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Rilevazione statistica della diffusione e della conoscenza di sostanze dopanti, integratori e dell' Exercise Addiction
Abstract
I benefici derivanti dalla pratica dell'esercizio fisico sono stati ampiamente documentati. Tuttavia, l'eccessivo ricorso alla attività fisica può condurre alla messa in atto di pattern compulsivi di allenamento che possono evolversi in una vera e propria patologia: l' exercise addiction. Studi recenti suggeriscono l'espansione di due fenomeni: il doping amatoriale e l'abuso di integratori per lo sport. Sono stati somministrati 686 test. I partecipanti allo studio sono stati scelti tra studenti di scuola media superiore, studenti universitari e frequentatori di ambienti sportivi. Il 42,5% degli intervistati dichiara di assumere sostanze per migliorare le prestazioni sportive e quindi di doparsi. Il 30,23% assume integratori. Una percentuale compresa tra il 35 e l'88,35 % dichiara di non conoscere le sostanze proposte.Il 15,8% dei rispondenti è a " rischio " di exercise addiction, il 71,7% è classificato come " sintomatico ". E' stata infine indagata quale possibile correlazione potesse esserci tra le variabili in esame. La statistica test X 2 evidenzia che non vi è alcuna associazione , in altre parole non sembra esserci relazione tra il rischio di dipendenza dall' esercizio fisico e l'assunzione di sostanze. L'analisi dei dati raccolti suggerisce invece che vi sia un'espansione del fenomeno del doping in ambiente amatoriale e che vi sia una scriteriata e incongrua assunzione di integratori per lo sport. La presente ricerca suggerisce che occorre compiere interventi immediati sia a livello di informazione che di prevenzione , in cui al farmacista sia affidato un ruolo di primo piano. Parole chiave: doping amatoriale, abuso integratori , exercise addiction. Statistical dissemination and knowledge of performance-enhancing drugs, supplements and exercise Addiction The consequential benefits from the practice of the physical exercise have broadly been documented. Nevertheless, the excessive appeal to the physical activity can conduct to the mass in action of compulsive pattern of training that can evolve in a real pathology: the exercise addiction. Recent studies suggests the expansion of two phenomena: the amateur doping and the abuse of integrators for the sport. 686 tests have been administered. The participants to the study have been select among students of senior high school, university students and frequenters of sporting environments. 42,5% of the interviewed declares to assume substances to improve the sporting performances ; 30,23% assumes integrating. An inclusive percentage between 35 and the 88 ,35% declare not to know the proposed substances.The 15,8% are in risk of exercise addiction, 71,7% are classified as "symptomatic." We finally investigates what possible correlation there could be among the variables in examination. The statistic X2 test underlines that there is no association, in other words it doesn't seem to be us relationship among the risk of dependence ' physical exercise and the assumption of substances. The analysis of the picked data suggests instead that there an expansion of the phenomenon of the doping in amateur environment and that there am a scatterbrained and incongruous assumption of integrators for the sport. The present search suggests that it is necessary to complete immediate interventions both to level of information and of prevention, in which a role of first floor is submitted to the chemist
... Furthermore, the cross-cultural evaluations of the EAI have shown evidence of configural and metric invariance across six samples from five different countries (Spain, UK, USA, Denmark, and Hungary) and for males and females, but scalar invariance was not supported . In Italy, some translations of the EAI have been used (e.g., Gori et al., 2021b;Granziol et al., 2021) but many of these did not report its psychometric properties (e.g., Bruno et al., 2014;di Nicola et al., 2010;Venturella et al., 2015). ...
Exercise addiction is characterized by morbid pattern of behavior which may have negative psychological consequences, seriously compromising the lives of those affected. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) is one of the most used psychometric instruments for assessing the risk of exercise addiction and has been translated into a number of languages. However, it has never been psychometrically validated in Italian. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to test the psychometric properties of the EAI among Italian-speaking exercisers. The back-translation process was utilized to develop an Italian version of the EAI. A cross-sectional online survey was used to recruit a sample of 331 Italian regular exercisers (Mage = 30.64 years, SD = 12.10). The participants completed the Italian EAI, alongside a battery of other self-report psychometric scales used to assess some aspects of the concurrent validity of the EAI. The one-factor structure of the EAI was confirmed, which also showed good internal consistency and a satisfactory construct validity in the Italian version. No gender differences were found for the risk of exercise addiction. The data obtained in this study provide some evidence suggesting that Italian Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) is a valid and reliable self-report scale that can be used to assess the risk of exercise addiction among Italian-speaking individuals. The scale showed some psychometrically robust features, and is a quick and easy-to-use scale that can be used in different cultures and countries, including Italy.
