platform for knowledge exchange, although with mixed success. Employees may avoid seeking knowledge on these platforms both for social‐psychological (a fear of appearing incompetent to their peers) and economic (fear of suffering career consequences) reasons. In a series of (lab and vignette) experiments, we show that both can reduce knowledge seeking and that these implicit costs can be minimized especially in digital contexts through anonymity (to minimize social‐psychological consequences) and separating knowledge seeking platforms by hierarchical levels (to minimize potential economic consequences).
... Despite limited research on how backlash affects men, preliminary studies have indicated that when men violate gender roles through behaviors such as advocating for others (Bosak et al., 2018), or seeking help in the workplace (Rosette et al., 2015) they are perceived as deficient in agentic qualities, thus leading to lower ratings of competence. Other researchers found that men are disliked when they display modest behavior and that men are rated as more likely to be gay and less likable when they choose a feminized career path (Croft et al., 2015). ...
... As expected, trait-and job-incongruent females were perceived as less likable; however, they were also perceived as less competent. The finding on competence is contrary to previous work, which suggested masculine traits were associated with higher competence ratings regardless of one's gender (Rosette et al., 2015). Accordingly, gender-incongruent women have been perceived as more competent than congruent women (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008) and gender-incongruent men as less competent than congruent men (Rosette et al., 2015). ...
... The finding on competence is contrary to previous work, which suggested masculine traits were associated with higher competence ratings regardless of one's gender (Rosette et al., 2015). Accordingly, gender-incongruent women have been perceived as more competent than congruent women (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008) and gender-incongruent men as less competent than congruent men (Rosette et al., 2015). It is possible that the social construction linking masculinity with competence is changing over time (Chan et al., 2021;Gartzia & van Engen, 2012). ...
Individuals deviating from gender-expected behavior experience negative social repercussions known as "backlash". Backlash is commonly exhibited as decreased ratings of likability and competence toward the gender-incongruent individual. Few researchers have compared gender-incongruent women and men within the same study, nor whether job-incongruence or trait-incongruence has a more potent effect on backlash. We aimed to determine whether and to what extent trait-incongruence and job-incongruence affected ratings of likability and competence for both female and male targets in an online experiment. Participants were 296 Australian adult volunteers (64% female; mean age = 35.87). Participants were presented with point-light walkers visually conveying the target's gender (female/ male) together with a brief vignette describing the target's occupation (feminine vs. masculine) and personal trait (feminine vs masculine). Participants rated each target on likability and competence. We observed a classic backlash effect on likability and competence for trait-incongruent and job-incongruent female targets, with backlash greater for trait-incongruence than job-incongruence. In contrast, male targets exhibiting a stereotypically feminine trait elicited higher ratings on likability and competence than trait-congruent males: A reverse backlash effect. These findings could indicate a change in expectations and values; for example, they may reflect a negative response to the idea of "toxic masculinity".
... Extant research has shown that gender is central to how organizational members evaluate their coworkers and determine who should be in their network (Brass, 1985;Ibarra, 1997;McDonald, 2011;McGuire, 2002). Gendered stereotypes have the potential to influence which employees are perceived as worthy of receiving a tie (McGuire, 2000(McGuire, , 2002, as well as someone's comfort-level with seeking a tie with another organization member (Rosette et al., 2015). In the following sections, we provide more theoretical analysis of how incoming and outgoing discussion ties might be influenced by gender. ...
... In organizational settings, outgoing discussion ties represent an individual seeking out other employees to talk through work issues of importance. While discussion seeking can provide resources that are inaccessible when working alone (Bamberger, 2009), those resources come with a potential cost-a devaluation of one's competence by other organizational members (DePaulo & Fisher, 1980;Rosette et al., 2015). Seeking help from a colleague suggests a shortcoming in one's understanding of a situation or work task (Borgatti & Cross, 2003). ...
... Exploring the alignment between gender and professional roles, role congruity theory suggests that masculinity emphasizes dominance, assertiveness, and independence (Collinson, 2010;Rosette et al., 2015). When an individual seeks out others for discussion, they acknowledge their own lack of understanding and reliance on the employee providing them with information (Lee, 1997), behavior not aligned with expectations of masculinity. ...
We explore the influence of gender and formal organizational status on the formation of discussion ties. Network data, gathered through surveying employees from a municipal organization in the United States, garnered a 92% response rate ( n = 143). Results of exponential random graph modeling indicate women supervisors are more likely to send discussion ties, while women in general are more likely to receive discussion ties. These exploratory results suggest women may be perceived as more approachable for work discussions, but not as supervisors. Finally, the results identified a consistent homophily effect of gender in the discussion network.
... 1 Extant research has shown that gender is central to how organizational members evaluate their coworkers and determine who should be in their network (Brass 1985;Ibarra 1997;McGuire 2002;McDonald 2011). Gendered stereotypes have the potential to influence which employees are perceived as worthy of receiving a tie (McGuire 2000(McGuire , 2002, as well as someone's comfort-level with sending a tie to seek out information (Rosette et al. 2015). This combination of factors conceivably creates distinct behavior by organizational women and men, making it necessary to differentiate incoming from outgoing discussion ties. ...
... In organizational settings, outgoing discussion ties represent an individual seeking out other employees to talk through work issues of importance. While discussion seeking can provide resources that are inaccessible when working alone (Bamberger 2009), those resources come with a potential cost-a devaluation of one's competence by other organizational members (DePaulo and Fisher 1980;Rosette, Mueller, and Lebel 2015). Seeking help from a colleague suggests a shortcoming in one's understanding of a situation or work task. ...
... Exploring the alignment between gender and professional roles, role congruity theory suggests that masculinity emphasizes dominance, assertiveness, and independence (Rosette et al. 2015;Collinson 2010). When an individual seeks out other employees for discussion ties, they acknowledge their own lack of understanding and reliance on the employee providing them with information (Lee 1997), behavior not aligned with expectations of masculinity. ...
We explore the influence of gender and formal organizational status on the formation of discussion ties. Network data, gathered through surveying employees from a municipal organization in the United States, garnered a 92% response rate (n=143). Results of exponential random graph modeling indicate women supervisors are more likely to send discussion ties, while women in general are more likely to receive discussion ties. These exploratory results suggest women may be perceived as more approachable for work discussions, but not as supervisors. Finally, the results identified a consistent homophily effect of gender in the discussion network.
... In other words, these theories predict that counter-stereotypic behaviors, broadly, are penalized. The predictions of these theories are supported by a wide body of evidence: for example, we see that women, but not men, are viewed more negatively when (Heilman & Chen, 2005) • Communal leadership (Hentschel et al., 2018) • Fatherhood (Morgenroth et al., 2021) • Communal task behaviors (Schlamp et al., 2021) • Small talk in negotiations (Shaughnessy et al., 2015) • Success in fashion writing (Bettencourt et al., 1997) • Demonstrating feminine personality traits (Kozlowski & Power, 2022) • Modesty • Seeking help (Rosette et al., 2015) • Displaying sadness (Raymondie & Steiner, 2022) • Talking about personal problems (Derlega & Chaikin, 1976) • Taking family leave (Rudman & Mescher, 2013) • Advocating for others and displaying diversity-valuing behaviors (Bosak et al., 2018;Hekman et al., 2017) • Working in female-dominated roles (Moss-Racusin & Johnson, 2016; Heilman & Wallen, 2010) For women • Competence, diligence, and independence (Ma et al., 2022) • Holding leadership positions (Rosette & Tost, 2010) • Demonstrating self-reliance (Schaumberg & Flynn, 2017) • Strong qualifications for male-typed jobs (Heilman et al., 1988) • Breadwinner role (Bear & Glick, 2016) • Success in sports writing (Bettencourt et al., 1997) • Rescuing others in an emergency (Taynor & Deaux, 1973) • Majoring in engineering (Crisp et al., 2009) • Agentic task behaviors (Schlamp et al., 2021) • Self-promotion and agentic language (Rudman, 1998;Rudman & Glick, 1999, 2001Phelan et al., 2008) • Seeking leadership roles (Toneva et al., 2020) • Dominance (Ma et al., 2022;Williams & Tiedens, 2016) • Autocratic leadership styles (Eagly et al., 1992) • Displaying anger (Raymondie & Steiner, 2022;Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008) • Ambition (Bauer et al., 2022) • Risk-taking (Morgenroth et al., 2022) • Working in male-dominated roles and leadership positions (Heilman et al., 2004;Parks-Stamm et al., 2008;Heilman & Okimoto, 2007) • Demonstrating masculine personality traits (Kozlowski & Power, 2022;Burke et al., 2024) Note. These examples are sourced from theory articles and chapters discussing penalties and rewards for counter-stereotypic men and women, including Rudman and Phelan (2008), Rudman, Moss-Racusin, Glick, & Phelan (2012), Heilman (2001), Ma et al. (2022), and searches of Google Scholar and EBSCO for articles on this topic. ...
