ArticlePDF Available

Abstract

Breast cancer is a global health concern and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among women. It has been identified as a major public health problem in both developed and developing nations because of its high incidence-prevalence, over-burdened health system and direct medical expenditure. Studies have shown that in most of the developing nations breast cancer is diagnosed in advanced stages of the disease when compared with developed nations and thus has a poor outcome and high fatality rate. This paper aims to check the effectiveness of breast self-examination in early detection of the breast cancer. In addition, it plans to consider all the factors which hampers with the uptake of the technique and what all could be planned to improve the current scenario. An extensive search of all materials related to the topic was made using library sources including Pubmed, Medline and google scholar searches. Keywords used in the search include breast self-examination, barriers in breast self- examination and breast cancer. Breast self-examination (BSE) has been identified as the only realistic approach in early detection of breast cancer in developing nations. A wide knowledge-application gap has been observed across the globe between the knowledge and the actual practice of BSE. Multiple socio-demographic factors, myths, cultural beliefs, lack of accessibility to the health care services have been identified as the reasons for the poor uptake of BSE. Considering the potential of BSE, there is an immense need for a public health education program to inculcate the practice of breast self-examination among women to minimize the fear, denial, myths and misconceptions. This requires a sustained political commitment and further studies to recognize the perceived barriers which are interfering with the uptake of BSE so that the greatest challenge of late presentation can be curbed and the chances of survival improved.
American Journal of Public Health Research, 2013, Vol. 1, No. 6, 135-139
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajphr/1/6/2
© Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/ajphr-1-6-2
Self Breast Examination: A Tool for Early Diagnosis of
Breast Cancer
Saurabh RamBihariLal Shrivastava*, Prateek Saurabh Shrivastava, Jegadeesh Ramasamy
Department of Community Medicine, Shri Sathya Sai Medical College & Research Institute, Kancheepuram, India
*Corresponding author: drshrishri2008@gmail.com
Received June 14, 2013; Revised June 20, 2013; Accepted June 22, 2013
Abstract Breast cancer is a global health concern and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among women.
It has been identified as a major public health problem in both developed and developing nations because of its high
incidence-prevalence, over-burdened health system and direct medical expenditure. Studies have shown that in most
of the developing nations breast cancer is diagnosed in advanced stages of the disease when compared with
developed nations and thus has a poor outcome and high fatality rate. This paper aims to check the effectiveness of
breast self-examination in early detection of the breast cancer. In addition, it plans to consider all the factors which
hampers with the uptake of the technique and what all could be planned to improve the current scenario. An
extensive search of all materials related to the topic was made using library sources including Pubmed, Medline and
google scholar searches. Keywords used in the search include breast self-examination, barriers in breast self-
examination and breast cancer. Breast self-examination (BSE) has been identified as the only realistic approach in
early detection of breast cancer in developing nations. A wide knowledge-application gap has been observed across
the globe between the knowledge and the actual practice of BSE. Multiple socio-demographic factors, myths,
cultural beliefs, lack of accessibility to the health care services have been identified as the reasons for the poor
uptake of BSE. Considering the potential of BSE, there is an immense need for a public health education program to
inculcate the practice of breast self-examination among women to minimize the fear, denial, myths and
misconceptions. This requires a sustained political commitment and further studies to recognize the perceived
barriers which are interfering with the uptake of BSE so that the greatest challenge of late presentation can be curbed
and the chances of survival improved.
Keywords: breast cancer, breast self-examination, risk factors, screening, awareness
1. Introduction
Breast cancer is a global health concern and a leading
cause of morbidity and mortality among women [1,2,3,4].
It has been identified as a major public health problem in
both developed and developing nations because of its high
incidence-prevalence, over-burdened health system and
added direct medical expenditure [5,6,7,8]. Trend analysis
of breast cancer indicates a rise by 50-100% in the
incidence of breast cancer in last 20 years [9]. Breast
cancer in men is uncommon, accounting for less than 1%
of all breast cancers but rise in incidence of male breast
cancer has also been demonstrated [10,11]. Breast cancer
can be distinguished from other cancers by the fact that it
occurs at a site which can be easily noticed and thus liable
for early detection & treatment [12]. The incidence,
mortality and survival rates for breast cancer vary across
the globe because of underlying differences in known risk
factors, availability of organized screening programs and
access to effective and affordable treatment modalities [1].
However, fatality rates tend to be higher in low-resource
countries [13,14].
Breast cancer associated morbidity and mortality can be
reduced through early detection by means of screening
programs [15], as it not only increases the chances for
successful treatment and cure of the disease [16,17], but
also improves chances of survival and lessens the need of
invasive treatment [18]. Ensuring availability of early
diagnostic & screening services and taking immediate
steps have been regarded as the two main strategies for
warranting improvement in the prognostic outcome
[19,20,21].
Studies have shown that in contrast to the developed
nations most of the developing nations have recorded a
poor outcome and high fatality rate owing to diagnosis of
the breast cancer in advanced stages [22,23,24,25,26,27,28].
In-fact, in a study done in India, five-year survival rate
was 56% among patients diagnosed with breast cancer at a
later stage in comparison to 85% for cases diagnosed early
[29]. Implementation of the preventive measures has been
acknowledged as the main tool in the fight against breast
cancer worldwide. Globally, breast self-examination
(BSE), clinical breast examination (CBE) and
mammography are the recommended screening test for
early detection of breast cancer. Due to lack of access to
diagnostic facilities, especially for women in low resource
settings, it is essential to empower them with BSE as a
primary modality for screening [28,30]. This review
article aims to review the effectiveness of breast self-
examination in early detection of the breast cancer. In
136 American Journal of Public Health Research
addition, it plans to consider all the factors which hampers
with the uptake of the technique and what all could be
planned to improve the current scenario.
2. Materials and Methods
An extensive search of all materials related to the topic
was made using library sources including Pubmed,
Medline, World Health Organization website and Google
scholar searches for one month. Relevant documents,
technical publications series, systematic reviews, research
articles focusing on practice of breast self-examination
published in the period 1980 2013 were included for the
review. The identified articles were then re-grouped into
different sections viz. risk factors and clinical features of
breast cancer; significance of breast self-examination;
practice of breast self-examination; impact of socio-
demographic factors on performance of breast self-
examination; role of nurses’ in advocating breast self-
examination; impediments in breast self-examination; and
implications for practice and research. Keywords used in
the search include breast self-examination, barriers in
breast self-examination and breast cancer.
