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School Psychologists' Assessment Practices with Bilingual and Limited-English-Proficient Students
Abstract
This study, a survey of 859 National Association of School Psychologist (NASP) members from eight states, identified school psychologists' assessment practices with bilingual and limited-English-proficient (LEP) students and compared test usage frequencies between English-only and bilingual psychoeducational assessment. Cognitive, achievement, and adaptive behavior domains were examined. In the area of cognitive assessment, the WISC-R or WISC-III administered in English only was the measure most frequently used. Moreover, the use of nonverbal intelligence tests appeared to be a common practice. With respect to achievement testing in English and Spanish, the Woodcock instruments were used by approximately three-fourths of the respondents. Curriculum-based assessment was employed significantly more often in bilingual psychoeducational assessment than in traditional English-only assessment. For assessing adaptive behavior, 90% of the sample used at least one of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Survey Scales. Across all three domains, there was much more diversity in test usage in bilingual psychoeducational assessment in comparison to assessment conducted with English-speaking pupils. An evaluation of and recommendations for assessment practices with LEP and bilingual students are provided.
... The testing community has responded to attenuate test bias with this population by suggesting the use of nonverbal tests of mental ability with these diverse school populations. To this day, the use of nonverbal measures to assess the intellectual abilities of linguistically diverse students is generally regarded as an acceptable practice and is a practice frequently utilized by school psychologists across the country (Clarizio, 1982; Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996). One of the most recently marketed nonverbal tests of general ability is the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; Naglieri, 1997a). ...
... 19). In addition, there is a shortage in the number of bilingual assessors throughout the country who are available to competently conduct bilingual assessments (Ochoa et al., 1996). And although the testing community has taken measures to ameliorate this issue of overrepresentation (i.e., litigation, utilizing more culture/language appropriate assessment tools), the concern remains. ...
... 1) utilize more than one instrument to assess intelligence, 2) include nonverbal measures as part of their battery to assess intelligence and 3) should conduct their own language proficiency evaluations rather than relying on existing language proficiency data (Ochoa et al., 1996). The following will include a review of some of the most commonly used nonverbal measures of general intelligence and/or ability. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability and validity of the results of the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; Naglieri, 1997a) with a sample of English Language Learner (ELL) Mexican American children and to compare the performance on the NNAT of 122 ELL Mexican American children with children from the standardization sample. The rationale for conducting this study was the need to identify culturally sensitive and technically adequate nonverbal measures of ability for the fastest growing minority group within AmericaÂs public schools today, Mexican American children. The NNAT was administered to participants with parental consent. Statistical analyses of the scores did yield positive evidence of internal consistency for the Nonverbal Ability Index (NAI) total score of the NNAT. However, when individual clusters were analyzed, Pattern Completion, Reasoning by Analogy, and Serial Reasoning did not yield positive evidence of internal consistency. Only Spatial Visualization approached the reliability standard deemed acceptable for tests of cognitive ability. The mean differences of the NNAT scores between two independent groups were also assessed in the present study. Results of the statistical analyses did not yield statistically significant differences across age and grade factors between the scores of the ELL Mexican American sample and the standardization sample. Finally, the proposed factor structure of the NNAT was compared with the factor structure found with the ELL Mexican American sample. Goodness-of-fit test statistics indicate that the proposed four-factor structure does not fit well with the data obtained from this sample of ELL Mexican American students. Furthermore, although the NNAT is considered to be a unidimensional test of general ability, nine factors were extracted upon analysis, providing evidence that the items on each of the four clusters do not function together as four distinct dimensions with this ELL Mexican American sample. Given that the individual clusters that collectively combine to yield the NAI total score are not based on any particular model of intelligence, interpretation of specific strengths and weaknesses should be discouraged. Finally, the NNATÂs overall score should be interpreted with caution and may best be used in conjunction with multidimensional ability and/or intelligence measures.
... Another issue related to native language testing is translation of tests into Spanish or another language or the intermixing of two languages during test administration (Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996). The problem with this practice is that when items or directions are translated into the student's native language, the difficulty of the items may change because the target word or response may be more or less difficult in the native language. ...
... If referral of a child for assessment is recommended following prereferral data collection and intervention, examiners might have a difficult time knowing which measures to administer. Surveys of school psychologists indicate that the Wechsler Scales administered in English are most commonly used for assessment with this population (Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996;McCloskey & Athanasiou, 2000). However, these instruments may underestimate the cognitive ability of CLD students and may lead to a misinterpretation of lack of English language proficiency as a pervasive cognitive, language, or academic deficit (Klingner, Artiles, & Barletta, 2006). ...