... The conceptual model in Fig. 3 demonstrates the predictions of expectancy violation theory. An individual engages in a behavior that is perceived as desirable or undesirable, and expected or unexpected (moderated by gender congruence, such that feminine behaviors are perceived as an expectancy violation for men while masculine behaviors they engage in masculine behaviors, such as self-promotion or agentic leadership styles, while men, but not women, are viewed more negatively when they engage in feminine behaviors, such as asking others for help or speaking modestly about past accomplishments (Eagly et al., 1992;Heilman et al., 2004;Rosette et al., 2015;Rudman, 1998). These theories can account for penalties exacted for positive and negative counter-stereotypic behaviors, but not rewards for positive, counter-stereotypic behaviors, or for the asymmetry in penalties for counterstereotypic men and women. ...
Gender norms shape expectations for how women and men should behave, and those who deviate from these norms are often punished, both socially and professionally. However, these penalties do not always occur, and sometimes women and men are even rewarded for engaging in counter-stereotypic behaviors. At present, we do not have a clear theoretical understanding of why and when people will react positively or negatively to gender norm violations. In this paper, we combine the predictions of role congruity, status incongruity hypothesis, and expectancy-violation theories to propose a unified theory for predicting reactions to counter-stereotypic women and men. The model proposed here provides an explanation for why both penalties and rewards occur for counter-stereotypic behaviors and explains why women risk penalties for engaging in masculine-stereotypic behaviors, generally, while men are only penalized for a narrow subset of feminine-stereotypic behaviors. This unified framework advances our understanding of reactions to gender norm violations and provides a foundation for future research aimed at identifying and preventing gender inequality in society.
... IPV is defined by the UN [1] as "behavior by an intimate partner or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual, or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse or controlling behaviors" (p. 24). An important addition to this definition is that IPV can occur between those aged 16 or over who have been intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexuality [2]. ...
... Men, just like women, are limited by stereotypes and misjudged if they act outside their traditional gender roles. A set of studies in 2015 [24] showed that men who cried at work were perceived as less competent than women who cried. This negative bias can explain the reduced number of men who decide to report the IPV to the police and the tendency at justifying it as a possible incident [22]. ...
In the last decade, Pathological Affective Dependence (PAD)—as a risk factor for Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)—has undergone considerable attention among clinical and social psychologists. However, the psychological nature of PAD has been described in discordant terms throughout the literature. We try to give a clear definition of the construct (1), theorize a first cognitive model of PAD (2), and describe the prototypical characteristics of a pathological affective dependent (in terms of goals, anti-goals, and dysfunctional self-other beliefs) based on goal-oriented theories (3). We finally present (4) the resulting specific TADs (typical affective dependent) profiles (Saver, Unworthy, Traumatic, and Mixed). We believe that our manuscript on the PAD makes a significant contribution to achieve the fifth UN Sustainable Development Goal aimed at eliminating “all forms of violence against all women”: in fact, understanding the psychological risk factors of IPV as PAD is an essential protective factor for designing effective prevention social strategies against IPV. Moreover, this work contributes to achieving one of the “outcome targets” of the sixteenth UN Sustainable Development Goal. It is dedicated to the promotion of “peaceful and inclusive societies”, through the reduction of all forms of violence and the protection of children from abuse. Indeed, IPV strongly affects (physical and mental) health and social sustainability of well-being. However, empirical studies on this topic are limited and there is a lack of a theoretical model of PAD. This work represents a theoretical starting point for a broader project aimed at building a cognitive-behavioral protocol and social interventions for the reduction of negative consequences on IPV victims.
... aggression) are socially undesirable, they are also effective means of seizing power, and thus women who demonstrate agentic proscriptions are particularly threatening to the gender status quo (Cheng et al., 2013;Rudman et al., 2012). Likewise, displays of communal proscriptions connote weakness, and men who demonstrate behaviors that result in a loss of status and power are negatively evaluated (Rosette et al., 2015;Rudman, 1998). For our purposes, we focus on the evaluative consequences of agency prescriptions and proscriptions. ...
... For example, a communality advantage may occur when men violate weak communal prescriptions by enacting organizational citizenship behaviors (Allen, 2006). Likewise, a communality disadvantage may occur when men violate strong communality proscriptions when they appear weak within the context of help-seeking (Rosette et al., 2015). Therefore, we highlight the theoretical importance of using expectancy violation theory to explain a variety of different outcomes in gender bias research. ...
Contradictory findings about whether agentic women are penalized or rewarded persist in gender and leadership research. To account for these divergent effects, we distinguish between agentic traits that people believe female leaders ought to possess (i.e., agency prescriptions) and ought not possess (i.e., agency proscriptions). We draw on expectancy violation theory to suggest that an agentic advantage is elicited when women are perceived to violate agency prescriptions (e.g., competence), whereas an agentic disadvantage is elicited when they are perceived to violate agency proscriptions (e.g., dominance). We first developed and validated a new, six-factor measure of agency in Studies 1 and 2, CADDIS (i.e., Competent agency, Ambitious agency, Dominant agency, Diligent agency, Independent agency, and Self-assured agency). We theorized that these agency factors represented distinct agency prescriptions and proscriptions for men and women. In Studies 3-5, we found that this six-factor conceptualization of agency not only reconciles existing tensions within the gender and leadership literature, but also leads to a different understanding of past conclusions-an agentic advantage occurs when women are perceived to possess competent agency, diligent agency, and independent agency, and an agentic disadvantage occurs when women are perceived to possess dominant agency. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Research shows that the participation of female leaders makes teams more diverse (Gersick et al., 2000), fostering inclusiveness and complementarity in Woman on board ratio Female director ratio perspectives, knowledge, information, and approaches. Moreover, because their flexible diplomacy, female leaders are more likely to build social relationships with the external environment through learning-oriented approaches compared to males, whereas male leaders are less likely to access external resources through a learning approach (Gersick et al., 2000;Rosette et al., 2015). Since digital transformation is a corporate change strategy driven by external technological advancements and societallevel technological changes, female leadership is more advantageous for enterprises to acquire key external resources to help implement digital transformation strategies. ...
This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the economic transformation in Latin American emerging economies over the past decade, focusing on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Mexico. The analysis is based on two key perspectives: the evolution of productive capacities and the dynamics of foreign direct investment (FDI).
... Moreover, men leaders who sought more help (vs. less) were rated as less competent, while there was no such difference for women leaders (Rosette et al., 2015). These findings show how men may face significant dilemmas: possible harm to their health and wellbeing if they adhere to masculine work norms, but risking social and work-related backlash if they do not. ...
While much progress has been made towards gender equality, diversity and inclusion in the workplace, education and society, recent years have also revealed continuing challenges that slow or halt this progress. To date, the majority of gender equality action has tended to approach gender equality from one side: being focused on the need to remove barriers for girls and women. We argue that this is only half the battle, and that a focus on men is MANdatory, highlighting three key areas: First, we review men’s privileged status as being potentially threatened by progress in gender equality, and the effects of these threats for how men engage in gender-equality progress. Second, we highlight how men themselves are victims of restrictive gender roles, and the consequences of this for men’s physical and mental health, and for their engagement at work and at home. Third, we review the role of men as allies in the fight for gender equality, and on the factors that impede and may aid in increasing men’s involvement. We end with recommendations for work organizations, educational institutions and society at large to reach and involve men as positive agents of social change.
... DOMINANCE, PRESTIGE, AND GENDER However, it might not be straightforward to compare the effect of prestige within men, given the opposing effect of competence and communality. Unsurprisingly, some researchers have found that male leaders who come across as communal are judged negatively in comparison to noncommunal male leaders (Rosette et al., 2015), while others have found null effects of communality (Ferguson, 2018;Rudman et al., 2012) and, at times, even benefit for communal male leaders (Heilman & Chen, 2005). These inconsistent empirical findings may be indicative of the strength of these two opposing effects in each study. ...
The dual framework of social rank allocation discusses dominance and prestige as two viable routes to status or social influence. In doing so, this literature has largely neglected findings demonstrating backlash against men and women for behaving in gender-incongruent ways. Likewise, it remains unclear if dominance and prestige continue to be effective means to status over time. This study investigates the viability of dominance or prestige in contributing to an individual’s social influence, conditional on their gender and across time. Using a stereotype-neutral context of an online social network, I unobtrusively tracked individuals’ changes in social influence among their network members on Twitter. By analyzing almost 230,000 tweets, it was found that men’s influence increased with greater dominance, whereas women’s decreased. At the same time, women’s influence increased with greater prestige, whereas men’s decreased. Network centrality (in-degree centrality) explained this differential interaction pattern. Additionally, longitudinal analysis provided a more nuanced understanding. Over time, role incongruence effects dampened, dominance became less effective, even for men, and prestige became viable for both men and women. Thus, by jointly considering the role of gender and time, this research offers key theoretical caveats to the dual rank framework.
... Men make less prudent choices in unexpected situations than women (Lerner et al. 2003). Both genders must balance collaborative behaviour, relationship building, and asking for help in times of crisis to be influential leaders (Rosette, Mueller, and Lebel 2015). ...