... Per esempio, è stato riportato che il polline del pino scozzese, così come altri vegetali o semi, può contenere tracce di androstenedione, un pro-ormone androgeno, precursore del testosterone 15 . da uno studio di Venturella et al. è emerso, inoltre, che dietro al fenomeno dell'assunzione di integratori si può nascondere in realtà un vero e proprio fenomeno di doping 16 . Questo dato è stato confermato dalla wada, secondo la quale più del 20% degli integratori in commercio per gli sportivi possono contenere sostanze che non vengono dichiarate in etichetta ma che potrebbero comportare una positività ad un controllo antidoping 17 . ...
MiNerVa Medicolegale 57 amatoriali 1. Nonostante i messaggi pubblici-tari illusori, la maggior parte degli integratori, a eccezione di pochi specificamente sottopo-sti a studio, mancano di dati scientifici sia a conferma della loro efficacia che di informa-zioni per quanto riguarda eventuali effetti in-desiderati o interazioni con farmaci o alimenti. l'assunzione di singoli nutrienti sotto forma di integratori, in dosi massicce e per periodi c om'è noto un gran numero di atleti utiliz-zano integratori alimentari nella speranza di migliorare le prestazioni, ma soprattutto ne-gli ultimi 40 anni, con l'introduzione di steroidi anabolizzanti il ricorso all'utilizzo di integra-tori risulta essere nettamente aumentato. l'as-sunzione di queste sostanze non è circoscritta agli atleti professionisti, ma si riscontra anche nelle palestre tra i giovani che praticano sport A R T I C O L O O R I G I N A L E conoscenze e percezioni sull'utilizzo delle sostanze per l'aumento della performance: un survey negli utenti delle palestre a B S T r a c T KNowledge aNd PercePTioNS oN THe USe oF PerForMaNce-eNHaNciNg SUBSTaNceS: a SUrVey oF gyM goerS BacKgroUNd: The use of performance-enhancing substances is not limited to professional athletes but can also be found in gyms amongst young amateur sports people. There is very little evidence in favour of taking such substances, and there are certainly health-related risks. This study aims to investigate awareness of the risks associated with energy-enhancing substances. MeTHodS: This is a cross-sectional study made of a self-administered questionnaire handed out to amateur athletes in gyms and fitness centers in Naples and its province. RESULTS: 159 people took part in the study; 63.3% confirmed their use of various types of substance, including sports supplements and pharmaceutical products. we see the emergence of a clear pattern of beliefs in the positive effects of taking such substances. it was also possible to ascertain a good level of awareness of the risks associated with the taking of performance-enhancing substances. coNclUSioNS: Sportsmen who welcome the idea of improving their performance with " external assistance " is on the increase. a better understanding of the problems associated with the taking of ergogenic substances requires effective measures aimed at preventing abuse above all among young people, via educational campaigns which promote a healthy life style. (Cite this article as: de dominicis e, cammarano a, Schiattarella r, esposito Mr, Maurici M, Marella gl, et al. conoscenze e percezioni sull'utilizzo delle sostanze per l'aumento della performance: un survey negli utenti delle palestre. Minerva Medi-coleg 2017;137:57-64.
CONTENTS:
Introduction: Defi nition and Terminology 278
Primary and Secondary Exercise Addiction 278
Diagnosis and Risk Assessment of Exercise Addiction 280
The Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire (OEQ) 280
The Exercise Dependence Questionnaire (EDQ) 281
The Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS) 281
The Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) 281
Other Less Frequently Used Tools in the Assessment of Exercise
Addiction 282
A Note of Caution on the Interpretation of Scalar Tools 283
Theoretical Explanations for Exercise Addiction 284
The Sympathetic Arousal Hypothesis 284
The Cognitive Appraisal Hypothesis 284
The Four Phase Model 285
The Biopsychosocial Model 285
The Interleukin Six (IL- 6) Model 285
The Monoamine Model 286
The Endorphin Model 286
The Pragmatics, Attraction, Communication, Expectation
(PACE) Model 287
The Interactional Model of Exercise Addiction 287
Research Trends in Exercise Addiction 288
The Prevalence of Risk for Exercise Addiction 289
Co- Morbidities and Predisposing Factors in Exercise Addiction 293
Eating Disorders 293
Narcissism 296
Perfectionism 296
Self- Esteem 297
Neuroticism and Extroversion 298
Addiction or Psychological Escape? 300
Conclusions 301
References 302
The consumption of dietary protein is important for resistance-trained individuals. It has been posited that intakes of 1.4 to 2.0 g/kg/day are needed for physically active individuals. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of a very high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained men and women.