This article addresses issues faced by school psychologists when assessing students who are culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD). The authors describe the growing CLD population and legal requirements for assessment of CLD students for special education eligibility. Difficulties associated with referral and assessment procedures of CLD students and essential knowledge for examiners are explained, including second language acquisition at the level of basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive-academic language proficiency (CALP). Recommendations for the pre-referral process and assessment of CLD students are presented and discussed. This article will be useful for school psychologists who are unfamiliar with concepts and procedures for assessing second language learners. This article addresses current issues in the evaluation of students for whom English is not their primary language. For a number of reasons, the assessment of this group of learners is at the forefront of education in general and school psychology in particular. Some of these reasons include the recent increase in this population of students, difficulty finding examiners who are appropriately trained, and the challenge of finding and using appropriate Address correspondence to: Julia Shaftel, Ph.D.
... To investigate the referral process in a large, diverse school district and to understand factors that contribute to disproportionate representation. (Ochoa, González, Galarza, & Guillemard, 1996;Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Piña, 1996;Ochoa, Rivera, & Powell, 1997) surveyed 859 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) members from eight states who indicated they had prior experience conducting bilin-gual psychoeducational assessments. They published several articles with data from this survey. ...
... Ochoa, González, et al. (1996) compared the tests used in English-only and bilingual psychoeducational assessments and found that curriculum-based assessments were used more often with ELLs than with English-only students, and that overall there was more diversity in the tests used with ELLs. Ochoa, Powell, and Robles-Piña (1996) examined the use of interpreters by the same school psychologists and found that al-though more than half had used interpreters, only 37% of the interpreters had received any formal training. ...
We review empirical research on English language learners (ELLs) who struggle with reading and who may have learning disabilities (LD). We sought to determine research indicators that can help us better differentiate between ELLs who struggle to acquire literacy because of their limited proficiency in English and ELLs who have actual LD. We conclude that more research is warranted to further elucidate the strengths and learning needs of subgroups of underachieving ELLs, to help us determine who should qualify for special education, and to clarify why some ELLs who do not have LD still struggle with language and literacy acquisition. Future research should account for the complexities involved in becoming literate in another language and focus more on cultural and contextual factors that affect student achievement.
... Research involving surveys of U.S. school psychologists having previously conducted bilingual psycho-educational assessments found multiple factors overlooked by psychologists in their evaluations. These included considering the students' native language, the time provided in English instruction at the time of testing, failure to determine whether a discrepancy existed between students' cognitive performance and academic achievement in both the primary and second languages (Ochoa, Rivera, & Powell, 1997), and involving untrained interpreters for bilingual psycho-evaluations if at all (Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Piña, 1996). ...
This chapter focuses on research describing disability students while presenting effective instructional practices for children who experience significant challenges in learning to read in an additional language. Moreover, this research work focuses on learners from different age groups who are learning and developing in often drastically different contexts. Effective teachers in today's schools must adopt culturally appropriate, evidence-based practices that are known to work with a diverse range of students. The chapter reviews the limited but growing research base that provides important guidance for teaching additional language learners (ALLs) at risk for or who have disabilities, particularly in the area of reading instruction. The chapter addresses a number of questions related to second-language and literacy development in young children. It also reviews literature related to language and literacy development, presenting available empirical and international work in general literacy development of ALL students.
... However, the question begs to be asked, is this the best tool to be using when measuring the intelligence of American Indian children? There is evidence that the Wechsler scales may not be the best assessment tool for culturally-different children (Flanagan & Miranda, 1995;Lopez, 1997;McLellan & Walton, 1996;Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996) and may include item bias for American Indian children (Mishra, 1982). ...
The devastating impact of substance abuse on American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) is reviewed with an emphasis on psychological and physical effects. Co-morbidity of substance abuse, trans-generational trauma, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and depression among AI/ANs is also discussed since each condition may cause, impact, and/or exacerbate the others. The Medicine Wheel, one respected and accepted treatment approach developed by AI/AN communities, is described in detail since it helps address all of the co-morbid issues discussed. Language: en
... To address these urgent needs, a number of nonverbal measures of cognitive ability have recently been developed, including the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT; Bracken & McCallum, 1998), the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; Naglieri, 1996), the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R; Roid & Miller, 1997), the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-Third Edition (TONI-III; Brown, Sherbenou, & Johnsen, 1997), the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2003), and the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI; Hammill, Pearson, & Wiederholt, 1996). Despite the fact that these and other nonverbal tests of cognitive ability are among the most frequently used instruments with bilingual and limited-English-proficient students (Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996), research on their validity has been minimal. Further This study examined the construct validity of the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI) in two separate investigations. ...
This study examined the construct validity of the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI) in two separate investigations. The first study examined criterionrelated evidence of validity across racial/ethnic groups on the CTONI and the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Tests of Achievement (3rd edition). The second study examined the comparability of the standard and computerized forms of the CTONI. Results of the first study revealed that the CTONI overall score did not correlate significantly with reading achievement and correlated moderately with math achievement. The CTONI also showed significant racial/ethnic group differences, despite the absence of these differences on achievement. Results of the second study revealed that average scores on the standard form of the CTONI were significantly higher statistically than those on the computerized form. Correlations between raw scores on the computerized form of the CTONI and age were statistically significant, although generally low. In sum, results of this research raise concerns and questions about the validity of the CTONI. The CTONI should be used with caution, if at all, until further research is conducted.