This study examined the communication styles of rectors and vice-rectors of German public universities during the COVID-19 pandemic to explore the influence of gender on leadership communication. We collected data from social media and university websites; and analysed the language used to identify transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles. Our results showed that female leaders demonstrated more positive communication than men and a stronger preference for transformational leadership, while male leaders tended to use a transactional style. Additionally, we found that both male and female leaders exhibited a high degree of empathetic concern for their stakeholders, contributing to the overall positive tone of communication. These findings suggest that gender may play a role in how university leaders communicate during times of crisis, highlighting the importance of inclusive and compassionate leadership in higher education.
... Leaders react differently in exceptional situations; while men tend to make less cautious decisions, women respond with more careful behaviour and restrain their actions (Lerner et al., 2003). Hence, effective leadership needs the right balance of collaborative behaviour, relationship building, and seeking assistance from others for both genders in times of crisis (Rosette et al., 2015). Public health crises, such as COVID-19, are characterized by uncertainty, and some behaviours will likely be inappropriate. ...
... A degree of ambiguity in the questions was necessary because seeking social support has negative implications in certain cultures (Jolly et al., 2020;H. S. Kim et al., 2008) and may diminish self-perceived competence among organizational leaders (Rosette et al., 2015). However, we acknowledge that these broad questions could potentially invite a wide array of responses beyond the scope of social support which posed a limitation to our findings. ...
Social support can help buffer against stressors and build employees’ resilience. However, workers of different cultures may vary in their expectation of support. Drawing on organizational support theory (OST), this qualitative study explored the types of support managers and employees (n = 668) from Croatia, Thailand, and the United States expected from each other amid COVID-19. A cluster analysis showed US workers expected more understanding and transparent communication from their supervisors while Thai workers desired stronger leadership and more protective gear. US supervisors expected employees to proactively ask for help while Thai supervisors encouraged their employees to adapt to change. Both Croatian supervisors and employees expected each other to maintain business as usual. Overall, the results resonate with previous OST research that expectations of support vary by cultures and highlight how leaders across countries can enhance the efficacy of social support and promote both supervisors’ and subordinates’ well-being during future crises.
... Men are categorized as managers more often than women; masculine behaviours are judged to be more stereotypical of a leader's behaviour. Male managers are often evaluated more positively than female ones because of the stereotype that exists around management behaviour (Rosette et al., 2015). Klatt et al., (2016) argue that men tend to take on the roles that are considered to require behaviour that is more energetic and confident. ...
This doctoral dissertation contributes to the expansive global research on the role of women in education management and leadership, by examining the poorly researched barriers and opportunities that are experienced by female school principals in the Republic of Kosovo, a small and developing country in the Western Balkans. The research questions are triggered by the comparatively low representation of women in education management in Kosovo and seek answers in the perceptions of a group of women who have successfully traversed the path from anticipation to acquisition, to performance as school principals in a male dominated profession. The research employed a case study approach, involving in-depth semi-structured interviews with 15 women, ten women principals of primary schools in Kosovo through purposive sampling. Using a qualitative research methodology, the analysis of the resultant data drew out thematic trends and patterns that were correlated and compared with multiple sources of data, strengthening and reinforcing the weight of the conclusions. Data was structured and analysed through use of a ‘management path model’, filtering data under the anticipation, acquisition and performance stages, and identifying and correlating personal, organisational barriers and opportunities that impact women, segregated as novices, intermediates and experienced principals.
The findings contribute to the global, regional and Kosovo debate about the role of women in education management, drawing implications for policy makers and school management and leadership practices. The study provides valuable knowledge about women who aspire to and achieve principalship in the context of Kosovo, by identifying certain barriers that hinder a proportion of women in Kosovo’s educational management, as well as revealing important insights concerning the incentives that facilitate and encourage an increased representation of women in the country’s management positions. The results fill a significant knowledge gap about the causes of various impediments and obstacles that act upon potential female aspirants to careers as school principals in Kosovo, as well as founded evidence about poorly exploited remedies and solutions.
... Seeking help can be viewed as an admission of incompetence and dependency, leading individuals to avoid it (Nadler & Chernyak-Hai, 2014). Indeed, research has shown that male leaders who seek help are viewed as less competent than those who do not (Rosette et al., 2015) and when leader competence is uncertain, asking questions hurts such perception (Cojuharenco & Karelaia, 2020). Contrary to the impact on leaders, research on advice seeking (a form of help) has shown that it actually makes the advisee appear more competent in the eyes of the advisor (Brooks et al., 2015). ...
We examine the impact of advice use on perceptions of competence. We propose that advice use sends opposing signals to an advisor regarding the advisee's competence. Greater advice use signals respect for the advisor, which is reciprocated by enhancing competence perceptions. However, greater advice use also indicates a lack of independence in judgment, reducing perceptions of competence. As a result, as advice use increases (i.e., gets closer to the exact advice provided), perceptions of competence first increase but then decrease. We further argue that the impact of advice use on competence is influenced by perceptions of information accessibility, such that when advisor and advisee have access to the same information, lower reliance on advice is more tolerated and less impactful on competence. We show that this effect is conceptually and empirically distinct from advisor's confidence and subsequent preference for advice use.
... The political domain has been constructed for men and by men, epitomized by the lack of women as prime ministers and presidents (Jalalzai 2013). Even in the absence of crisis, the presence of women in political leadership creates a social role incongruency that impacts the ways in which individuals evaluate and react to a woman leader's performance (Rosette, Mueller, and Lebel 2015). Status incongruity describes the resistance that individuals experience when they act contrary to social role expectations (Rudman et al. 2012). ...
At a time of pandemics, international economic downturns, and increasing environmental threats due to climate change, countries around the world are facing numerous crises. What impact might we expect these crises to have on the already common perception that executive leadership is a masculine domain? For years, women executives’ ability to lead has been questioned (Jalalzai 2013). However, the outbreak of COVID-19 brought headlines like CNN’s “Women Leaders Are Doing a Disproportionately Great Job at Handling the Pandemic” (Fincher 2020). Do crises offer women presidents and prime ministers opportunities to be perceived as competent leaders? Or do they prime masculinized leadership expectations and reinforce common conceptions that women are unfit to lead? We maintain that people’s perceptions of crisis leadership will depend on whether the crisis creates role (in)congruity between traditional gender norms and the leadership expectations generated by the particular crisis.
... However, it may also be a learned behavior in response to young men's experiences in specific social contexts. For example, Rosette et al. (2015) found that men who were leaders were perceived to be less competent when they ask for help, but women who were leaders experienced no similar penalty for help-seeking. Schwab and Dupuis (2022) learned that masculine socialization compels young men in college to "struggle in silence," rather than reach out for help in college courses. ...
... The national executive political space has been historically constructed for men and by men, evident by the lack of women as prime ministers and presidents (Jalalzai, 2013). Women's presence in political leadership creates a social role incongruency that impacts how individuals evaluate and react to a woman leader's performance (Rosette et al., 2015). Status incongruity describes the resistance individuals experience when they act contrary to social role expectations (Rudman et al., 2012). ...
Dilma Rousseff's presidency ended in controversial form. The first woman elected to the position in Brazil, Rousseff's 2016 impeachment was seen as a coup by her supporters and as a necessary step for democracy by her detractors. With the Brazilian economy facing its worst recession in history and the Car Wash corruption scandal ravaging the political class, critics continually raised questions about Rousseff's leadership style and abilities. This article analyzes how this criticism in part can be attributed to gendered subjective understandings of preferred leadership traits. Using a thematic analysis of interviews with political actors in five different Brazilian states conducted in 2017 and 2018, we demonstrate that gender stereotypes and sexism fueled criticisms about women's political leadership. While Rousseff's presidency was riddled with problems, the president's leadership style and abilities were scrutinized in distinct gendered ways, indicating a gendered double bind and a backlash against women in politics.
... Masculine behaviours could serve as a barrier to seeking help for males and therefore needs to be addressed. 35 A Dutch study found that social loneliness increased among respondents who were "personally affected by being outdoors less". 36 A much higher percentage of males are not getting outdoors less often (73.0%) ...
Introduction
Healthcare workers have been particularly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, as have those educating them, albeit differently. Several papers have identified a gendered difference in the impact of the pandemic. This study aims to determine impact of COVID-19 on the health and wellbeing of Medical Imaging and Radiation Therapy (MIRT) academics.
Methods
An electronic survey was designed in English on Qualtrics and distributed via email and online platforms to MIRT academics. Fifty-one questions were used; demographic (n=9), work patterns (n=11), general health (n=8), mental health (n=2), physical health (n=10), and workload (n=11). Overall, 46 were quantitative and five were qualitative ‘open-ended’ questions. The survey was open between 3rd March 2021 to 1st May 2021. Quantitative analysis was carried out using MS Excel v 16.61.1ss and SPSS v26.
Results
The survey reached 32 countries globally and 412 participants; 23.5% identified as men (n=97) and 76.5% as women (n=315). Women reported worse sleep quality than men and overwhelmingly felt they would not like to work remotely again if given a choice. A higher percentage of males,73% versus 40.5% of females reported getting outdoors less. The CORE-10 validated questionnaire found that 10.3% of males (n= 42) and 2.7% of females (n=11) experienced severe psychological distress the week immediately before the survey was conducted.
Conclusion
While the study has identified some gender-related differences in the impact of COVID-19 on the mental and physical health of MIRT academics, both males and females have experienced significant deterioration in health and wellbeing due to the pandemic.