Thirty healthy resistance-trained individuals participated in this study (mean ± SD; age: 24.1 ± 5.6 yr; height: 171.4 ± 8.8 cm; weight: 73.3 ± 11.5 kg). Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: Control (CON) or high protein (HP). The CON group was instructed to maintain the same training and dietary habits over the course of the 8 week study. The HP group was instructed to consume 4.4 grams of protein per kg body weight daily. They were also instructed to maintain the same training and dietary habits (e.g. maintain the same fat and carbohydrate intake). Body composition (Bod Pod®), training volume (i.e. volume load), and food intake were determined at baseline and over the 8 week treatment period.
The HP group consumed significantly more protein and calories pre vs post (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the HP group consumed significantly more protein and calories than the CON (p < 0.05). The HP group consumed on average 307 ± 69 grams of protein compared to 138 ± 42 in the CON. When expressed per unit body weight, the HP group consumed 4.4 ± 0.8 g/kg/d of protein versus 1.8 ± 0.4 g/kg/d in the CON. There were no changes in training volume for either group. Moreover, there were no significant changes over time or between groups for body weight, fat mass, fat free mass, or percent body fat.
Consuming 5.5 times the recommended daily allowance of protein has no effect on body composition in resistance-trained individuals who otherwise maintain the same training regimen. This is the first interventional study to demonstrate that consuming a hypercaloric high protein diet does not result in an increase in body fat.
Reports of high levels of use of protein powders and nutritional supplements among young men is a concern because these substances may act as a gateway for the use of drugs and illegal substances to enhance appearance or sports performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between body dissatisfaction, weight change behaviors, supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among an adolescent male sample.
Participants were 1148 male adolescents (age range 11-21 years) in Australia who completed a self-report questionnaire that measured weight change behaviors, supplement use, body dissatisfaction (Male Body Attitudes Scale; MBAS) and attitudes towards doping in sport (Performance Enhancing Attitudes Survey; PEAS).
There was a positive correlation between MBAS total and PEAS scores (r = .19, p < .001), indicating that the young men who were more dissatisfied with their bodies were more likely to support the use of doping in sport. Young men who were currently attempting weight loss or weight gain, and those currently consuming energy drinks (etap2 = .01, p < .01) and vitamin/mineral supplements (etap2 = .01, p < .01) were also significantly more supportive of doping in sport. However, those involved in weight lifting, and using protein powders were not (p > .05).
These findings suggest that body dissatisfaction, weight change behaviors, and supplement use are related to more lenient attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys. Future research might examine whether combining educational content for the prevention of body dissatisfaction and the use of drugs in sport may have a greater preventive impact than current programs aimed at young men.
The aim of the current research was to compare the prevalence of self-reported symptoms of exercise addiction in sports sciences
students with those of the general exercising population. A total of 455 participants (261 sports science students; 194 controls)
completed the Exercise Addiction Inventory. Sport science students had significantly higher mean scores on the Exercise Addiction
Inventory than exercisers from the general population. It was also found that 6.9% (18 out of 261) sport science students
were possibly addicted to exercise compared to only 3.6% (7 out of 194) of the general exercising population, a result that
approached statistical significance (p = 0.09). These findings raise the possibility that sports science students may be more susceptible to some components of
exercise addiction than exercisers more generally.
The role of the cerebellar cortex in motor learning was investigated by comparing the paramedian lobule of adult rats given difficult acrobatic training to that of rats that had been given extensive physical exercise or had been inactive. The paramedian lobule is activated during limb movements used in both acrobatic training and physical exercise. Acrobatic animals had greater numbers of synapses per Purkinje cell than animals from the exercise or inactive groups. No significant difference in synapse number or size between the exercised and inactive groups was found. This indicates that motor learning required of the acrobatic animals, and not repetitive use of synapses during physical exercise, generates new synapses in cerebellar cortex. In contrast, exercise animals had a greater density of blood vessels in the molecular layer than did either the acrobatic or inactive animals, suggesting that increased synaptic activity elicited compensatory angiogenesis.