... The rapid increase in the Hispanic population in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001) has resulted in a greater need for appropriate mental health services, especially for those who require services in Spanish. Yet few mental health professionals have professional training and linguistic proficiency to competently provide services to clients who are Spanish dominant or bilingual (Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Piña, 1996;U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2001) as required by professional and governmental guidelines (American Psychological Association, 1993;U.S. ...
The rapid rise of the Spanish-speaking population in the United States has resulted in an increased demand for Spanish language mental health services. Yet little is known about the training needs of practitioners who provide those services. This qualitative study used in-depth telephone interviews to examine the experiences of 13 Spanish–English bilingual therapists, both native Spanish speakers and heritage speakers of Spanish, in their personal and professional language development and use. The phenomenological analysis highlighted the complexities of living in 2 worlds and providing psychological services in 2 languages. Participants reported that they often felt isolated and disconnected as they struggled to learn and use the 2 languages in their personal and professional lives. While the participants took pride in having the skills of speaking 2 languages and serving a community that is in need, all were aware of their limitations when working bilingually, as they had not received training to do so. Translating their own thoughts during the session, using technical vocabulary, and understanding the variations of Spanish were particularly challenging for the participants who were heritage speakers.
... There is evidence that the Wechsler scales may not be www.ce-Credit.com-Helping Professionals Help Others the best assessment tool for culturally-different children (Flanagan & Miranda, 1995;Lopez, 1997;McLellan & Walton, 1996;Ochoa, Powell, & Robles-Pina, 1996) and may include item bias for American Indian children (Mishra, 1982). ...
Of all Indian Health Service areas, the Aberdeen Area has consistently had the highest infant mortality rate. Among some tribes in this area the rate has exceeded 30/ 1000 live birth and half the infant deaths have been attributed to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome,a rate four to five times higher than the national average. The Indian Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the Aberdeen Area Tribal Chairmen's Health Board collaborated to investigate these high rates with the goals of refining the ascertainment of the causes of death, improving cause-specific infant mortality rates and identifying factors contributing to the high rates. Ten of the 19 tribes or tribal communities, representing 66%of the area population, participated in a 4-year prospective case-control study of infants who died after discharge from the hospital. Infant care practices and socio-demographic, economic, medical, health care, and environmental factors were examined. The study included parental interviews, death scene investigations, autopsies, neuropathology studies, medical chart abstractions, blood cotinine assays, and a surveillance system for infant deaths. Controls were the previous and subsequent infants born on the case mother's reservation. From December 1,1992 until November 30,1996,72 infant deaths were investigated. This report describes the study methods and the model employed for involving the community and multiple agencies to study the problem of infant mortality among Northern Plains Indians. Data gathered during the investigations are being analyzed and will be published at a later date.
... The majority of survey items were adapted from instruments used in five similar studies: Beck (1995); Kritikos (2003); Mattes (1982); Ochoa, Powell, and Robles-Pina, (1996); and Wilson, Blackmon, Hall, and Eicholtz (1991). Additional items that were specific to the purpose of this study were also included. ...
Purpose
This study was designed to investigate the frequency with which school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) used recommended practices when assessing the language skills of bilingual students. The study also investigated the frequency with which SLPs used formal, standardized tests versus informal, alternative procedures with this population.
Method
A total of 596 surveys were mailed out to school-based SLPs in the state of Michigan who were members of the Michigan Speech, Language, and Hearing Association (MSHA) during the 2003–2004 academic year. Of the 409 usable surveys that were returned, 130 respondents indicated being involved in assessing bilingual children and comprised the sample used in this study.
Results
Results indicated that SLPs used formal, standardized English tests more frequently than informal assessment procedures when assessing bilingual students. Further in-depth analyses of SLPs' responses indicated that neither factors related to their years of experience or factors related to their academic preparation were significantly related to their use of recommended assessment practices. However, significant differences in use were noted based on respondents' employment settings.
Clinical Implications
This study underscores the need for academic training programs and professional organizations to intentionally disseminate information regarding the expediency of alternative testing procedures. Implications for the adequate nonbiased assessment of bilingual children are discussed.
Despite the increasing number of Limited English Proficient (LEP) students in the United States, few studies have examined how school psychologists deal with assessments of LEP students. In the current study, we surveyed 97 school psychologists in a rural Midwestern state (Kansas) regarding a number of issues related to assessment of LEP students. While about half of the sample (49%) reported conducting an assessment with an LEP student during the past year, only 6% reported speaking another language frequently. Few respondents reported that a bilingual psychologist was available for consultation. We also examined usage of interpreters, graduate training in LEP assessment, and the actual activities in which interpreters engaged during the assessment process.