Implication for Practice
Developing mental health support for MIRT academics and defining optimum methods for raising awareness is recommended.
... while men tend to make less prudent decisions, women respond with more careful behavior and restrain their actions (Lerner et al., 2003). Hence, effective leadership needs the right balance of collaborative behavior, relationship building, and seeking assistance from others in times of crisis by both genders (Rosette et al., 2015). Public health crises, such as COVID-19, are characterized by uncertainty, and some behaviors will likely be inappropriate. ...
Purpose: This paper examines insights into leadership communication at German public universities during the Covid-19 pandemic. It aims to answer the following two research questions: Did the communication of rectors and vice-rectors during the pandemic show signs of transformational, transactional, or servant leadership styles, and were there gender differences? Did the rectors communicate in a positive, neutral, or negative tone, and did this communication differ by gender?
Design/methodology/approach: We examine three leadership styles (i.e., transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles) in a sentiment-based qualitative study of web-based data, such as online texts and verbal statements from publicly available communication channels. The significance of this study is to examine gender differences in text and verbal messages and also to understand how communication and social media reflect on leadership.
Findings: The findings support our hypotheses, and confirm gender differences: Women are more likely to have a transformational leadership style than men. Men are often attributed to transactional leadership characteristics. Furthermore, women's communication is more favorable than that of male rectors and vice-rectors at German public universities, whilst communicating messages more positively has the power to encourage and inspire.
Research limitations/implications: The manually collected data (for an intense time period for public universities) appears to create the possibility that not all of the individual's online communication statements are captured.
Practical Implications: The statements' content appears mainly in German, and the tone and message may appear to be linguistic inconsistencies. All comments are translated into English by an online translator.
Originality/value: How women exercise leadership and publicly communicate in a crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, has not yet been researched extensively. Workspace gender equality is an essential aspect of leadership, despite decades of regulation and intended interventions to ideally promote gender-equal representation in leadership positions. The findings positively contribute to the academic literature and encourage greater representation of women in leadership positions, as their potential remains untapped.
... Leaders react differently in exceptional situations; while men tend to make less cautious decisions, women respond with more careful behaviour and restrain their actions (Lerner et al., 2003). Hence, effective leadership needs the right balance of collaborative behaviour, relationship building, and seeking assistance from others for both genders in times of crisis (Rosette et al., 2015). Public health crises, such as COVID-19, are characterized by uncertainty, and some behaviours will likely be inappropriate. ...
Purpose: This paper examines insights into leadership communication at German public universities during the Covid-19 pandemic. It aims to answer the following two research questions: Did the communication of rectors and vice-rectors during the pandemic show signs of transformational, transactional, or servant leadership styles, and were there gender differences? Did the rectors communicate in a positive, neutral, or negative tone, and did this communication differ by gender?
Design/methodology/approach: We examine three leadership styles (i.e., transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles) in a sentiment-based qualitative study of web-based data, such as online texts and verbal statements from publicly available communication channels. The significance of this study is to examine gender differences in text and verbal messages and also to understand how communication and social media reflect on leadership.
Findings: The findings support our hypotheses, and confirm gender differences: Women are more likely to have a transformational leadership style than men. Men are often attributed to transactional leadership characteristics. Furthermore, women's communication is more favorable than that of male rectors and vice-rectors at German public universities, whilst communicating messages more positively has the power to encourage and inspire.
Research limitations/implications: The manually collected data (for an intense time period for public universities) appears to create the possibility that not all of the individual's online communication statements are captured.
Practical Implications: The statements' content appears mainly in German, and the tone and message may appear to be linguistic inconsistencies. All comments are translated into English by an online translator.
Originality/value: How women exercise leadership and publicly communicate in a crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, has not yet been researched extensively. Workspace gender equality is an essential aspect of leadership, despite decades of regulation and intended interventions to ideally promote gender-equal representation in leadership positions. The findings positively contribute to the academic literature and encourage greater representation of women in leadership positions, as their potential remains untapped.
... This perspective provides a valuable tool to understand how expectations tied to broadly held social roles, such as gender or race, influence important outcomes for individuals. Our review suggests that the management literature adopting a structural-functional perspective overwhelmingly examines how traditional gender roles shape outcomes for those in functional roles, such as leader, board member, or entrepreneur (e.g., Lee & Huang, 2018;Oliver, Krause, Busenbark, & Kalm, 2018;Rosette, Mueller, & Lebel, 2015). However, virtually all management disciplines give considerably less attention to other important social roles, such those tied to race, age, sexual orientation, and nonbinary gender roles. ...
Role theories examine how individual behavior is shaped by prevailing social roles and provide insights into how behavior is perceived by others in light of such roles. Current movements for police reform as well as the landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court concerning the employment rights of LGBTQIA individuals have brought conversations concerning roles and their potential impact to the forefront of public discourse. Academic perspectives in management research have aided in building knowledge concerning how roles impact individuals and organizations in a variety of research domains, including entrepreneurship, human resource management, organizational behavior, and strategic management. While the utilization of role theory has gained tremendous momentum over the past two decades, its central tenets are often blurred given that several related but unique perspectives surrounding roles exist in the literature. We trace the origins and development of specific role theories by defining central constructs to bring clarity to the conceptual ambiguities between various role theories and key concepts. Next, we provide an integrative review of empirical role research in management journals over the past 20 years. Here, we identify the five most prominent research themes in the management literature: roles and identity, work–nonwork interface, biases and stereotypes, career life cycles, and ethics and other-oriented behavior. Finally, we provide an agenda for future research that highlights missed opportunities in management research that draws from the key themes identified in our review.
This study investigates whether male and female entrepreneurs exhibit systematic differences in the customer learning actions they pursue, and how those actions convert to venture performance. Drawing from a dyadic sample of founders and startup advisors in the high-technology context, we explore the effects of two alternative customer learning actions—customer involvement as an information source (CIS) and customer involvement as co-developers (CIC). We find that, compared to male entrepreneurs, female entrepreneurs engage in higher levels of both types of customer learning actions (CIS and CIC). Contrary to research from the large established firm context, we find CIS and CIC have conflicting startup performance implications—CIS is beneficial, but CIC is detrimental.
Employment success often hinges on crucial work‐related soft skills, such as the ability to seek help and solve problems. This pilot study aimed to assess the practicality of a group intervention based upon a direct skills teaching (DST) approach to teach work‐related help‐seeking skills to individuals with disabilities. The “Asking for Help” intervention, conducted in either in person or via telehealth, involved 152 participants with disabilities. Both modalities showed improvement in participants’ perceptions of work‐related soft skill of asking for help. Participants experienced increased confidence in asking for help at employment settings and expressed high satisfaction with the intervention. Both groups increased career adaptabilities, while the telehealth group also increased occupational self‐efficacy, and the in‐person group showed increased work‐related soft skills. Both groups showed comparable positive results, supporting their effectiveness in teaching help‐seeking skills using a preplanned curriculum. Implications of findings are discussed.
Purpose: Although many organisations and governments internationally acknowledge that a diverse workforce is essential for improved decision-making, employee well-being and organisational performance and competitiveness, women with disabilities and their (potential) participation and contributions within organisations continue to be overlooked and under-researched. Examining the careers of women with disabilities through the lens of human resource management (HRM) allows for the development of policies and practices that support their inclusion and progression in the workforce and helps lay the foundation for legislative, institutional and organisational changes that address the unique challenges faced by this cohort.
Design/methodology/approach: We conducted a comprehensive, systematic scoping review that analyses various career-related aspects for women with disabilities across different cultural and geographical contexts internationally. A two-stage review (Stage 1 – Title and abstract screening and Stage 2 – Full-text review) of the extant literature on the careers of women with disabilities yielded 80 relevant empirical articles.
Findings: Our review identified four key career-related themes pertaining to women with disabilities: (1) Educational interventions and support for positive career outcomes of women with disabilities; (2) Workplace discrimination and workplace accessibility of women with disabilities; (3) Factors influencing the career development and advancement of women with disabilities and (4) The role of gender in the career exploration and decision-making processes of women with disabilities.
Originality/value: This systematic scoping review contributes to the nascent scholarly discourse on enhancing career-related outcomes of women with disabilities and offers evidence-based insights to guide future HRM research on the intersection of gender and disability/ies in careers.
In this chapter, we examine the role of shame for men in recovery from addictions. We draw on existing literature and some of the findings from previous research we conducted to highlight how addiction treatment can support the transformative learning of men working through and with shame. We begin with an examination of the unique features of men in their experience of shame, paying particular attention to masculine norms—of being independent, in control, productive, and strong—and to two common responses when men fail to live up to these standards: anger and social withdrawal. We then examine the link between addictions and shame, including how public attitudes and the self-stigma associated with addictions have evolved, with three explanatory models of addiction: addiction as a moral failing, as a biomedical ‘disease’, and as psychosocial coping. The chapter continues with literature on two potentially transformative outcomes of addressing shame: self-reflection and dialogue, followed by examples of how shame and recovery intersect, taken from one of the author’s (Dan) qualitative study examining the transformative learning of seven men who underwent residential treatment. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the role that shame can play in men’s recovery from addictions and how recovery may, ultimately, be about learning to relate to oneself, others, and the world in a different way.