3. Breast Cancer: Risk Factors and
Clinical Features
The etiology of breast cancer is multi-factorial and
studies have revealed significant interaction between
endogenous (hormonal / genetic) and exogenous (drugs /
radiation) factors [31]. Other factors like women’s age
[32,33]; parity [34]; practice of late initiation of
breastfeeding [34,35]; oral contraceptives & hormone
replacement therapy [31,33,36]; high dietary fat, excessive
alcohol consumption, positive family history [33]; age at
menarche, menopausal status, age at first live birth,
genetic mutations and benign breast disease have also
been cited [37,38,39,40]. With regards to symptoms of
breast cancer, bloody discharge from the nipple and
presence of lump in breast are well known [41].
4. Breast Self-examination: Background
Early diagnosis of breast cancer is of extreme
significance in improving the survival rates and quality of
life especially in low-income countries [42]. Although
awareness about breast cancer has long been advocated
across the world, unfortunately studies have revealed that
a major proportion of women are still not breast aware
[41,43]. As discussed earlier, techniques such as breast
self-examination (BSE), clinical breast examination (CBE)
and mammography have been advocated for bringing
about a marked reduction in breast cancer associated
morbidity and mortality [44,45,46,47,48]. As compared to
CBE and mammography which require hospital visit and
specialized equipment / technical expertise, BSE is helpful
in the regard that it is cost-free, simple, non-invasive
intervention carried out by women themselves [4,49,50].
Studies conducted in developing countries have
established BSE as one of the most reasonable and
feasible approach in early detection of breast cancer
[51,52,53]. BSE not only familiarize women with the
appearance/feel of their breast but also aids in early
detection of breast cancer [30]. Some of the studies have
reported that BSE is highly effective in increasing sense of
ownership about health, healthcare seeking behavior,
encouraging adoption of preventive health behaviors and
creating awareness about breast cancer among women
[54,55]. Multiple studies have concluded that women,
who regularly perform breast self-examination present
with smaller neoplasm and rare involvement of axillary
lymph nodes [29,30,56,57,58,59]. On the other hand,
some researchers have seriously questioned the usefulness
of BSE [60,61], while others have revealed no added
benefits of BSE in improvement of survival rates [62,63].
5. Practice of Breast Self-examination
With the rising incidence of breast cancer and absence
of any uniform breast screening strategy in most of the
nations, it is important to assess the knowledge and
practice of BSE in various age groups. Irrespective of the
multiple benefits of BSE, various studies identified a wide
knowledge application gap with regards to BSE, the
practice of BSE remaining low and variable in different
nations like 54% in England [59]; varying from 19% to
43.2% in Nigeria [50,64], and varying from 0 to 52% in
India [29,65]. In a study done in Korea, 27% of students
were engaged in BSE which was higher than what was
observed in students (10.1%) from Nigeria [66,67].
Among the health-care providers, around 90.3% women
performed BSE in Sao Paulo [68]; while in Turkey 28%
of the nurses and 32% of physicians did not practice BSE
[69]. Similarly, in a cross-sectional study conducted in
Iran it was revealed that most of the female health care
workers (63-72%) did not practice BSE [70]. Studies done
with an aim to assess the knowledge about BSE among
men have shown low level of knowledge [71,72]. This
was mainly because most of the pamphlets and
information-education-counseling materials usually deals
only with women’s breast cancer related issues [71,72].
6. Impact of Socio-Demographic
Parameters on Breast Self-examination
Studies have indicated that major proportion of the
women are not aware of what they need to do to protect
themselves from breast cancer or even how to check
themselves [73,74]. Further it has been reported that older
age (>45 years) and married women were more likely to
practice BSE than others [54,75]. In a study done in
Turkey, significant association was observed between
breast cancer knowledge and practice of BSE [54]. In
addition, women with a positive family history of breast
cancer had a better knowledge as well as higher frequency
of BSE than those with a negative family history [74,76].
The importance of education in the adoption of BSE
practice has been reported repeatedly [75,77,78].
Simultaneously the positive impact of educational
interventions on BSE and breast cancer awareness have
also been emphasized [79,80].
American Journal of Public Health Research 137
7. Role of Nurses’ in Breast Self-
examination
Health care providers, educational institutions and
mass-media are the important resources in dissemination
of any public health related information to masses. The
nursing staff can play a pivotal role in educating women
through specially designed learning programs in the health
care setting, as well as, through community outreach
approaches that suit the social and cultural settings [81]. A
study done in Turkey emphasized that nurses’ opinion
about breast cancer screening programs was crucial in
developing breast cancer educational programs [78]. It has
been reported that nurses who own adequate knowledge
about breast cancer can definitely contribute towards early
detection of breast cancer [82,83]. It has been realized that
nurses have an indispensible role in teaching women in
the community and in influencing their behavior,
especially those working in the rural healthcare set-up [12].
8. Barriers to Breast Self-examination
Though breast self-examination is considered an
important tool in early detection of breast cancer, multiple
barriers have been identified viz. awareness about breast
cancer [52,54,77,84]; lack of time, shortage of self-
confidence, fear of possible detection of a mass and
feeling of awkwardness about breast handling [85]; health
related assumptions [86]; anxiety and forgetfulness
[29,87]; low socioeconomic status and poor access to
health care facilities [88]; negative socio-cultural
perception about breast cancer and strong belief in
traditional medicine[89], and lack of motivational support
from parents, spouse or friends [90].
9. Implications for Practice
There is an immense need for a public health education
program to inculcate the practice of breast self-
examination among women to minimize the fear, denial,
myths and misconceptions. The messages and
recommendations about breast cancer screening must be
clear and the recognized barriers should be taken into
consideration for maximization of the outcome. Every
effort has to be taken to encourage the practice of BSE not
only among women but also among men as there is visible
increase in the incidence of male breast cancer. Healthcare
professionals including grass root level health workers
have to play a significant role in educating the public
especially the high risk men & women. The involvement
of community, family especially parents and spouse
should be facilitated to maximize the understanding of
BSE. Non-governmental organizations can be roped in
rural areas for this initiative. Concurrently, family
physicians should be encouraged to raise awareness; offer
clear and specific instructions on practice of breast self-
examination and promote referral as well.