As the diversity of the school-age population in Canada continues to increase, it is important for school psychologists to consider the potential influence of culture and language when assessing the cognitive abilities of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The purpose of this study is to examine the linguistic demand of the oral subtest directions for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and Fifth Edition (WISC-V). Text-based statistics were extracted from the WISC-IV and WISC-V subtests to generate three composite scores: verbosity, complexity, and total demand. Results suggest that the oral directions of the WISC-IV subtests Block Design, Letter–number Sequencing, Cancellation, and Comprehension demonstrate relatively high linguistic demand. The oral subtest directions of the WISC-V subtests Picture Span, Visual Puzzles, and Figure Weights demonstrate relatively high linguistic demand. These findings suggest that the linguistic demand of oral directions should be taken into consideration when selecting and interpreting some subtests from both of these cognitive batteries.
This study examined critical components of the assessment procedures school psychologists use when conducting evaluations for emotional disturbance with students who are English language learners (ELLs). A random sample of 1, 500 members of NASP from 12 states with high limited English proficient populations was surveyed. A total of 439 respondents (29.27%) returned the survey. Only 223 of the respondents indicated that they had assessed ELLs. The results indicate that school psychologists are assessing ELLs from many different language groups, Spanish being the most common language group assessed. A significant number of school psychologists used interpreters when assessing ELLs. The following assessment methods were employed by over 90% of the respondents: behavioral observation, child interview, teacher interview, and parent interview. These four methods were judged to be very helpful. The most frequently used measures included Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (75.8%), Draw-A-Person (71.7%), House-Tree-Person (58.4%), Kinetic Family Drawing (55.3%), and Generic Sentence Completion Forms (52.5%). The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (ARSMA), all BASC measures (PRS in English and Spanish, TRS, SRP, SDH, and SOS), Million, and Haak Sentence Completion obtained the highest mean ratings for level of helpfulness. Implications of results with respect to professional standards and recommended practices are discussed.
The number of students who are classified as English language learners (ELLs) is increasing within schools across the United States. Thus, it is important that school professionals have access to information regarding research-based assessment, prevention, and intervention practices that reflect the appropriate provision of services to this population. This study examined peer-reviewed articles published between 1995 and 2005 to explore the extent to which issues related to ELL students are examined in school psychology journals as compared to professional counseling, special education, and speech-language journals. Results revealed that each of the journals examined are publishing articles related to ELL students. The number and percentage of articles addressing issues related to ELL students in school psychology is relatively small (n = 113; 6.5%). Furthermore, the majority of the school psychology ELL articles had an incidental focus on ELL issues, and over 50% of these focused on assessment or eligibility issues.
National demographics clearly demonstrate that children from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds are on the rise. Many regions in the United States are experiencing unprecedented growth in English language learner (ELL) populations without adequately trained personnel to serve this unique population. Unfortunately, the demographic makeup of school psychologists has not kept up. There is a documented shortage of bilingual school psychologists. This shortage has created a gap in service delivery for children and families that are not native English speakers. With the increased demand in bilingual school psychology service delivery, challenges in training standards, recruitment, definitions in bilingualism, and certification/licensing have become evident. Although scholarship and research are limited, this article reviews the literature on bilingual school psychology, implications for practice, and highlights the challenges and opportunities in solidifying this unique specialty.
Eighty-three students enrolled in general education classrooms and 62 Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs) enrolled in bilingual educa-tion classrooms were assessed in reading English three times a year using curriculum-based measurement. Fluency in Spanish passages was also assessed for Spanish-speaking ELLs in the bilingual education program. Results showed that Spanish-speaking ELLs read less fluently on English passages than general education students across grades and across testing periods. When general edu-cation students reading in English and Spanish-speaking ELLs reading in Spanish were compared, general education students read more fluently in English than Spanish-speaking ELLs did in Spanish. In addition, general education students made more gains over time in reading English than Span ish-speaking ELLs reading in Spanish. The.se findings suggest that curriculum-based mea.surement can be a viable methodology for evaluating the rate of progress of Spanish-speaking ELLs in bilingual education programs. In addition, the study points to the need for more research to determine the expected rates of gain in reading among Spanish-speaking ELLs in both English and their native language. The tiumber of students enrolled in pub-Latin American countries (Latino or Hispanic) lie schools whose native language is other than in particular are one of the fastest growing English has increased dramatically over the foreign-bom groups in our schools. It is esli-past few years. It is estimated that the foreign-mated that 78% of Etiglish language leamers bom population of the United States (ELLs) in Grades K-12 speak Spanish (Ma-reached 31.1 million in 2000 (U.S. Census cias, 2000). Bureau. 2000), a 57% increase over the figure The dramatic increase of ELLs in U.S. reported in 1990. Children in families from schools has led to increasing interest in suc-The authors acknowledge Dr. Sally LaRue and Dr. Nancy Schultz for their valuable contributions to this study.