In this study, we explore the relationship between a team’s shared leadership and a formal leader’s collective leadership style, and their joint impact on team performance. We draw upon identity theory to examine how shared leadership in the team influences formal leaders' leadership identity claims. We also examine how a formal leader’s use of a collective leadership style facilitates the claiming and granting of leadership identities by other team members. We also draw on role congruity theory and the social categorization perspective to examine the moderating role of gender, a critical component of identity. Our findings suggest that there is a mutual relationship between the formal leader’s collective leadership style and the team’s shared leadership, and that they jointly influence team performance, but these effects are contingent on the formal leader’s gender and the gender composition of the team. This study addresses several calls in the leadership field for examining the more nuanced ways shared leadership and the actions of a formal leader may influence each other, as well as the contextual conditions in which shared leadership is enacted.
What do people think of when they think of workplace harassment? In 13 pre-registered studies with French, British, and U.S. American adult participants ( N = 3,892), we conducted a multi-method investigation into people’s social prototypes of victims of workplace harassment. We found people imagined such victims in physically, socially, psychologically, and economically different ways compared with non-victims: for example, as less attractive, more introverted, and paid less. In addition, we found ambiguous harassment leveled against a prototypical (vs. non-prototypical) victim was more likely to be classified as harassment, and perceived to cause the victim more psychological pain. As such, both lay-people and professionals wanted to punish harassers of victims who “fit the prototype” more. Notably, providing people with instructions to ignore a victim’s personal description and instead assess the harassment behavior did not reduce the prototype effect.
Purpose
Role congruity theory and gender stereotypes research suggests men are expected to engage in agentic behavior and women in communal behavior as leaders, and that role violation results in backlash. However, extant gender and leadership research does not directly measure expectations–behavior incongruence. Further, researchers have only considered one condition of role incongruence – display of counter-role behavior – and have not considered the outcomes of failing to exhibit role-congruent behavior. Additionally, few studies have examined outcomes for male leaders who violate gender role prescriptions. The present study aims to address these shortcomings by conducting a novel empirical test of role congruity theory.
Design/Methodology/approach
This experimental study used polynomial regression to assess how followers evaluated leaders under conditions of incongruence between follower expectations for men and women leaders’ behavior and leaders’ actual behavior (i.e. exceeded and unmet expectations). Respondents read a fictional scenario describing a new male or female supervisor, rated their expectations for the leader’s agentic and communal behavior, read manipulated vignettes describing the leader’s subsequent behavior, rated their perceptions of these behaviors, and evaluated the leader.
Findings
Followers expected higher levels of communal behavior from the female than the male supervisor, but no differences were found in expectations for agentic behavior. Regardless of whether expectations were exceeded or unmet, supervisor gender did not moderate the effects of agentic or communal behavior expectations–perceptions incongruence on leader evaluations in polynomial regression analyses (i.e. male and female supervisors were not evaluated differently when displaying counter-role behavior or failing to display role-congruent behavior).
Originality/value
In addition to providing a novel, direct test of role congruity theory, the study highlighted a double standard in gender role-congruent behavior expectations of men and women leaders. Results failed to support role congruity theory, which has implications for the future of theory in this domain.
Employees often feel that the help they receive at work is inadequate. Whereas previous research explains this empirical finding by referencing stereotypes or poor communication, we suggest an alternative that does not rely on biased agents: disappointment with received help may arise due to self-selection and regression to the mean. Before asking for help, employees assess whether their co-workers have the time and ability to respond. Consistent with regression to the mean, extreme beliefs are often followed by less extreme outcomes. However, employees with inflated beliefs are more likely to ask for help than employees with low or modest beliefs. Therefore, the subset of employees who act will have overly optimistic expectations, expectations that are unlikely to be met once co-workers respond. Apart from challenging conventional wisdom, this article also integrates chance and self-selection perspectives into the ongoing dialogue of help-seeking. Implications for future research, theory, and practice are discussed.
Previous research shows that religiosity increases prosocial tendencies such as donating and volunteering. Less is known on whether and how religiosity influences individuals' decision to seek help when needed. The current research tackles this question and shows that religiosity, whether manipulated (Study 2) and measured (Study 1 and Study 3), decreases individuals' tendency to seek help from other people or entities. We further propose that religiosity enhances individuals' sense of control, which makes them rely more on themselves and less likely to seek help when encountering difficulties. Three studies across different contexts (i.e., applying government aid, asking for help from other people, and requesting donations from a crowdfunding platform) support our thesis. Utilizing data from the General Social Survey (Study 1), we first demonstrate that individual‐level religiosity is negatively correlated with the behavior of getting help (i.e., receiving government aid such as welfare and unemployment insurance). Next, we prime religion (vs. control) in Study 2 and show that religious prime decreases people's willingness to seek help. Finally, Study 3 shows that chronic religiosity discourages people from seeking financial assistance on crowdfunding platforms such as Indiegogo. Furthermore, this negative effect is mediated by sense of control. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and practical contributions of this research as well as its limitations and future research directions.
While it is well understood that the content included in an apology matters, what constitutes an effective apology may differ depending on the gender of the person delivering it. In this article, we test competing theoretical perspectives (i.e., role congruity theory and expectancy violation theory [EVT]) about the relative effectiveness of apologies that include language that conforms (or not) with the gender stereotypes ascribed to the apologizer. Results of four studies supported an EVT perspective and showed that apologies were perceived to be relatively more effective when they contradicted gender stereotypes (i.e., communal [agentic] apologies by men [women]). Specifically, Study 1 provided an initial test of the competing hypotheses using celebrity apologies on Twitter. Then, results of three experiments (Studies 2, 3a, and 3b) built upon these initial findings and tested the psychological mechanisms proposed by EVT to explain why counterstereotypical apologies are beneficial (i.e., attributions of interpersonal sensitivity [assertiveness] and enhanced perceptions of benevolence [competence] for men [women]). Our contributions to theory and practice are discussed.
The general increase in the speed of automation has made humans in the loop a process constraint. Integrated decision support tools can help close the gap between human and computer speed while still preserving safety and other benefits to human intervention. The intent of decision tool developers may not align with user expectations or patterns of employment in their native environment. This chapter investigates the psychological factors that limit or slow adoption of decision support tools, and how those factors can be mitigated. Psychological barriers to the adoption of automated decision support tools include trust and cognitive biases such as anchoring bias, automation bias, and egocentric bias. Sheridan’s trust-causation factors—reliability, robustness, familiarity, understandability, explication of intention, usefulness, and dependence—serve as a rubric for evaluating a system’s readiness for psychological acceptance. Ethics and culpability are also potential issues when providing tools in support of decision-making. Consideration of these factors as part of system design will improve adoption and more seamlessly integrate the human-in-the-loop.KeywordsAdoptionAutomationBiasDecision-makingDecision supportTrust
Purpose
The literature on help-seeking at work has experienced significant growth in the past decades. However, our knowledge about this research domain remains fragmented and lacks sufficient theoretical integration. Therefore, this paper aims to comprehensively integrate the extant literature on help-seeking behavior at work and propose an overarching, organized framework to propel this field forward.
Design/methodology/approach
A state-of-the-art review and theoretical development on help-seeking at work are conducted.
Findings
First, the authors provide the conceptual clarity of its definitions, key characteristics, types and measurement techniques. Second, the authors develop a fine-grained and integrative process-based framework consisting of antecedents, proximal psychological mechanisms, subsequent influencing processes and distal outcomes to advance our understanding of seeking help in the workplace. Third, the authors offer a detailed agenda for future research to target opportunities within the field.
Originality/value
The current study is comprehensive in surveying the full body of knowledge on help-seeking at work. It uniquely provides a coherent overarching framework that organizes prior findings and channels future research. Additionally, this review paints a complete picture of what has been done and what needs to be done in the field. More research can be spurred based on our conceptual framework.
This article examines how penalizing men who “do gender” in nonstereotypical ways ultimately maintains the gender system. Leveraging data from an online survey experiment conducted with hiring decision-makers, I develop and test a theory of a help-seeking paradox whereby managers are less likely to interview and hire fathers who used career reentry assistance (CRA) relative to fathers who did not. However, this penalty does not emerge for mothers. A second online survey experiment reveals that two years of full-time employment after reentry diminishes the negative effects of CRA for fathers. Nonetheless, lingering stigma from having previously left paid work for childcare continues to disadvantage fathers relative to mothers, with perceptions of competence and commitment mediating long-term effects. These studies demonstrate how the reinforcement of cultural gender rules punishes both mothers and fathers seeking more equitable career coordination while providing novel insight into the boundaries of penalties for men who violate gender stereotypes.
Purpose
As university faculty faced new challenges, such as rapid digital social and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) response, this study aimed to identify the daily changes in the interaction between the faculty and the organizational environment (colleague, policy and new issue) by exploring their recent dynamic educational efforts and the professional development.