The present study investigated the enduring effects of postnatal handling (administered during the first 21 days of life), and environmental enrichment (for a period of 6 months starting 3 weeks after weaning) on spatial learning in 24-month-old hypoemotional (Roman high-avoidance, RHA/Verh) and hyperemotional (Roman low-avoidance, RLA/Verh) rats. Two groups of 5-month-old rats from both lines were also included in the experiment as young controls. The Roman lines performed differently in the Morris water maze: Path lengths of RLA/Verh rats were shorter and they swam at lower speed than RHA/Verh rats, showing quicker and more efficient learning overall. Postnatal handling improved learning mainly in RHA/Verh rats, whereas environmental enrichment was able to prevent the deficits shown by aged controls of both lines. Young, enriched, and handled plus enriched animals exhibited better performance than impaired aged controls, to the point that aged enriched and handled plus enriched animals did not differ from young controls. Thus, besides indicating that RLA/Verh rats are better learners than RHA/Verh rats in the Morris water maze, this study demonstrates that environmental enrichment prevents the cognitive loss associated with aging, over the long term. Finally, the positive effects obtained with postnatal handling were dependent on the rat line.
Running increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, a brain structure that is important for memory function. Consequently, spatial learning and long-term potentiation (LTP) were tested in groups of mice housed either with a running wheel (runners) or under standard conditions (controls). Mice were injected with bromodeoxyuridine to label dividing cells and trained in the Morris water maze. LTP was studied in the dentate gyrus and area CA1 in hippocampal slices from these mice. Running improved water maze performance, increased bromodeoxyuridine-positive cell numbers, and selectively enhanced dentate gyrus LTP. Our results indicate that physical activity can regulate hippocampal neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and learning.
Over the last decade adolescent males have been shown to use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) in order to improve their sports performance and appearance, as well as in combination with alcohol and psychotropic drugs. However, the risk profile of AAS use is still not well understood. This study analysed the importance of social, personality and health factors for the use of AAS.
More than 2,700 senior high school students in Uppsala, Sweden, filled out an anonymous closed-response questionnaire.
The findings from multiple logistic regression analyses of adolescent males (n = 1,353) showed that immigrant status, average/low self-esteem, average/low perceived school achievement and use of prescription tranquillisers/sedatives had independent significant associations with the use of AAS after controlling for age and previously known factors such as strength training, truancy and heavy alcohol consumption.
The characteristics of AAS users extend beyond activities such as strength training and multiple drug use to include social, personality and health aspects.
Extensive research on humans suggests that exercise could have benefits for overall health and cognitive function, particularly in later life. Recent studies using animal models have been directed towards understanding the neurobiological bases of these benefits. It is now clear that voluntary exercise can increase levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and other growth factors, stimulate neurogenesis, increase resistance to brain insult and improve learning and mental performance. Recently, high-density oligonucleotide microarray analysis has demonstrated that, in addition to increasing levels of BDNF, exercise mobilizes gene expression profiles that would be predicted to benefit brain plasticity processes. Thus, exercise could provide a simple means to maintain brain function and promote brain plasticity.
Exercise addiction is not routinely screened for probably because available instruments take a long time to administer, their scoring may be complicated, and their interpretation is not always obvious. A new psychometric instrument has been developed that is capable of identifying people affected by, or at risk of, exercise addiction: the exercise addiction inventory (EAI). A preliminary report showed the EAI had good reliability and validity.
To test further the EAI's psychometric properties and show that it would be quick and simple to administer by general practitioners.
A sample of 200 habitual exercisers were given the EAI and two existing exercise addiction scales (obligatory exercise questionnaire; exercise dependence scale). Two weeks later, another sample of 79 exercisers were administered the EAI to determine the test-retest reliability of the questionnaire.
The original data from the preliminary report were reanalysed to determine the split half correlation of the EAI. This was found to be 0.84 (Guttman split-half coefficient). A correlation between weekly frequency of exercising and EAI scores was also determined, and it was found that the two variables shared 29% of the variance (r2 = 0.29). The test-retest reliability of the scale was found to be very good (0.85).
The EAI is a valid and reliable tool which would be capable of helping general practitioners to quickly and easily identify people affected by, or at risk of, exercise addiction.