This study examined critical components of the assessment procedures school psychologists use when conducting evaluations for emotional disturbance with students who are English language learners (ELLs). A random sample of 1,500 members of NASP from 12 states with high limited English proficient populations was surveyed. A total of 439 respondents (29.27%) returned the survey. Only 223 of the respondents indicated that they had assessed ELLs. The results indicate that school psychologists are assessing ELLs from many different language groups, Spanish being the most common language group assessed. A significant number of school psychologists used interpreters when assessing ELLs. The following assessment methods were employed by over 90% of the respondents: behavioral observation, child interview, teacher interview, and parent interview. These four methods were judged to be very helpful. The most frequently used measures included Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (75.8%), Draw-A-Person (71.7%), House-Tree-Person (58.4%), Kinetic Family Drawing (55.3%), and Generic Sentence Completion Forms (52.5%). The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (ARSMA), all BASC measures (PRS in English and Spanish, TRS, SRP, SDH, and SOS), Million, and Haak Sentence Completion obtained the highest mean ratings for level of helpfulness. Implications of results with respect to professional standards and recommended practices are discussed.
This study used a mail survey to gather information from 409 school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in the state of Michigan regarding the types of language assessment procedures they employed when assessing children's language skills. Descriptive data regarding respondents' demographic, caseload, and employment characteristics were also obtained. Results indicated that respondents were a homogenous group with homogenous assessment practices. Although respondents used both formal and informal procedures when assessing English-speaking children's skills, informal procedures were used more frequently. With regard to informal procedures, almost all responding SLPs (98%) reported frequently using parent—teacher interviews as an assessment procedure. Among formal, standardized procedures, the Clinical Evaluation of Language Functions was used frequently by the highest proportion of respondents (79%). Implications regarding SLPs' conformity to the American Speech-Language Hearing Association's recommended guidelines for unbiased language assessment are discussed.
The Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) scores of 47 English- and 47 Spanish-speaking students were analyzed, and the effects of English language ability on these scores were examined. Leiter-R validity was supported for both language groups. WISC-III validity was supported for English speakers but contained substantial construct irrelevant variance for Spanish speakers as a function of English proficiency as measured by the Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised Oral Language Scale (OLS). The WISC-III appeared to measure intelligence validly for Spanish speakers scoring ≥ 90 on the OLS but seemed to reflect linguistic ability for Spanish speakers scoring < 90. Because of similarities between the WISCIII and the newer WISC-IV index scores, the OLS criterion of ≥ 90 is suggested as a reasonable guideline for valid administration of the WISC-IV to Spanish speakers.
Examined data regarding the methods of preparation used by school psychology programs in the area of cognitive assessment and compared current preparation practices to those reported in a 1986 study (T. D. Oakland and S. A. Zimmerman, 1986). 97 instructors of a course on individual cognitive assessment completed surveys that sampled 4 general areas: instructor and program demographics, course format and structure, course content, and infant and preschool cognitive assessment instruction. Comparisons to the 1986 data indicate that although some changes have occurred, many characteristics of the course remain the same. Thus, it is concluded that school psychology programs are not preparing students in light of recent developments in cognitive theory, test development, and professional guidelines. It is suggested that this information can assist persons responsible for program development to review and modify the course as well as to acquire needed resources for it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Equitable cognitive assessment of Hispanic children rests primarily on a thorough understanding of the manner in which test performance is affected by acculturation and language proficiency. Although current tests are psychometrically sophisticated, their use with Hispanic children is plagued by assumptions that have a discriminatory impact. Bias is a function of differences in experience between an individual and the norm group. By virtue of their emerging bilingualism and blended cultural backgrounds, Hispanic children are generally not represented adequately by any existing norm sample. By classifying tests according to degree of cultural loading and linguistic demand, a defensible and systematic approach to reducing bias in test selection and test interpretation can be achieved. Use of cultural and linguistic test classifications places a viable and practical method for reducing the discriminatory aspects of standardized tests in the assessment of Hispanic children within easy reach of most professionals.
This article examines current psychometric and testing practices that appear to do a limited job of assessing the intelligence of American Indian individuals. For several reasons, contemporary approaches are found to be inadequate. Unfortunately, these practices are then employed in making educational decisions and placing these same children into Special Education programs. Alternative methods of testing, including the Gf-Gc Cross-Battery Approach, are discussed and evaluated in terms of usefulness in the evaluation of American Indian children and adolescents. The cross-battery method of testing was found to provide more in-depth procedures for bypassing both language and cultural differences among American Indian individuals.