10. Implications for Research
It is essential to plan and conduct community-based
studies to find the knowledge, attitude and practices of
BSE among both women and men as it will aid in
identification of the perceived barriers. Further studies are
needed to explore what customized interventions could be
implemented to improve the uptake and practice of BSE
and other methods for early breast cancer detection.
Results derived from these studies will help the program
managers and healthcare professionals to modify /
emphasize / strengthen the existing strategies so that the
greatest challenge of late presentation can be curbed and
the chances of survival improved.
11. Conclusion
Breast self-examination has been identified as the only
feasible and reasonable approach in early detection of
breast cancer especially in developing nations.
Considering the substantial role that can be played by BSE
in low resource settings, there is an urgent need for
interventions to implement and reinforce BSE in the
existing cancer awareness and screening programs. Also,
to bridge the wide knowledge - application gap, health
education and awareness campaigns should be organized
to empower the public on the causes, risk factors and
prevention of breast cancer.
References
[1] Althuis, M.D., Dozier, J.M., Anderson, W.F., Devesa, S.S. and
Brinton, L.A, Global trends in breast cancer incidence and
mortality 1973-1997,” Int J Epidemiol, 34 (2), 405-12, 2005.
[2] Shibuya, K., Mathers, C.D., Boschi-Pinto, C., Lopez, A.D. and
Murray, C.J, “Global and regional estimates of cancer mortality
and incidence by site: II. Results for the global burden of disease
2000,” BMC Cancer 2, 37, 2002.
[3] Hortobagyi, G.N., de la Salazar, G.J., Pritchard, K., Amadori, D.,
Haidinger, R., Hudis, C.A., Khaled, H., Liu, M.C., Martin. M.,
Namer, M., O'Shaughnessy, J.A., Shen, Z.Z., Albain, K.S. and
ABREAST Investigators, The global breast cancer burden:
Variations in epidemiology and survival,” Clin Breast Cancer, 6
(5), 391-401, 2005.
[4] Jemal, A., Bray, F., Center, M.M., Ferlay, J., Ward, E. and
Forman, D, Global cancer statistics,” CA Cancer J Clin, 61 (2),
69-90, 2011.
[5] Parkin, D.M., Bray, F., Ferlay, J. and Pisani, P, Global cancer
statistics, 2002CA Cancer J Clin, 55 (2), 74-108, 2005.
[6] Rastgoi, M, Increase in cancer death by the year 2020, Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2004.
[7] Forbes, J.F, The incidence of breast cancer: The global burden,
public health considerations,” Semin Oncol, 24 (1 Suppl 1), S20-
35, 1997.
[8] Bray, F., Ren, J.S., Masuyer, E. and Ferlay, J, “Global estimates of
cancer prevalence for 27 sites in the adult population in 2008,” Int
J Cancer 132 (5), 1133-1145, 2013.
[9] Salem, O.A. and Hassan, M.A, Breast self-examination among
female nursesRawal Med J, 32 (1), 31-33, 2007.
[10] Giordano, S.H., Cohen, D.S., Buzdar, A.U., Perkins, G. and
Hortobagyi, G.N, “Breast carcinoma in men: a population based
studyCancer, 101 (1), 51-57, 2004.
[11] Stang, A. and Thomssen, C,Decline in breast cancer incidence in
the United States: what about male breast cancer?,” Breast Cancer
Research and Treatment, 112 (3), 595-596, 2008.
[12] Tasci, A. and Usta, Y.Y, “Comparison of knowledge and practices
of breast self-examination: A pilot study in TurkeyAsian Pac J
Cancer Prev, 11 (5), 1417-1420, 2010.
[13] EMRO Technical Publications Series, 30 WHO: Guidelines for the
early detection and screening of breast cancer, World health
138 American Journal of Public Health Research
organization regional office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Cairo,
2006.
[14] Hallal, J.C, The relationship of health beliefs, health locus of
control, and self concept to the practice of breast self-examination
in adult women,” Nurs Res, 31 (3), 137-142, 1982.
[15] Austoker, J., Bankhead, C., Forbes, L.J., Atkins, L., Martin, F.,
Robb, K., Wardle, J. and Ramirez, A.J, “Interventions to promote
cancer awareness and early presentation: systematic review,” Br J
Cancer, 101 (Suppl 2), S31-39, 2009.
[16] Chong, P.N., Krishnan, M., Hong, C.Y. and Swah, T.S,
Knowlegde and practice of breast cancer screening amongst
public health nurses in Singapore,” Singapore Med J, 43 (10),
509-516, 2002.
[17] Harmer, V, Breast cancer. Part 1: Awareness and common
benign diseases,” Br J Nurs, 17 (15), 950-955, 2008.
[18] Noel, A., Heid, P., Tardivon, A., Dilhuydy, M.H., Haber, S.,
Seradour, B and Groupe technique national sur le dépistage du
cancer du sein, Screening mammography of women with a
hereditary predisposition to cancer of the breast,” Bull Cancer, 91
(7-8), 655-656, 2004.
[19] Burgess, C.C., Linsell, L., Kapari, M., Omar, L., Michell, M.,
Whelehan, P., Richards, M.A and Ramirez, A.J, “Promoting early
presentation of breast cancer by older women: A preliminary
evaluation of a one-to-one health professional-delivered
intervention, J Psychosomatic Res, 67 (5), 377-387, 2009.
[20] Abulkhair, O.A., Al Tahan, F.M., Young, S.E., Musaad, S.M. and
Jazieh, A.R, The first national public breast cancer screening
program in Saudi Arabia,” Ann Saudi Med, 30 (5), 350-357, 2010.
[21] Forbes, L.J., Linsell, L., Atkins, L., Burgess, C., Tucker, L., Omar,
L., Ramirez, A.J, A promoting early presentation intervention
increases breast cancer awareness in older women after 2 years: a
randomised controlled trial,” Br J Cancer, 105 (1), 18-21, 2011.