Design/methodology/approach
This is a study wherein perceptions of 20 faculty from 15 universities and colleges were collected through in-depth online interviews. The authors analyzed interview data by arranging and visualizing the analyzed data using network clustering. Further, they applied the Latent Dirichlet allocation of the topic modeling to monitor the appropriate number of clusters, ultimately determined as four clusters using partial clustering.
Findings
The results showed that university faculty spontaneously tried to solve the problems through informal learning while the commitment to peer learning was deepening, reflecting the collectivist orientation nature of Chinese culture. Besides, the faculty also required support to reflect on their daily efforts for professional development. These results about their various learning routines prove the justification for the faculty's professional development to be discussed from the “learning by doing” perspective of lifelong learning.
Originality/value
This study proved the significance of informal learning for university faculty's professional development and the reasonable value of peer learning, and provided insights into how the Chinese context may influence university faculty's informal learning experience.
I sidste magtudredning blev det påpeget, at kønsmagten er under sociokulturel forandring, mens den politisk og økonomisk forbliver ulige fordelt i mænds favør. I de 20 år, der er gået, er det dog ikke lykkedes at rette op på det forhold. Snarere er Danmark sakket bagud på internationale ligestillingsranglister, særligt når det kommer til økonomisk magt. I denne artikel præsenterer vi dels de nyeste tal på området, dels argumenterer vi for, at ligestillingsdagsordenen må suppleres med et bredere blik for mangfoldighed. Særligt mangler der intersektionel forskning, dvs. forskning om de dynamiske relationer mellem forskellige identitetsdimensioner – og disses betydning for individers og gruppers muligheder for at tiltage sig og udøve magt. Vi fokuserer på de fortsatte skævheder i og udfordringer for dansk erhvervsliv, men peger også på deres bredere konsekvenser i et magtperspektiv
Young Black and Latino men transition from high school to 4-year universities at rates considerably lower than their peers. College-going disparities by gender are partly influenced by young men’s constrained access to social capital in high school. This research explores how gendered inequalities in social capital arise for college-aspiring seniors at an urban high school. The data suggest that young men were more reluctant than their young women to “ask for directions” on their way to college because they were concerned about being perceived as bothersome, and they believed their social disadvantages were insignificant. Young men who were in contexts that allowed them to overcome these challenges successfully collected important college-going social capital. These findings can support researchers and practitioners who seek to expand college access in marginalized communities.
This study explores the predominant leadership styles of nonprofit executives to determine if gender informs their leadership style choices. The authors analyzed over 4,000 pages of transcribed interviews with 137 nonprofit executives. Nonprofit executives identified their predominant leadership styles with approaches categorized in the “feminine” domain of the gendered leadership framework. Although individual differences in leadership styles were explained in part by gender, leaders were most likely to adopt configurations of styles that blend gendered domains of leadership. The results indicate the nonprofit sector is one where gender is less determinative of leadership styles than in other employment sectors.
This review seeks to enrich our understanding of how a leader's status influences leadership outcomes such as motivation to lead, leader emergence and perceived leader effectiveness. The focus is on the leader's diffuse status, i.e., status derived from demographic (e.g., gender and race) and physical (e.g., height and body shape) characteristics. Drawing insights from empirical findings and their theoretical underpinnings, we (1) highlight the need to explicitly model the leader's diffuse status as a mediator in the relationship between leader demographic and physical characteristics and leadership outcomes, (2) differentiate the effects of the leader's diffuse status as perceived by others (interpersonal level) and the leader's diffuse status as perceived by the leader (intrapersonal level) and (3) synthesise a wide range of contextual factors that influence the degree to which the leader's demographic and physical characteristics affect leadership outcomes through the leader's diffuse status. Moreover, we explain how other status types, such as status derived from the leader's position in the organisational hierarchy and status related to task-relevant leader characteristics, can moderate the effects of the leader's diffuse status. Finally, we discuss the utility of our proposed integrative framework for researchers and practitioners and outline promising future research opportunities.
Literally, Ọmọkùnrin refers to a male child or a man but in the real sense, the word Ọmọkùnrin sinks deeper than its apparent letters and sends a profound alert on the dangers of slacking and drums gongs of readiness and expected eagerness to kiss and embrace the worse, perpetually. In this book, I attempt to carefully dissect masculine dynamics, the chaos of the traditional masculine gender role and its unsettling consequences, patriarchy and the price men pay for it, gender equality's inauthenticity, the neglect of the boy child and his perceived immunity against threat and harassment, the role African proverbs play in enhancing masculine stress, and channelling a path to becoming better and fostering a better society.
Work-related soft skills (e.g. requesting help and problem solving) are critical for employment success. This pilot study evaluated the feasibility of a Direct Skills Teaching (DST) group intervention to teach work-related help-seeking skills to persons with disabilities. The four-session group intervention (“Asking for Help”) was delivered in person or via telehealth to 74 participants with disabilities during COVID-19. Participants reported increased confidence with asking employers for help and reported high intervention satisfaction. In-person and telehealth soft skills groups achieved similar positive outcomes, and findings support their use to teach groups help-seeking skills with a pre-planned curriculum.
Keywords: direct skills teaching, asking for help, disabilities, employment counseling
What motivates individuals to engage in role-incongruent knowledge transfer? Drawing on role congruity theory, we characterize role-incongruent (“reverse”) knowledge transfer as being based on an incongruity of the functional and social roles of the actors. Further integrating status characteristics theory and relational demography, we propose affect- and cognition-based trust as well as age as determinants of individuals’ engaging in such reverse knowledge transfer. In so doing, we distinguish between the social roles of trainers and apprentices, as these social roles carry implications for which behaviors are regarded as role-congruent or -incongruent. We test the resulting conceptual framework based on individual-level data from 442 participants (338 apprentices and 104 trainers) in multiple organizations within the context of vocational education training. The results largely support our hypotheses: For trainers, affect-based trust in apprentices and own age are positively associated with role-incongruent knowledge seeking, and the latter relationship is positively moderated by apprentice age. For apprentices, affect based trust is positively and cognition-based trust is negatively related to their role-incongruent knowledge sharing, but age has no significant effect. Finally, supplementary analyses document that the antecedents of reverse knowledge transfer differ from those factors that are significantly related to role-congruent knowledge exchange.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is investigating the influence of leadership on work engagement. The definition of leadership is primarily couched in culturally masculine terms (and known as an agentic leadership style) that disfavours women, who are often perceived as being communal leaders who are compassionate and humble. The research gap addressed is whether communal and agentic leadership styles of female leaders have positive associations with work engagement.
Design/methodology/approach
A quantitative study was undertaken by applying purposive non-probability sampling and using an online survey with screening questions to ensure the respondent reported to a senior female manager. The survey consisted of reliable and valid Likert scales: agentic and communal leadership styles were assessed using the Agency-Communion-Inventory (AC-IN) scale with 20 questions and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) with three sub-scales: vigour, dedication and absorption. The 153 usable responses in this study were used to conduct validity and reliability tests and to apply multiple regression to test associations.
Findings
Both agentic and communal leadership have a positive impact on work engagement when exhibited by a female. Although agentic leadership had an influence on all the elements of work engagement, communal leadership had a far stronger impact.
Originality/value
Female managers with communal leadership styles need to realise that they have more influence on their employees’ emotional, physical and cognitive connections to their work than female managers with agentic leadership styles. Those with agentic leadership styles need to exhibit a communal style as well, so as to enhance the influence they have on their employees’ work engagement.
Adrian Piper provides an excellent way of thinking about both what motivates discrimination and the relationship between stereotyping and discrimination. Piper elucidates two kinds of political discrimination, namely first- and higher-order political discrimination. The relationship between discrimination and stereotyping can be captured by a form that I call “discrimination from descriptive stereotyping.” Here, stereotypical properties are taken to be possessed by and principally define individuals because of groups to which they belong; they are descriptive properties explain what group-members must be like. Discrimination results from and is thought to be justified by the perception that group-members must unfailingly possess certain negatively valued attributes because they belong to targeted groups. In this article I add a form of discrimination as related to stereotyping that has been rather overlooked, call it “discrimination from normative stereotyping.” Here, stereotypes prescribe criteria for what legitimate members of some group are like, and thus which attributes group-members ought to possess. Discrimination results from a failure of group-members to possess these stereotypical attributes. And thus negative evaluations that lead to discrimination are not made insofar as persons are thought to possess some negatively valued attribute. Herein I take discrimination from normative stereotyping to explain the use of particular slurs, namely race-traitor terms such as “Uncle Tom” and “Nigger Lover.” Targets of these slurs are discriminated against in some sense because they are perceived as failing to be legitimate group-members.
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.
Studies that combine moderation and mediation are prevalent in basic and applied psychology research. Typically, these studies are framed in terms of moderated mediation or mediated moderation, both of which involve similar analytical approaches. Unfortunately, these approaches have important shortcomings that conceal the nature of the moderated and the mediated effects under investigation. This article presents a general analytical framework for combining moderation and mediation that integrates moderated regression analysis and path analysis. This framework clarifies how moderator variables influence the paths that constitute the direct, indirect, and total effects of mediated models. The authors empirically illustrate this framework and give step-by-step instructions for estimation and interpretation. They summarize the advantages of their framework over current approaches, explain how it subsumes moderated mediation and mediated moderation, and describe how it can accommodate additional moderator and mediator variables, curvilinear relationships, and structural equation models with latent variables.