Limited information is currently available about performance of Spanish-speaking children on different neuropsychological tests. This study was designed to (a) analyze the effects of age and sex on different neuropsychological test scores of a randomly selected sample of Spanish-speaking children, (b) analyze the value of neuropsychological test scores for predicting school performance, and (c) describe the neuropsychological profile of Spanish-speaking children with learning disabilities (LD). Two hundred ninety (141 boys, 149 girls) 6- to 11-year-old children were selected from a school in Bogotá, Colombia. Three age groups were distinguished: 6- to 7-, 8- to 9-, and 10- to 11-year-olds. Performance was measured utilizing the following neuropsychological tests: Seashore Rhythm Test, Finger Tapping Test (FTT), Grooved Pegboard Test, Children's Category Test (CCT), California Verbal Learning Test-Children's Version (CVLT-C), Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and Bateria Woodcock Psicoeducativa en Español (Woodcock, 1982). Normative scores were calculated. Age effect was significant for most of the test scores. A significant sex effect was observed for 3 test scores. Intercorrelations were performed between neuropsychological test scores and academic areas (science, mathematics, Spanish, social studies, and music). In a post hoc analysis, children presenting very low scores on the reading, writing, and arithmetic achievement scales of the Woodcock battery were identified in the sample, and their neuropsychological test scores were compared with a matched normal group. Finally, a comparison was made between Colombian and American norms.
Approximately 25 years ago, Lloyd Dunn (1968) and Evelyn Deno (1970) provided us with analyses regarding the problems and pitfalls of special education. One of the primary areas of focus was the overrepresentation of minority and low-income students in programs for students with mild mental retardation. Unfortunately, this problem continues to hover over us today and has extended to other special education categories. Based on our analysis of the problem then and now, we extend the recommendations provided by advocates, educators, researchers, and policymakers.
Administered the National School Psychology Questionnaire, which was developed for the present study, to a nationwide, random sample of 877 school psychologists. The measure was designed to assess demographic characteristics, actual and desired activities, and actual and desired amount of time spent with various student groups. Results indicate that the majority of time was spent in assessment (54%), followed by intervention (23%), consultation (19%), and research (1%). A reduction in assessment and increases in intervention, consultation, and research were desired. Ss devoted 84% of their time to exceptional students, whereas they wanted to spend more time with the general school population and less time with learning disabled and mentally retarded students. A regional analysis indicated a more clinical approach to school psychology in the northeastern US and a more assessment-oriented approach in the Southeast. Ss in schools with a student ratio of less than 1:1,500 devoted more time to intervention and less time to assessment than did Ss in schools where the student-to-psychologist ratio was higher. It is noted that, despite the documented desire by school psychologists to alter their roles and functions, few changes in recent practices have occurred. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A national survey of 274 school psychologists is utilized to evaluate both the current status of psychological assessment in the schools and the most frequently used instruments in 8 different assessment areas—intelligence, achievement (general and specific), perceptual functioning, personality, behavior rating, preschool evaluation, and vocational interest. Implications for training and practice are discussed. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a university 66-credit professional diploma sequence that includes 1 yr of internship experience for the training of school psychologists to work with bilingual/bicultural populations. Competence for working with these populations involves 3 general areas: language, cross-cultural expertise, and assessment. An integrated curriculum and faculty offers linguistics, cultural-urban studies, and bilingual education courses in addition to the core courses in professional school psychology. Bilingual students and faculty have been recruited. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research and discussion has focused upon the role definition of school psychology by a multiplicity of role definers, discrepancies between actual and desired roles, and job satisfaction. Consistently, the findings have indicated a preference by school psychologists to modify their present role definition. This study investigates the process of role definition, attempting to identify factors perceived as important to that process and suggesting areas for further research. A questionnaire format was used to gather data from 165 school psychologists, sampled from the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) membership, 92 school superintendents, and 43 state education departments. The results indicate that school psychologists do play a significant part in defining the role, and selected environmental factors studied had little relationship to the role defined. Major resources of influence are delineated as defined by administrators, state consultants and school psychologists. Intervention strategies for modifying the role are discussed.
Six recently developed adaptive behavior scales were reviewed for their technical adequacy and other issues that need to be considered when selecting a measure of adaptive behavior. Suggestions are made to aid examiners in selecting an appropriate measure of adaptive behavior for a particular student, accurately interpreting results, recognizing the strengths and limitations of various measures, and obtaining useful information for eligibility decisions and program planning.
Jim Cummins presents a theoretical framework for analyzing minority students' school failure and the relative lack of success of previous attempts at educational reform, such as compensatory education and bilingual education. The author suggests that these attempts have been unsuccessful because they have not altered significantly the relationships between educators and minority students and between schools and minority communities. He offers ways in which educators can change these relationships, thereby promoting the empowerment of students which can lead them to succeed in school.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the racial composition of mental retardation (MR), speech impairment (SPEECH), serious emotional disturbance (SED), and specific learning disability (SLD) classes in California during 1981. The basic unit of analysis was 96 Special Education Local Planning Areas (SELPAs) representing all school districts in the state. Using the criteria established by the court in the Diana and Larry P. cases, findings indicate that Hispanic students continue to be overrepresented in approximately one fourth of the SELPAs in MR, SPEECH, and SLD programs. Black students are overrepresented in MR and SPEECH programs in approximately one-fourth of the SELPAs, but in nearly two-thirds of the SELPAs in SLD programs. Minority students are overrepresented in SLD programs more frequently than in other program types.