[22] Elmore, J.G., Armstrong, K., Lehman, C.D. and Fletcher, S,W,
Screening for breast cancer,” JAMA, 293 (10), 1245-1256, 2005.
[23] Harirchi, I., Kolahdoozan, S., Karbakhsh, M., Chegini, N.,
Mohseni, S.M., Montazeri, A., Momtahen, A.J., Kashefi, A. and
Ebrahimi, M, “Twenty years of breast cancer in Iran: downstaging
without a formal screening program,” Ann Oncol, 22 (1), 93-97,
2011.
[24] Ertem, G. and Kocer, A, Breast self-examination among nurses
and midwives in Odemis health district in Turkey,” Indian J
Cancer, 46 (3), 208-213, 2009.
[25] Sadjadi, A., Nouraie, M., Ghorbani, A., Alimohammadian, M. and
Malekzadeh, R, Epidemiology of breast cancer in the Islamic
Republic of Iran: first results from a population-based cancer
registry,” East Mediterr Health J, 15 (6), 1426-1431, 2009.
[26] Adesunkanmi, A.R., Lawal, O.O., Adelusola, K.A. and Durosimi,
M.A, The severity, outcome and challenges of breast cancer in
Nigeria,” Breast, 15 (3), 399-409, 2006.
[27] Hisham, A.N. and Yip, C.H, Overview of breast cancer in
Malaysian women: a problem with late diagnosis, Asian J Surg,
27 (2), 130-133, 2004.
[28] Coughlin, S.S. and Ekwueme, D.U, Breast cancer as a global
health concern,” Cancer Epidemiol, 33 (5), 315-318, 2009.
[29] Gupta, S.K, Impact of a health education intervention program
regarding breast self-examination by women in a semi-urban area
of Madhya pradesh, India,” Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 10 (6),
1113-1117, 2009.
[30] Karayurt, O., Ozmen, D. and Çetinkaya, A.C, Awareness of
breast cancer risk factors and practice of breast self-examination
among high school students in Turkey,” BMC Public Health, 8,
359, 2008.
[31] Kahlenborn, C., Modugno, F., Potter, D.M. and Severs, W.B,
Oral contraceptive use as a risk factor for premenopausal breast
cancer: a meta-analysis,” Mayo Clin Proc, 81 (10), 1290-1302,
2006.
[32] Rosner, B., Colditz, G.A. and Willett, W.C, Reproductive risk
factors in a prospective study of breast cancer: The nurses' health
study,” Am J Epidemiol, 139 (8), 819-835, 1994.
[33] Downs-Holmes, C., Silverman, P, Breast cancer: Overview &
updates,” The Nurse Practitioner, 36 (12), 20-26, 2006.
[34] Collaborative group on hormonal factors in breast cancer, Breast
cancer and breastfeeding: Collaborative reanalysis of individual
data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including
50302 women with breast cancer and 96973 women without the
disease,” Lancet, 360 (9328), 187-195, 2002.
[35] Puri, S., Mangat, C., Bhatia, V., Kalia, M., Sehgal, A. and Kaur,
A.P, Awareness of risk factors and aspects of breast cancer
among north Indian women,” The Internet Journal of Health, 8, 2,
2009.
[36] Somdatta, P. and Baridalyne, N, Awareness of breast cancer in
women of an urban resettlement colony,Indian J of Cancer, 45
(4), 149-153, 2008.
[37] Veronesi, U., Boyle, P., Goldhirsch, A., Orecchia, R. and Viale, G,
Breast cancer,” Lancet, 365 (9472), 1727-1741, 2005.
[38] Lee, S.M., Park, J.H. and Park, H.J, “Breast cancer risk factors in
Korean women: a literature review,” Int Nurs Rev, 55 (3), 355-359,
2008.
[39] Thomsen, A. and Kolesar, J.M, “Chemoprevention of breast
cancer,” Am J Health Syst Pharm, 65 (23), 2221-2228, 2008.
[40] Dandash, K.F. and Al-Mohaimeed, A, “Knowledge, attitudes, and
practices surrounding breast cancer and screening in female
teachers of Buraidah, Saudi Arabia,” Int J Health Sci (Qassim), 1
(1), 61-71, 2007.
[41] Kanaga, K.C., Nithiya, J. and Shatirah, M.F, “Awareness of breast
cancer and screening procedures among Malaysian women,”
Asian Pacific J Cancer Prev, 12 (8), 1965-1967, 2011.
[42] Rao, R., Nair, S., Nair, N. and Kamath, V, Acceptability and
effectiveness of a breast health awareness programme for rural
women in India,” Indian J Med Sci, 59 (9), 398-402, 2005.
[43] Wu, T.Y., West, M.A., Chen, Y.W. and Hergert, C, Health
beliefs and practices related to breast cancer screening in Filipino,
Chinese and Asian-Indian women,” Cancer Detect Prev, 30 (1),
58-66, 2006.
[44] Omar, S., Khaled, H., Gaafar, R., Zekry, A.R., Eissa, S. and El-
Khatib, O, Breast cancer in Egypt: A review of disease
presentation and detection strategies,” East Mediterr Health J, 9
(3), 448-463, 2003.
[45] Humphrey, L.L., Helfand, M., Chan, B.K. and Woolf, S.H,
Breast cancer screening: A summary of the evidence for the U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force,” Ann Intern Med, 137 (5 Part 1),
347-360, 2002.
[46] Avcı, A.I., Altay, B. and Kocaturk, B,Midwifery students’ health
beliefs intended for breast self-examination,” J Breast Health, 4
(1), 25-28, 2008.
[47] Gerçek, S., Duran, O., Yıldırım, G., Karayel, H. and
Demirliçakmak, D, “Determining the breast cancer and self breast
examination belief and the effecting factors among the schoolgirls
in state dormitory,” J Breast Health, 4 (3), 157-161, 2008.
[48] Ertem, G. and Koçer, A, “Breast self-examination among nurses
and midwives in Odemiş district in Turkey,” Indian J Cancer, 46
(3), 208-213, 2009.
[49] World Health Organization, Breast cancer: prevention and control,
2013. Available:
http://www.who.int/cancer/detection/breastcancer/en/print.html. [
Accessed May 24, 2013].