Tested theory that adherence to the traditional male gender role and help-seeking attitudes and behaviors are related. Ss were 401 undergraduate men who completed measures of help-seeking attitudes and behaviors, attitudes toward the stereotypic male role, and gender role conflict factors (i.e., success/power/competition, restrictive emotionality, and restrictive affectionate behavior between men). Canonical analysis and regression indicated that traditional attitudes about the male role, concern about expressing emotions, and concern about expressing affection toward other men were each significantly related to negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological assistance. Restrictive emotionality also significantly predicted decreased past help-seeking behavior and decreased likelihood of future help seeking. The implications of these results for theory, research, and counseling practice are discussed.
This paper presents and organizes the results of two decades of research on feedback-seeking behavior according to three motives: the instrumental motive to achieve a goal, the ego-based motive to protect one’s ego, and the image-based motive to enhance and protect one’s image in an organization. Each motive is discussed with reference to its impact on the frequency of feedback seeking, seeking method (whether by inquiry or monitoring), timing of feedback seeking, choice of the target of feedback seeking, and the topic on which feedback is sought. The role of context in influencing these patterns is also discussed. Issues in the literature are identified throughout, and the review ends by identifying five promising areas for future research.
Leadership categorization theory suggests that leaders who display characteristics and abilities that match observers' schematic conception of an effective leader will be more favorably evaluated than leaders who violate observers' leadership prototypes. In a test of this model, 92 male and 84 female subjects endorsing a number of different leadership prototypes were instructed to evaluate a male or female leader who acted in a task-oriented or socioemotional-oriented manner. In rating leader effectiveness, subjects showed a clear bias in favor of leaders who matched their particular prototypes, although males tended to base their ratings on prototypes more so than females.!n ratings of leader collegiality, however, prototype-based biases were noted only when subjects evaluated female leaders. These ratings were not always consistent with the predictions of leadership categorization theory. These findings suggest that biases against female leaders may stem, in part, from the incongruity between subordinates' leadership prototypes and stereotypical conceptions of men and women.
In this article we assess, from a critical realist perspective, the role played by replication in theory development. We first present a concise review of critical realism and then reply to the objection that replication is not possible in the social sciences. We go on to classify replications into six types along two dimensions. Finally, we present a detailed argument for the significance of replication in social science research and propose a: multifocal pattern of knowledge accumulation to be integrated with the scattered pattern commonly found in organizational science.
This paper presents a model of team learning and tests it in a multimethod field study. It introduces the construct of team psychological safety—a shared belief held by members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking—and models the effects of team psychological safety and team efficacy together on learning and performance in organizational work teams. Results of a study of 51 work teams in a manufacturing company, measuring antecedent, process, and outcome variables, show that team psychological safety is associated with learning behavior, but team efficacy is not, when controlling for team psychological safety. As predicted, learning behavior mediates between team psychological safety and team performance. The results support an integrative perspective in which both team structures, such as context support and team leader coaching, and shared beliefs shape team outcomes.
Although employee helping behaviors have been widely examined by organizational and human resource management scholars, relatively little is known about the antecedents and consequences of help-seeking in the workplace. Seeking to fill this gap, I draw from the social and counseling psychology literatures, as well as from research in epidemiology and health sociology to first conceptualize the notion of employee help-seeking and then to identify the variables and mechanisms potentially driving such behavior in work organizations. My critical review of this literature suggests that the application of existing models of help-seeking may offer limited predictive utility when applied to the workplace unless help-seeking is conceived as the outcome of a multi-level process. That in mind, I propose a model of employee help-seeking that takes into account the potential direct and cross-level moderating effects of a variety of situational factors (e.g., the nature of the particular problem, organizational norms, support climate) that might have differential influences on help-seeking behavior depending on the particular phase of the help-seeking process examined. Following this, I focus on two sets of help-seeking outcomes, namely, the implications of employee help-seeking on individual and group performance, and the impact of help-seeking on employee well-being. The chapter concludes with a brief examination of some of the more critical issues in employee help-seeking that remain to be explored (e.g., the timing of help solicitation) as well as the methodological challenges likely to be faced by those seeking to engage in such exploration.
Agentic female leaders risk social and economic penalties for behaving counter-stereotypically (i.e., backlash; Rudman, 1998), but what motivates prejudice against female leaders? The status incongruity hypothesis (SIH) proposes that agentic women are penalized for status violations because doing so defends the gender hierarchy. Consistent with this view, Study 1 found that women are proscribed from dominant, high status displays (which are reserved for leaders and men); Studies 2–3 revealed that prejudice against agentic fe-male leaders was mediated by a dominance penalty; and in Study 3, participants' gender system-justifying beliefs moderated backlash effects. Study 4 found that backlash was exacerbated when perceivers were primed with a system threat. Study 5 showed that only female leaders who threatened the status quo suf-fered sabotage. In concert, support for the SIH suggests that backlash functions to preserve male dominance by reinforcing a double standard for power and control.
A study was conducted to explore what could and should be a reasonable response rate in academic studies. One hundred and forty-one papers which included 175 different studies were examined. They were published in the Academy of Management Journal, Human Relations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Journal of International Business Studies in the years 1975, 1985, and 1995, covering about 200,000 respondents. The average response rate was 55.6 with a standard deviation of 19.7. Variations among the journals such as the year of publication and other variables were discussed. Most notable is the decline through the years (average 48.4, standard deviation of 20.1, in 1995), the lower level found in studies involving top management or organizational representatives (average 36.1, standard deviation of 13.3), and the predominance of North American studies. It is suggested that the average and standard deviation found in this study should be used as a norm for future studies, bearing in mind the specific reference group. It is also recommended that a distinction is made between surveys directed at individual participants and those targeting organizational representatives.
• Tested a categorization-based model of leadership perception in 2 studies on political leadership. The impact on leader description both of labeling someone as a leader and of the extent to which traits are seen as being prototypical of leaders was investigated. In the 1st study, 120 undergraduates rated the prototypicality of 17 items taken from a Gallup poll in 1 of 4 different leader label conditions: leader, political leader, effective leader, and effective political leader. Results indicate significant differences between the prototypes of leader and political leader and between political leader and effective political leader. The 2nd study used data from a series of Gallup polls to indicate whether an item's prototypicality predicted its use in descriptions of specific political figures (Jimmy Carter and Edward Kennedy). Analysis of 1,509 Ss' responses to 1 Gallup poll indicated that more prototypical items were more highly correlated with leadership ratings. Also, analysis of aggregate response patterns for several Gallup polls indicated that more prototypical items changed more over time and across different stimulus persons as leadership ratings varied. In fact, the prototype of an effective leader determined which traits describing current leaders would covary with leadership ratings. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• Tested a categorization-based model of leadership perception in 2 studies on political leadership. The impact on leader description both of labeling someone as a leader and of the extent to which traits are seen as being prototypical of leaders was investigated. In the 1st study, 120 undergraduates rated the prototypicality of 17 items taken from a Gallup poll in 1 of 4 different leader label conditions: leader, political leader, effective leader, and effective political leader. Results indicate significant differences between the prototypes of leader and political leader and between political leader and effective political leader. The 2nd study used data from a series of Gallup polls to indicate whether an item's prototypicality predicted its use in descriptions of specific political figures (Jimmy Carter and Edward Kennedy). Analysis of 1,509 Ss' responses to 1 Gallup poll indicated that more prototypical items were more highly correlated with leadership ratings. Also, analysis of aggregate response patterns for several Gallup polls indicated that more prototypical items changed more over time and across different stimulus persons as leadership ratings varied. In fact, the prototype of an effective leader determined which traits describing current leaders would covary with leadership ratings. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study contributes to the corporate governance literature by demonstrating how greater board of director control of management at a given firm can have unanticipated adverse effects on the leadership of-other-companies. We specifically show that greater board control reduces affected CEOs' willingness to provide various forms of strategic help (e.g., advice on strategic issues) to other CEOs, making it more difficult for other-company CEOs to access assistance on strategic matters that would otherwise enhance their firms' performance. Our theory and results indicate that these effects are mediated by CEOs' reduced social identification with the "corporate elite."
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Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
This article describes micro-macro processes through which simple structural conditions cause a nominal characteristic such
as gender or race to acquire independent status value. These conditions are sufficient but not necessary and may or may not
be involved in the actual historical origin of a given characteristic's status value. The argument assumes that a nominal
characteristic becomes correlated with a difference in exchangeable resources. Blau's (1977) structural theory specifies the
effects of the distribution of resources and the nominal characteristic on the likely characteristics of interactants in encounters.
Expectation-states theory describes the situational beliefs about worthiness that develop among the resulting types of interactants.
I combine the two theories to show where the nominal characteristic is likely to be connected with such situational beliefs,
how this connection is affected by transfer and diffusion among types of interactants, and how this process can produce consensual
beliefs in the characteristic's status value.