Exercise addiction is characterized by excessive exercise behavior with potential negative consequences. The symptoms consist of salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, conflicts, and relapse. The purpose of this study was to test the psychometric properties of the exercise addiction inventory (EAI) and to estimate the prevalence of exercise addiction in a Danish normal weight sport population. A sample of 780 habitual fitness and football exercisers were contacted and 590 completed the EAI and an in-house questionnaire containing questions about variables related to exercise addiction: (a) exercise frequency; (b) continuance despite injuries; and (c) personal perception of addiction. The results demonstrated an overall prevalence of exercise addiction of 5.8%. There was no significant difference between fitness and football prevalences. The internal reliability of EAI was acceptable with a Cronbach's α of 0.66. The criterion validity was tested toward the three variables related to exercise addiction. The dependent group had significantly higher scores on the three variables than the non-dependent group. Exercise addiction seems to exist in both fitness and football. The EAI is a useful screening tool and might be applicable in future screening and prevention of exercise addiction. However, further investigation about the population is needed to understand the phenomenon and to identify the risk group.
Data on doping among young non-professional athletes are scarce. In order to estimate the prevalence and predictors of doping
use, a standardized, anonymous questionnaire was self-administered by 2650 tertiary education students from five European
Union countries (Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy) and Israel. The reported usage rate of a doping agent (at least
once) was 2.6%, with no significant variation in the frequency of doping reporting among the participating countries. Doping
was, however, less common among students of biomedical schools (OR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.27–0.89) and was higher among males (OR:
2.16, 95% CI: 1.25–3.74). Students, who use to drink coffee or recall frequent occasions of involvement in drunkenness episodes,
were more likely (twice and three times, respectively) to report doping, and students using nutritional supplements or having
participated in a major athletic event were more likely (four times and twice, respectively) to report doping in comparison
with students who do not. Of note is the high odds ratio for reporting individual doping when having a friend who uses doping
(OR: 8.61, 95% CI: 4.49–16.53). Given the large size of the physically active young individuals in the population and the
small number of professional athletes, doping in the general population may be, in absolute terms, as sizeable problem as
it is among the professional athletes. There was evidence that high-risk behaviour and supplement use increased the risk of
doping.
To evaluate knowledge of, attitudes to, and use of illegal drugs and other forms of "doping" in sport 1015 Italian athletes and 216 coaches, doctors, and managers (technicians) were interviewed after selection on a quota basis. Overall, 30% of athletes, managers, and coaches and 21% of doctors indicated that athletic performance can be enhanced by drugs or other doping practices. Over 10% of athletes indicated a frequent use of amphetamines or anabolic steroids at national or international level, fewer athletes mentioning blood doping (7%) and beta-blockers (2%) or other classes of drugs. These proportions were 2-3 times higher for occasional use than for frequent use. Estimates by managers and coaches were much the same as those of athletes when allowance was made for larger random variation. 62% of athletes who acknowledged doping reported pressure to do so from coaches and managers. According to over 70% of athletes access to illegal substances was not difficult. Both athletes and technicians awarded higher scores to risk than to efficacy for any substance, although 42-67% of athletes and technicians regarded amphetamines and anabolic steroids as efficacious. 82% wanted stricter controls not only during competitions but also during training.
Preischemic spontaneous locomotor activity was distinguished in this laboratory as a factor influencing outcome after 15 and 20 minutes of forebrain ischemia in gerbils. Histological investigations were carried out to analyze potential relations between postischemic survival and a reduction of cerebral damage by spontaneous locomotor activity.
Male Mongolian gerbils were divided into two groups, one with access to running wheels ("runners") and one kept in conventional cages ("nonrunners") for 2 weeks preceding forebrain ischemia of 15 or 20 minutes. A total of 99 gerbils were divided in subgroups and were allowed to recover for 2 weeks for assessment of survival. Other subgroups (n = 7 to 9) were killed at day 4 for quantitative histology of selectively vulnerable areas such as hippocampus, cortex, striatum, and thalamus.
Two weeks after 15-minute ischemia, 44% of non-runners had survived compared with 90% of runners (P < .01). With 20-minute ischemia all runners survived compared with 21% of nonrunners. Quantitative histology (15-minute ischemia) revealed selective nerve cell injury in various cerebral regions in both groups. In runners, however, with the exception of the CA1 sector, damage was attenuated in cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Furthermore, the extent of thalamic infarction was reduced (P < .05).
Locomotor activity before global cerebral ischemia is highly efficient in protecting the brain as demonstrated by enhanced survival and a reduction of tissue damage in Mongolian gerbils. The mechanisms underlying this protection are currently unclear. However, further understanding of this intriguing phenomenon should enhance the understanding of ischemia pathophysiology and lead to the development of new treatment strategies.