[50] Okobia, M.N., Bunker, C.H., Okonofua, F.E. and Osime, U,
Knowledge, attitude and practice of Nigerian women towards
breast cancer: A cross-sectional study,” World J Surg Oncol, 4, 11,
2006.
[51] Mittra, I., Baum, M., Thornton, H. and Houghton, J, Is clinical
breast examination an acceptable alternative to mammographic
screening?,” BMJ, 321 (7268), 1071-1073, 2000.
[52] Dundar, P.E., Ozmen, D., Ozturk, B., Haspolat, G., Akyıldız, F.,
Çoban, S. Cakiroglu, G, “The knowledge and attitudes of breast
self-examination and mammography in a group of women in a
rural area in western Turkey,” BMC Cancer, 6, 43, 2006.
[53] Parvani, Z, “Breast self-examination: Breast awareness and
practices of systematic review,” Professional Med J, 18, 336-339,
2011.
[54] Austoker, J, “Breast self-examination,” BMJ, 326, 1-2, 2003.
[55] Manasciewicz, R, Breast self-examination. Editorial misses
central point,” BMJ, 326, 710, 2003.
[56] Alexanian, A.A., Fossati, R., Apalone, G., Liberati, A. and Zola, P,
Practice of breast self-examination: disease extent at diagnosis
and patterns of surgical care. A report from an Italian study,” J
Epidemiol Community Health, 45 (2), 112-116, 1991.
[57] Mant, D., Vessey, M.P. and Neil, A, “Breast self-examination and
breast cancer stage at diagnosis,” British Journal of Cancer, 55 (2),
207-211, 1987.
[58] Smith, R.A., Mettlin, C.J., Davis, K.J. and Eyre, H, American
Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer,” CA
Cancer J Clin, 50 (1), 34-49, 2000.
[59] Philip, J., Harris, W.G., Flaherty, C. and Joslin, C.A, Clinical
measures to assess the practice and efficiency of breast self-
examination,” Cancer, 58 (4), 973-977, 1986.
American Journal of Public Health Research 139
[60] Kearney, A.J. and Murray, M, Evidence against breast self-
examination is not conclusive: what policymakers and health
professionals need to know,” J Public Health Policy, 27 (3), 282-
292, 2006.
[61] Thomas, D.B., Gao, D.L., Ray, R.M., Wang, W.W., Allison, C.J.,
Chen, F.L., Porter, P., Hu, Y.W., Zhao, G.L., Pan, L.D., Li, W.,
Wu, C., Coriaty, Z., Evans, I., Lin, M.G., Stalsberg, H. and Self,
S.G, Randomized trial of breast self-examination in Shanghai:
final results,” J Natl Cancer Inst, 94 (19), 1445-1457, 2002.
[62] Kosters, J.P. and Gotzsche, P.C, Regular self-examination or
clinical examination for early detection of breast cancer,”
Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2: CD003373, 2003.
[63] Nelson, H.D., Tyne, K., Naik, A., Bougatsos, C., Chan, B.,
Nygren, P. and Humphrey, L, Screening for breast cancer:
Systematic evidence review update for the US Preventive Services
Task Force [Online]. Available:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20722173 [Accessed May
19, 2013].
[64] Gwarzo, U.M., Sabitu, K. and Idris, S.H, “Knowledge and practice
of breast-self-examination among female undergraduate students
of Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, northwestern Nigeria,” Ann
Afr Med, 8 (1), 55-58, 2009.
[65] Yadav, P. and Jaroli, D.P, Breast cancer: Awareness and risk
factors in college-going younger age group women in Rajasthan,”
Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 11 (2), 319-322, 2010.
[66] Shin, K.R., Park, H.J. and Kim, M, Practice of breast self-
examination and knowledge of breast cancer among female
university students in Korea,” Nurs Health Sci, 14 (3), 292-297,
2012.
[67] Isara, A.R. and Ojedokun, C.I, “Knowledge of breast cancer and
practice of breast self-examination among female senior secondary
school students in Abuja, Nigeria,” J Prev Med Hyg, 52 (4), 186-
190, 2011.
[68] Carelli, I., Pompei, L.M., Mattos, C.S., Ferreira, H.G., Pescuma,
R., Fernandes, C.E. and Peixoto, S, Knowledge, attitude and
practice of breast self-examination in a female population of
metropolitan Sao Paulo,” Breast, 17 (3), 270-274, 2008.
[69] Cavdar, Y., Akyolcu, N., Ozbaş, A., Oztekin, D., Ayogu, T. and
Akyuz, N, “Determining female physicians’ and nurses’ practices
and attitudes toward breast self-examination in Istanbul,
Turkey,” Oncol Nurs Forum, 34 (6), 1218-1221, 2007.
[70] Haji-Mahmoodi, M., Montazeri, A., Jarvandi, S., Ebrahimi, M.,
Haghighat, S. and Harirchi, I, Breast self-examination:
Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among female health care
workers in Tehran, Iran,” Breast J, 8 (4), 222-225, 2002.
[71] Thomas, E, Men’s awareness and knowledge of male breast
cancer,” Am J Nurs, 110 (10), 32-40, 2010.
[72] Al-Naggar, R.A. and Al-Naggar, D.H, Perceptions and opinions
about male breast cancer and male breast self-examination: A
qualitative study,” Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 13 (1), 243-246,
2012.
[73] Al-Naggar, R.A., Al-Naggar, D.H., Bobryshev, Y.V., Chen, R.
and Assabri, A, Practice and barriers toward breast self-
examination among young Malaysian women,” Asian Pac J
Cancer Prev, 12 (5), 1173-1178, 2011.
[74] Koşgeroglu, A., Ayrancı, U. and Ozerdogan, N, “Knowledge of
women on early diagnosis methods and risk factors for breast
cancer in a province of Western Turkey: a descriptive study,” Pak
J Med Sci, 27, 646-650, 2011.
[75] Ravichandran, K., Al-Hamdan, N.A. and Mohamed, G,
Knowledge, attitude, and behavior among Saudis toward cancer
preventive practice,” J Family Community Med, 18 (3), 135-142,
2011.