The author discusses topics related to the evaluation of bilingual education programs. He surveys the results of seven major bilingual education evaluations and presents their diverse findings. He argues that such research cannot answer the question of whether bilingual education necessarily or even probably works. To demonstrate the potentials and possibilities for bilingual education, he describes a "bilingual immersion" program in which both language-majority and language-minority students learn each others’ language while continuing to develop their own.
A random sample of members of the National Association of School Psychologists was surveyed to examine the assessment activity of practicing school psychologists. Test-usage estimates and importance ratings for well-established standardized instruments, newly revised or released instruments, and informal procedures such as interview and curriculum-based assessment were examined. Estimates of time involved in various service delivery activities also were obtained. Results indicated that assessment activities still account for about 50% of the practice hours of school psychologists, followed by consultation (20%) and treatment (19%). School psychologists reported frequent use of intellectual, behavior-social-emotional, achievement, and perceptual assessment methods, but were less likely to be involved in vocational or preschool assessment. Familiar instruments, such as the Wechsler scales, the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-educational Battery-Revised, the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, the Bender-Visual Motor Gestalt, the Beery Developmental Test of Motor Integration, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, were the most used tests. However, in the social-emotional domain, direct assessment methods, such as interview and observation, were more frequently used and rated as more important than standardized measures. These results, and the limitations of the study, are discussed.
In recent years, a great deal of research concerning adaptive behavior scales has been conducted. This article reviews adaptive behavior research in the following areas: the relationship between adaptive behavior and intelligence and school achievement, the relationship between different measures of adaptive behavior, predictive aspects, declassification, group differences in adaptive behavior, the relationship between parents' and teachers' ratings, factorial dimensions, the effects of training and intervention, and stability and interrater reliability.
When culturally different children are referred for suspected emotional/behavioral disorders, their native cultural customs and beliefs must be considered.
Since their introduction in America, the theory and techniques of Feuerstein's Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) and the related Instrumental Enrichment (IE) program have enjoyed substantial popularity among some educators. In our view, the reasons for this popularity are based more on philosophical considerations than on technical adequacy. In arguing this position, we critique Feuerstein's theory on semantic, logical, and empirical grounds. It is concluded that evidence casting Feuerstein's approach to dynamic assessment as a serious competitor to “traditional” assessment is not compelling.
Based on Texas Education Agency data, the study examined the incidence of handicapped Hispanics with systematic implications for manpower planning. Incidence figures are analyzed in terms of trends from 1974-1979 in special education services to Hispanics, demographics, variables affecting service incidence (policy/law, litigation, lack of assessment personnel, inadequate procedures, lack of bilingual personnel, bilingual education, increased awareness, and manpower needs). Noted among findings are that large percentages of emotionally disturbed, auditorially handicapped, and visually handicapped students are not receiving services; there has been a decrease in level of services to Hispanics who are mentally retarded or speech handicapped; the 1980 census showed Hispanics to be the fastest growing language minority in this country; and there has been an increase in litigation and a growing trend toward malpractice suits directed at individuals participating in identification, placement, and teaching processes resulting in real damages to minority children. A five step plan for determining manpower needs is outlined and applied to project manpower needs for exceptional Hispanic students. Tables with statistical data are provided. (SB)
This congressionally mandated study was directed to assess the relative effectiveness of using only-English or the non-English home language of the limited-English-proficient (LEP) child as the language of instruction to help the child acquire English language and content skills. Reflecting the objective of federally sponsored services to LEP students, the research question addressed by this study was: Which of three alternative instructional programs designed to meet the needs of Spanish- speaking LEP students helped them to "catch-up" to their English-speaking peers? The three programs included: Structured English-Immersion Strategy, Early-Exit, and Late-Exit Transitional Bilingual Programs. These programs differed in the amount of and the length of time that the LEP student's primary language was used for instruction. This longitudinal study followed over 2,000 elementary children for four years. The comprehensive data collection documented an array of child, family, classroom, teacher, school, district, and community information. The study concluded that providing LEP students with substantial instruction in their primary language does not interfere with or delay their acquisition of English language skills, but helps them to "catch-up" to their English-speaking peers in English language arts, English reading, and math. In contrast, providing LEP students with almost exclusive instruction in English does not accelerate their acquisition of English language arts, reading or math, i.e., they do not appear to be "catching-up." The data suggest that by grade six, students provided with English-only instruction may actually fall further behind their English-speaking peers. Data also document that learning a second language will take six or more years. The results revealed the need to improve the training of teachers assigned to work with limited-English-proficient students so that they can provide a more