A growing number of reports of anabolic-androgenic streroid (AS) use in Great Britain (GB) among non-competitive groups have emerged since the beginning of 1990s. A study was commissioned by the Departments of Health for England, Scotland and Wales, to explore the extent and uses of AS from the public health point of view. As a part of a wider investigation into AS use, 21 gymnasia in England, Scotland and Wales were surveyed by questionnaire. The response rate was 59%. We found that of the 1667 participants, 9.1% of the men and 2.3% of the women had taken AS at some time and 6% of the men and 1.4% of the women were current users. Considerable variation in the prevalence of use was found, ranging from no reports in three of the gymnasia, up to 46%. We also investigated patterns of AS use and perceived side-effects in a wide-ranging group of AS users (n = 110), who were recruited through social networks. In-depth interviews with the users revealed that the 97 men (27+/-7 years) and 13 women (25+/-5 years) had been using AS regularly for 2.05+/-1.7 years and 1.9+/-2 years, respectively. Seventy-two injected AS. While most injected themselves, 25% were mainly injected by their friend. Up to 16 different drugs were taken by interviewees during the present or last cycle. Polydrug use was common and dosage taken exceeded therapeutic recommendations. Sixteen interviewees did not report side-effects, while the majority reported two or more. Many of these were cosmetic. Of the 97 men interviewed, 56% reported testicular atrophy, 52% gynaecomastia, 36% elevated blood pressure, 56% fluid retention, 26% injuries to tendons, 22% nosebleeds and 16% more frequent colds. Six men reported problems with kidney function and five with liver function. Problems with sleep were reported by 37%. Of the 13 women interviewed, eight reported menstrual irregularities, eight fluid retention, four clitoral enlargement, three decreased breast size and two elevated blood pressure. Four reported sleeplessness.
Physical exercise ameliorates age-related neuronal loss and is currently recommended as a therapeutical aid in several neurodegenerative diseases. However, evidence is still lacking to firmly establish whether exercise constitutes a practical neuroprotective strategy. We now show that exercise provides a remarkable protection against brain insults of different etiology and anatomy. Laboratory rodents were submitted to treadmill running (1 km/d) either before or after neurotoxin insult of the hippocampus (domoic acid) or the brainstem (3-acetylpyridine) or along progression of inherited neurodegeneration affecting the cerebellum (Purkinje cell degeneration). In all cases, animals show recovery of behavioral performance compared with sedentary ones, i.e., intact spatial memory in hippocampal-injured mice, and normal or near to normal motor coordination in brainstem- and cerebellum-damaged animals. Furthermore, exercise blocked neuronal impairment or loss in all types of injuries. Because circulating insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), a potent neurotrophic hormone, mediates many of the effects of exercise on the brain, we determined whether neuroprotection by exercise is mediated by IGF-I. Indeed, subcutaneous administration of a blocking anti-IGF-I antibody to exercising animals to inhibit exercise-induced brain uptake of IGF-I abrogates the protective effects of exercise in all types of lesions; antibody-treated animals showed sedentary-like brain damage. These results indicate that exercise prevents and protects from brain damage through increased uptake of circulating IGF-I by the brain. The practice of physical exercise is thus strongly recommended as a preventive measure against neuronal demise. These findings also support the use of IGF-I as a therapeutical aid in brain diseases coursing with either acute or progressive neuronal death.
In this study, we assessed the longitudinal effects of social-cognitive mechanisms on the self-reported use of doping substances and supplements among Italian high school students. In total, 1232 students completed questionnaires measuring various psychological factors hypothesized to influence students' intention to use substances. Three months later, 762 of the students completed the same questionnaires a second time and also reported their use of substances during the time between assessments. Overall, the percentages of students using doping substances (2.1%) or supplements (14.4%) were consistent with values reported in the literature. Analysis of the data showed that adolescents' intention to use doping substances increased with stronger attitudes about doping, stronger beliefs that significant others would approve of their use, a stronger conviction that doping use can be justified, and a lowered capacity to resist situational pressure or personal desires. In turn, stronger intentions and moral disengagement contributed to a greater use of doping substances during the previous 3 months. Doping use was also correlated significantly to supplementation. In conclusion, our results provide novel information about some of the psychological processes possibly regulating adolescents' use of doping substances and supplements. The results also highlight possible areas for future study and intervention, focusing on the prevention of adolescents' substance use.