[76] Karayurt, O. and Zorukoş, S.N, “Feel of women at a high risk for
breast cancer and meeting, their needs for knowledge and support
J Breast Hlth, 4 (2), 56-61, 2008.
[77] Rasu, R.S., Rianon, N.J., Shahidullah, S.M., Faisel, A.J. and
Selwyn, B.J, “Effect of educational level on knowledge and use of
breast cancer screening practices in Bangladeshi women,” Health
Care Women Int, 32 (3), 177-189, 2011.
[78] Ceber, E., Turk, M. and Ciceklioglu, M, The effects of an
educational program on knowledge of breast cancer, early
detection practices and health beliefs of nurses and midwives,” J
Clin Nurs, 19(15-16), 2363-2371, 2010.
[79] Yavari, P. and Pourhoseingholi, M.A, Socioeconomic factors
association with knowledge and practice of breast self-
examination among Iranian women,” Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 8
(4), 618-622, 2007.
[80] Venkatramana, M., Sreedharan, J., Muttappallymyalil, J. and
Thomas, M, “Opinion of nurses regarding breast cancer screening
programs,” Indian J cancer, 48 (4), 423-427, 2011.
[81] Nichols, M, “The nurse's role in self-breast examination
education,” Plast Surg Nurs, 32 (4), 143-145, 2012.
[82] Lee, S.O., Sim, S. and Ahn, S, Factors affecting periodic
screening behaviors for breast cancer among hospital nurses,”
Korean J Women Health Nurs, 16 (4), 390-398, 2010.
[83] Dunn, R.A. and Tan, A.K, “Utilization of breast cancer screening
methods in a developing nation: results from a nationally
representative sample of Malaysian households,” Breast J, 17 (4),
399-402, 2011.
[84] Alwan, N.A., Al-Attar, W.M., Eliessa, R.A., Madfaie, Z.A.
and Tawfeeq, F.N, Knowledge, attitude and practice regarding
breast cancer and breast self-examination among a sample of the
educated population in Iraq,” East Mediterr Health J, 18 (4), 337-
345, 2012.
[85] Brewer, M.K. and Baldwin, D, The relationship between self-
esteem, health habits, and knowledge of BSE practice in female
inmates,” Public Health Nurs, 17 (1), 16-24, 2000.
[86] Eroglu, N.U. and Kilic, D, Knowledge, attitude and beliefs
women attending mammography units have regarding breast
cancer and early diagnosis,” Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 12 (7),
1855-1860, 2011.
[87] Tang, T.S., Solomon, L.J. and McCracken, L.M, “Cultural barriers
to mammography, clinical breast exam, and breast self-exam
among Chinese-American women 60 and older,” Prev Med, 31 (5);
575-583, 2000.
[88] Aziz, Z., Sara, S., Akram. M. and Saeed, A, “Socioeconomic
status and breast cancer survival in Pakistani women, J Pak Med
Assoc, 54 (9), 448-453, 2004.
[89] Odusanya, O.O. and Tayo, O.O, Breast cancer knowledge
attitudes and practice among nurses in Lagos, Nigeria,” Acta
Oncol, 40 (7), 844-848, 2001.
[90] Rosmawati, N.H, “The usage and knowledge of mammography
among women in sub-urban area in Terengganu, Malaysia,” Asian
Pac J Cancer Prev, 11 (3), 767-771, 2010.
... This is attributed to their unawareness that what the lump represents, the stigma of being rejected by the community and her partner, the potential fear of loss of the breast, and the major obstacle being the prevailing taboo of not discussing breast cancer topic openly, and their disbelief of the existence of any effective therapy for the disease [20] . BSE has been found to be the most reasonable and feasible approach in early detection and reduction of breast cancer mortality in India and other developing countries [21,22] . Studies from India suggested BSE can be used as a tool of creating breast health awareness among women and trained female health workers can play a promising role in disseminating this knowledge among women to carry out BSE [21] . ...
... BSE has been found to be the most reasonable and feasible approach in early detection and reduction of breast cancer mortality in India and other developing countries [21,22] . Studies from India suggested BSE can be used as a tool of creating breast health awareness among women and trained female health workers can play a promising role in disseminating this knowledge among women to carry out BSE [21] . ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Breast self-examination (BSE) plays an important role in the early diagnosis of breast cancer in India owing to the stigma attached to cancer. The authors compared the efficacies of animation video versus simulation techniques in BSE. Methods: Women with no previous history of conditions affecting the breasts were included in this prospective observational study and divided into an animation or simulation arm. The latter was further divided into three subgroups as per the simulation models used : the German (Delta Healthcare), British (Health Edco), and Indian (low-cost, validated) models used for teaching BSE. The hybrid animation video had a 9 min runtime with a lecture on BSE and a virtual character performing BSE. In both the arms, participants filled in a validated modified patient satisfaction questionnaire. Results: A total of 500 women participated. The mean age of the participants in the animation video arm was 20.21±3.88 years and 19.34±2.27, 22.94±9.6, and 18.97±1.31(20.41±5.99) years in the Indian, German, and British simulation models arm, respectively. The age difference between the two arms was statistically significant (P<0.05). Both animation video and simulation models were found to be useful by the participants. The participants' response to animation video being a better organized tool for learning BSE was statistically significant (90.48±7.98 vs. 84.02±15.09 P≤0.001) when compared to simulation models. The younger women (≤20 years) found these tools significantly more useful than those aged >20 years. Conclusions: All models had good efficiency and utility as learning tools for BSE. However, large studies in BSE set up with combination models are needed.
... A study by [43] observed a natural chronology of the disease associated with age [32]. It should be noted that US does not replace mammography, but they can complement each other [11,32,37,44]. ...