Empirical research has typically rested on the assumption that board independence from management enhances board effectiveness in administering firms. The present study shows how and when a lack of social independence can increase board involvement and firm performance by raising the frequency of advice and counsel interactions between CEOs and outside directors. Hypotheses were tested with original survey data from 243 CEOs and 564 outside directors on behavioral processes and dynamics in management-board relationships.
This article reviews research on the evaluation of women and men who occupy leadership roles. In these experiments, the characteristics of leaders other than their sex were held constant, and the sex of the leader was varied. These experiments thus investigated whether people are biased against female leaders and managers. Although this research showed only a small overall tendency for subjects to evaluate female leaders less favorably than male leaders, this tendency was more pronounced under certain circumstances. Specifically, women in leadership positions were devalued relative to their male counterparts when leadership was carried out in stereotypically masculine styles, particularly when this style was autocratic or directive. In addition, the devaluation of women was greater when leaders occupied male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men. These and other findings are interpreted from a perspective that emphasizes the influence of gender roles within organizational settings.
This article presents a four-category framework to characterize the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. The framework distinguishes between prescriptions and proscriptions that are intensified by virtue of one's gender, and those that are relaxed by virtue of one's gender. Two studies examined the utility of this framework for characterizing prescriptive gender stereotypes in American society (Study 1) and in the highly masculine context of Princeton University (Study 2). The results demonstrated the persistence of traditional gender prescriptions in both contexts, but also revealed distinct areas of societal vigilance and leeway for each gender. In addition, they showed that women are seen more positively, relative to societal standards, than are men. We consider the implications of this framework for research on reactions to gender stereotype deviants and sex discrimination.
We present evidence that shifting hiring criteria reflects backlash toward agentic (“masterful”) women (Rudman, 1998). Participants (N = 428) evaluated male or female agentic or communal managerial applicants on dimensions of competence, social skills, and hireability. Consistent with past research, agentic women were perceived as highly competent but deficient in social skills, compared with agentic men. New to the present research, social skills predicted hiring decisions more than competence for agentic women; for all other applicants, competence received more weight than social skills. Thus, evaluators shifted the job criteria away from agentic women's strong suit (competence) and toward their perceived deficit (social skills) to justify hiring discrimination. The implications of these findings for women's professional success are discussed.
Research shows that individuals in larger teams perform worse than individuals in smaller teams; however, very little field research examines why. The current study of 212 knowledge workers within 26 teams, ranging from 3 to 19 members in size, employs multi-level modeling to examine the underlying mechanisms. The current investigation expands upon Steiner’s (1972) model of individual performance in group contexts identifying one missing element of process loss, namely relational loss. Drawing from the literature on stress and coping, relational loss, a unique form of individual level process, loss occurs when an employee perceives that support is less available in the team as team size increases. In the current study, relational loss mediated the negative relationship between team size and individual performance even when controlling for extrinsic motivation and perceived coordination losses. This suggests that larger teams diminish perceptions of available support which would otherwise buffer stressful experiences and promote performance.
Bootstrap methods are a collection of sample re-use techniques designed to estimate standard errors and confidence intervals. Making use of numerous samples drawn from the initial observations, these techniques require fewer assumptions and offer greater accuracy and insight than do standard methods in many problems. After presenting the underlying concepts, this introduction focuses on applications in regression analysis. These applications contrast two forms of bootstrap resampling in regression, illustrating their differences in a series of examples that include outliers and heteroscedasticity. Other regression examples use the bootstrap to estimate standard errors of robust estimators in regression and indirect effects in path models. Numerous variations of bootstrap confidence intervals exist, and examples stress the concepts that are common to the various approaches. Suggestions for computing bootstrap estimates appear throughout the discussion, and a section on computing suggests several broad guidelines.
The effects of cognitive leadership labels, item type, and temporal delays on the descriptive accuracy of leadership ratings was examined in a sample of observer-subjects who viewed a videotaped interaction of a problem-solving group. The results of the study provided support for several hypotheses derived from cognitive categorization models of the leadership perception process. Observers tended to ascribe more behavior to the leader that was consistent with an initial leadership label (prototypic behavior) than behavior that was either inconsistent with that label or unrelated to it (nonprototypic behavior). In addition, observers were more capable of accurately reporting the presence of nonprototypic behavior than prototypic behavior within an immediate rating condition. This accuracy, however, deteriorated significantly with a temporal delay in rating. In contrast, to the extent that prototypic behavior had been accurately rated within the immediate rating condition, the temporal delay had no significant impact on observers' rating accuracy for these behaviors.
Psychological costs associated with seeking help were studied. The specific helpseeking costs that were addressed included various costs specific to the recipient (e.g., whether receiving the help leads to less credit for successful outcomes), as well as costs associated with the helper (e.g., inconvenience). The findings suggest that persons deciding whether to seek help take into account not only their own costs and rewards but also the cost-reward contingencies of their helper. It was also predicted and found that subjects for whom the expected tasks were especially involving would seek less help, and that subjects who asked for more help would feel less comfortable about approaching the helper and would believe that the helper would perceive them as less competent.
Two studies examined adults' willingness to accept help from children. In Study I adults were less willing to accept free art lessons from competent children than from competent adults. Help-acceptance from children was not increased by suggesting to subjects that by accepting the lessons they would help the children to become better teachers of art. Study 2 replicated the latter finding, and also examined certain personality correlates of helpaccepting, including self-esteem, need for approval, and sex-typing. Women were more likely to accept help than men, and subjects scoring high on the femininity scale of Spence's Personal Attributes Questionnaire accepted help more than subjects scoring low on that scale. Self-esteem and need for approval were useful moderator variables. Often, different relationships between help-accepting and other variables were obtained for subjects scoring high on self-esteem or need for approval than for subjects scoring low on those variables. Social implications of adults' reluctance to accept help from children are discussed.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine sex effects in evaluations of transformational and transactional leaders.
Design/methodology/approach
A total of 459 part‐time (evening) MBA students, most of whom worked full‐time, read a vignette of either a male or female leader who exhibited either a transformational or transactional leadership style and then evaluated the leader's behavior.
Findings
Female‐transformational leaders received more favorable evaluations than male‐transformational leaders, especially from female evaluators. However, evaluations of transactional leaders did not differ according to leader sex, and male evaluators did not evaluate male and female leaders of either style differently.
Research limitations/implications
Evaluators were enrolled in a part‐time graduate program in management; hence, results may not be generalizable to other populations. In addition, the study focused on evaluation of hypothetical rather than actual leaders. The results suggest a female advantage in evaluations of transformational leaders, especially when women are the evaluators. Extension of theories of gender and leadership to account for such results and testing of the extended theories is recommended.
Practical implications
The results suggest the continued presence of sex‐related biases in leader evaluations, although in a different direction than in prior research. Organizations need to take steps to discourage expression of such biases.
Originality/value
Contrary to prior research, the results suggest that sex effects in leader evaluations now favor female leaders more than male leaders.
Proactivelyseeking help from others involves “social costs” because the help seeker appears incompetent, dependent, and inferior to others. This article hypothesizes that these costs are especially threatening when the help seeker is male and in a male-oriented occupational role, when the helper is in a higher or lower status role than the help seeker, and when the task is novel and central to the organization’s core competence. A field study examined physician and nurse help seeking regarding a new computer system within a large hospital. The results showed that individuals reported less help seeking when theywere male, in male-oriented occupations, and when the task was central to the organization’s core competence. Perceived social costs mediated these effects.
A total of 3786 respondents in 14 independent samples, ranging in size from 45 to 549 in US and foreign firms and agencies, completed the latest version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X), each describing their respective leader. Based on prior literature, nine models representing different factor structures were compared to determine the best fit for the MLQ survey. The models were tested in an original set of nine samples, and then in a second replication set comprised of five samples. Results indicated the factor structure for the MLQ survey was best represented by six lower order factors and three correlated higher-order factors.
Although a great deal of research has examined the effects of objectification on women's self-perceptions and behavior, empirical research has yet to address how objectifying a woman affects the way she is perceived by others. We hypothesize that focusing on a woman's appearance will promote reduced perceptions of competence, and also, by virtue of construing the women as an "object", perceptions of the woman as less human. We found initial experimental evidence for these hypotheses as a function of objectifying two targets - Sarah Palin and Angelina Jolie. In addition, focusing on Palin's appearance reduced intentions to vote for the McCain-Palin ticket (prior to the 2008 US Presidential election). We discuss these findings in the context of the election and the objectification of women.
In this chapter, I review contemporary theories and research on creativity in organizations. After discussing key definitional issues in this domain, I review the contemporary scholarly literature proceeding from the most molecular of perspectives focusing on within-individual processes to the more molar perspective of the collective creativity that can take place in work groups. While the within-individual process featured most prominently in the extant literature is intrinsic motivation, after a treatment of some fundamental issues surrounding the intrinsic motivation construct, I review research on conscious and unconscious thinking and positive and negative affect as key internal processes relevant to understanding creativity. Next, I focus on contextual influences on creativity including safety signals, creativity prompts, supervisors, leadership, and networks. Lastly, I focus on creativity in groups (from both an input and a process perspective). In closing, I reiterate a recurrent theme throughout the review. This is an exciting era for research on creativity in organizations with many intriguing questions awaiting future scholarly inquiry.