Discusses the psychoeducational assessment of Hispanic youngsters with limited English proficiency in American schools. Caveats in the assessment process related to the timing of the referral for evaluation, prereferral interventions, alingualism vs bilingualism, verification of birthdates, Spanish translations of English tests, the use of interpreters, provision of information regarding the assessment process in the native language of the home, and the educational history of the student are noted. Strategies for the evaluation of background data, language functioning, intellectual functioning, academic functioning, and adaptive behavior functioning are presented. Emphasis is placed on the use of nonverbal measures of intelligence and the importance of language and academic evaluations in both English and Spanish in order to obtain comparative data. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
389 members of the National Association of School Psychologists completed a mailed descriptive survey regarding how frequently they used instruments in 9 assessment areas. The survey used by D. S. Goh et al (see record
1982-13152-001) was modified for use in the current study, and current results were compared to those of Goh et al. Ss reported spending more than half their time in assessment activities, suggesting that the call for a deemphasis on assessment remains unheeded. The reported usage of intelligence tests has lessened, while the use of achievement tests has increased. Also, Ss report using behavior rating and adaptive behavior measures to a greater extent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines the issue of whether individual intelligence tests such as the WISC-R are biased against Hispanic school-aged children. Three common but faulty notions of test bias are discussed, and a psychometric definition of bias is advanced. Evidence regarding external and internal validity is analyzed. Guidelines for the intellectual assessment of bilingual students are presented along with a discussion of possible language bias. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Children with limited-English-proficiency (LEP) and special education needs will be more numerous in the public schools of certain states. This article presents a set of competencies that are relevant to the practice of school psychology with LEP special pupils. Although the focus is on Hispanic children, the competencies apply to bilingual special education in general. They cover the following areas: second-language proficiency of the psychologist, cross-cultural awareness, assessment, knowledge of language development, skill in working with interpreters, and knowledge of bilingual education curriculum.
This article discusses current psychological and educational assessment practices used with elementary school limited-English-proficiency (LEP) children, as revealed by a nationwide study of 21 local education agencies (LEAs) that had LEP handicapped children mainstreamed in bilingual education classrooms. Data were obtatained through telephone and personal interviews of bilingual and special education directors, inspection of documents, and site visits. The testing approaches most frequently used with LEP students were the common culture approach (which relies on nonverbal measures) and translated tests. In many of the LEAs, translations were done while testing was in progress. An average of 12 psychological, language, and educational tests were used with each LEP child. The assessment instruments used were not normed on LEP populations. Only a third of the LEAs studied were incorporating multicultural pluralistic approaches in their assessment procedures. The professionals involved in the assessment of LEP children were the same as those used for English-speaking children except that they were bilingual. Most of the LEAs reported serious shortages in bilingual assessment personnel. LEAs have tried to cope with this problem in various ways, including the use of trained or untrained interpreters, the use of central teams or contracted professionals, and the use of nonverbal tests administered by nonbilingual personnel. However, many children remain to be assessed, and LEAs have been forced to establish priorities.
This study reports the results of an investigation of the assessment views and practices of school psychologists in the United States. Results of the investigation indicated that respondents are predominantly behavioral and cognitive behavioral in orientation; spend most of their professional time in the public schools; and engage in a great deal of assessment. Behavioral assessment and projective testing occupies the greatest amount of their social-emotional assessment time. Behavioral interviewing is the most used behavioral technique, followed by behavioral observation, which is reportedly used by approximately one third of the respondents with from 41% to 100% of clients. Although most of the respondents report a preference for continuing to do approximately the same amount of the various social-emotional assessment activities as they are presently doing, very high percentages of respondents indicate that their use of behavioral assessment strategies would increase with development of published instrumentation, normative standards, and standardized out-of-setting behavioral procedures.
Among school psychologists serving a national, systematic sample of public schools, 47% reported compliance with Section 4 of the learning disabilities exclusionary clause, 38% reported purposeful noncompliance, and 10% reported inconsistent compliance. Those who attempt compliance consider a variety of factors in their decisions, but few pupils are actually excluded.
This study was a preliminary investigation of gender, socioeconomic status, and racial bias in curriculum-based measurement reading probes using students from an inner city, Chapter 1 elementary school. The reading probes involved brief 1-min. reading samples of middle-of-grade reading passages from Grade 1 through 4 as drawn from the reading texts used in the participating students' own classrooms. Analysis indicated that, except for socioeconomic status and gender differences in Grade 1, there were no gender, socioeconomic status, or racial biases across the four grades assessed. These results were discussed in the context of research on bias.
Language and learning: Educating linguistically diverse students (pp. xiii-xxii)
- B Mcleod