... Women who regularly perform breast self-examinations may note changes in the breasts during their cycle. The breasts become lumpier and tender before the menses and less lumpy and less tender after the menses [43,45]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: Ultrasound is a non-invasive, low-cost technique that does not use ionising radiation and provides a "real-time" image, and for these reasons, this method is ideal in several situations. Purpose: To demonstrate breast ultrasound evaluation as a first-line diagnostic method and to evaluate the variation of breast characteristics with age. Material and methods: A total of 105 women with a mean age of 30 years participated and were divided into three age groups: 18-39, 40-59, and 60-79 years, excluding participants subject to mastectomy. After completing the informed consent, all participants answered personal and sociodemographic questions, such as personal and family history, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, ultrasound, and mammography, among others. They were then submitted to a bilateral breast ultrasound examination. Subsequently, all the images and their data were analysed, and a technical report of the examination was given to all the participants. Results: A total of 105 women with a mean age of 30 years participated, 58 of whom underwent the examination for the first time. In 31, changes (of which only 7 were known) were diagnosed. It was verified that, according to age group, the density of the breast stroma varied; older women have less breast density. Conclusions: Ultrasound is a good method for breast evaluation and can be considered important for the early evaluation of breast pathology and follow-up of the pathology.
... Early identification and prompt treatment are the most effective interventions for BC management, according to the World Cancer Report 2020 (5). Because breast cancer is frequently discovered in advanced stages in underdeveloped nations, attempts to identify it early may help to shorten the time between diagnosis and treatment, increasing the likelihood of survival and curing the disease as well as making it easier and more affordable to treat (6).In low-income nations compared to high-income countries, early detection of breast cancer by breast self-examination (BSE) is crucial for improving breast cancer outcomes and survival (7).There is an urgent need for interventions to implement and strengthen BSE in the current cancer awareness and screening programs, given the significant role that BSE may play in low-resource settings (8). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Globally and in India, breast cancer is a prevalent malignancy. India saw 178,361 new cases and 90,000 deaths in 2020. Timely detection is vital, highlighting the importance of Breast Self-Examination (BSE), especially in low-income settings. Strengthening BSE in awareness and screening efforts is urgent. Despite awareness, practical application lags due to women’s reluctance. Effective execution demands partnerships, a multi-sectoral strategy, and training grassroots workers. Objective To address these challenges, the present study aims to strengthen the breast cancer screening program using BSE strategy and adopting a referral mechanism for the diagnosis and treatment of suspect cases. Methods A community-based study occurred in specific districts of Rajasthan (2017–2022), enhancing breast cancer screening for women aged 30–65. It involved healthcare providers and local women, utilizing tools like the MT-DM-GP6620 Breast Inspection Model, educational booklets, and semi-structured schedules. The strategy encompassed knowledge assessment, capacity building for healthcare providers, BSE training, increasing women’s breast cancer awareness, suspect case referrals, and phone-based follow-up. Results Our study encompassed 157,225 women aged 30–65 in Jodhpur, Jalore, and Pali districts. Initial breast self-examination (BSE) awareness was below 1%. BSE training reached 218,978 women using booklets and demonstrations, with 72% aged 30–65 and the rest 15–30. Follow-ups reinforced BSE, leading to 745 identified suspect breast cancer cases, mostly due to painless lumps (332 cases). Capacity-building workshops involving 824 medical and paramedical staff strengthened early breast cancer detection in Jodhpur and Jalore, in collaboration with the district health department. Conclusion The study model’s success suggests its applicability in other Rajasthan districts, Indian states, and global breast cancer prevention programs. While positive outcomes were evident, challenges related to culture, cost, and benefits warrant consideration. The approach prioritized early detection through community engagement, reducing patient and government burdens. Community involvement and healthcare engagement were pivotal, with breast self-examination proving effective for enhancing awareness and early detection. Promoting BSE education can significantly enhance breast cancer awareness and early detection.
... BSE consists of two basic steps tactile and visual examination of the breast [6]. As compared to clinical breast examination and mammography which require hospital visit, specialized equipment and technical expertise whereas BSE is helpful in the regard that it is cost-free, simple, non-invasive intervention carried out by women themselves [7,8]. Johns Hopkins Medical centre states, Forty percent of diagnosed breast cancers are detected by women who feel a lump, so establishing a regular BSE is very important to prevent breast cancer [9]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Breast self-examination is one of the cheapest breast cancer screening tools. This is important to initiate early breast cancer detection by them.
... BSE is a reasonable and feasible approach to early detection and reduction of breast cancer mortality in India and other developing countries. [20][21][22] Studies have also suggested that BSE can be used to create breast health awareness among women, allowing trained female health workers to play a promising role in disseminating this knowledge among women to carry out BSE. 23 BSE in India is concentrated among wealthier populations defined by place of residence, religion, age, employment, and marital status presently. 24 CBE is a simple and less expensive screening tool that seems promising. ...
Article
Breast cancer is the most common cancer in urban Indian women and the second most common cancer in all Indian women. The epidemiology as well as biology of this cancer seems to be different in the Indian subcontinent when compared with the West. The lack of population-based breast cancer screening programs and delay in seeking a medical consult due to financial and social reasons, including lack of awareness and fear related to a cancer diagnosis, results in delayed diagnosis.
... BSE has been found to be the most reasonable and feasible approach in early detection and reduction of breast cancer mortality in India and other developing countries [15,16] . Studies from India suggested BSE can be used as a tool of creating breast health awareness among women and trained female health workers can play a promising role in disseminating this knowledge among women to carry out BSE [17,18] . ...
Article
Full-text available
Unlabelled: The incidence of breast cancer is increasing in India; it predominantly affects women in their 30s and 40s. The disease burden is very high given the high incidence of triple-negative disease in a large portion of the population. Early detection can save lives and aid in breast conservation surgery. Breast self-examination (BSE) is a valid tool for early breast cancer detection. If performed with the help of a simulation model that resembles a given culture and tradition, it can result in good outcomes from screening programs. We designed and validated an Indian model for BSE and reported the feasibility of this model. Materials and methods: We designed an Indian model for the BSE based on the cultural mindset of Indian women. The design was finalized, and the model was constructed. It was then compared with preexisting international models and validated by in-depth interviews with validation experts from various fields involved in breast cancer management. Minor design revisions were made, followed by testing and re-testing. Finally, it was ready for public use. Results: The in-depth interview was conducted using a validated modified animation multimedia questionnaire. The majority of the validation experts had used stimulation models before, and all stated that it could help teach women about BSE, and it was comparable with other preexisting internationally validated models (91.33±4.98%). Conclusion: Using a breast model, women can learn to detect breast cancer as early as possible, and this can lead to good outcomes. We designed the model using easily available, cheap, and safe materials to keep it as realistic and useful as possible. The Indian BSE model can be used by Indian women to learn to detect breast lumps early. It is easily reproducible and cost-effective.
... In India, only 30% of breast cancer cases were detected early, in contrast to 60-70% of early cases in the developed world (Somdatta, 2008). More than 70% of incidences of breast cancer in India are diagnosed in advanced stages (Fotedar et al., 2013;Khokhar, 2012;Shrivastava & Shrivastava, 2013;. The late presentation of breast cancer can be due to unawareness, lack of access to healthcare/screening facilities, and social-cultural attitudes . ...
Article
Full-text available
Breast cancer is the predominant malignancy in women. Detection of precancerous lesions through screening will help reduce the incidence of breast cancer. Spatial methods help us detect the clusters and present evidence on the related factors considering spatial dependence in the data. The main aim of this study is to identify the social determinants of screening for breast cancer through spatial analysis to support the implementation of cost-effective need-based strategies. Data were obtained from the National Family Health Survey-4 conducted in India during 2015–2016. The present study is focused on breast cancer screening across different districts in India. Spatial clusters and regression models aided in investigating the modifiable factors associated with breast cancer screening. ArcGIS and R software were used for analysis. The moderate spatial autocorrelation in the outcome variable (Moran’s I = 0.57) enforces control for the spatial dependence while analyzing the screening data. The alarming percentage of women getting breast screened for cancer ranged between 0.3 and 57.4. Wealth index, access to a health care facility, and women with mobile phone are observed to be associated with breast cancer screening. Locations with a high percentage of women who belong to the wealth index-poor, a high percentage of women who find reaching the nearest health facility a big problem, and a high percentage of women who do not have a mobile phone are likely to have a very low breast cancer screening. Central, East, and North-East India districts are highly vulnerable to low breast cancer screening.
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: Malaysia is one of the countries that have the highest mortality rate of breast cancer among other countries in Asia. Therefore, breast self-examination (BSE) is encouraged in every country including Malaysia to increase the detection of any breast abnormalities at an early stage and decrease the incidence of cancer presented at a late stage. This study aims to assess the level of Health Sciences students’ knowledge and practice of BSE as well as to investigate the association between knowledge and practice of BSE. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among female students from the Faculty of Health Sciences, UniSZA. An adapted questionnaire was distributed online using Google Forms to assess the knowledge and practice of BSE. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse sociodemographics, knowledge and practice on BSE while the Chi-Square test was used to determine the association between knowledge and practice of BSE among the respondents. Results: A total of 288 female students participated in this study. The mean age was 21.4 ± 1.8 years old and most of them are single (99%). Most of the respondents (61%) have moderate knowledge of BSE, while 35% and 4% of respondents have good knowledge and poor knowledge, respectively. Among 288 participants, 93.4% have heard about BSE, but only 61% of people who have heard of BSE have performed it before. Besides, there was a significant association between knowledge and practice of BSE (χ² = 38.835, p =<0.001). Conclusions: Practice of BSE significantly related to its knowledge. Continuous awareness campaigns must be held through various platforms to educate the public and encourage them to practice BSE as their monthly routine for the early detection of breast cancer.
Article
The stage and grade of a breast cancer diagnosis is a significant determinant of patient prognosis. Therefore, early detection via screening is recommended. Breast self-examination is a screening and breast health promotion technique that empowers women to be familiar with what their breasts look and feel like normally and be more confident to detect any changes. Self-examination is also a gateway to lifelong breast health awareness in young women who have not yet engaged with formal screening programmes. Globally, breast self-examination engagement is low and this study aims to identify the barriers and facilitators of breast self-examination in women globally under 50 years. Databases MEDLINE, PUBMED and CIANHL were searched. 3984 results were produced and 22 full texts were assessed. Eleven studies were included. Methodological quality was assessed using the JBI Critical Appraisal checklist and each study was assigned a ConQual grade. A meta-synthesis using a thematic analysis approach produced six over-arching themes that represented the barriers and facilitators identified: knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, influence of others, education, routine and emotions. Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, and emotions were identified as the greatest barriers to self-examination. Contrastingly, routine appeared to have the greatest facilitatory impact, with the role of health care professionals and education also being facilitatory. The introduction of demonstrative teaching programmes at schools or universities, or guidelines specific to breast self-examination for health care professionals could be considered as next steps.
Article
Full-text available
Low cancer awareness contributes to delay in presentation for cancer symptoms and may lead to delay in cancer diagnosis. The aim of this study was to review the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions to raise cancer awareness and promote early presentation in cancer to inform policy and future research. We searched bibliographic databases and reference lists for randomised controlled trials of interventions delivered to individuals, and controlled or uncontrolled studies of interventions delivered to communities. We found some evidence that interventions delivered to individuals modestly increase cancer awareness in the short term and insufficient evidence that they promote early presentation. We found limited evidence that public education campaigns reduce stage at presentation of breast cancer, malignant melanoma and retinoblastoma.
Article
Full-text available
This study presents the first population-based report on breast cancer in the Islamic Republic of Iran using data derived from a cancer registry. A retrospective study was conducted to find all new breast cancer cases in 5 provinces covered by the cancer registry during the 5-year period 1996-2000. There were 2421 cases recorded in the 5 registries. The age-standardized incidence rate (ASR) was 16.2 per 100 000 person-years. In contrast to more developed countries, the ASR of breast cancer was low, with the lowest rate seen in Ardabil province.
Article
Full-text available
Objective: To determine the knowledge of women on early diagnosis methods and risk factors for breast cancer (BC). Methodology: This descriptive study was conducted on all the women attending to the Eskisehir Municipality Women's Counseling and Solidarity Center in a province of western Turkey for any reasons between April 1, 2008 and April 1, 2010. The evaluation of knowledge was scored by a questionnaire formed using literature. The statistical analysis was carried out using Chi-square (x2), and student t test. A value of p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The average age of the participants was 47.21±10.46 years. The proportion of those with enough knowledge about BC was 48.7%. In younger ages, in those with higher education levels, in those living in nuclear family type, in those with higher family income level, in those smoking cigarette, in those receiving knowledge previously about BC, in those having positive family history and in those with a benign or malignant breast disease diagnosed previously, the knowledge about BC were higher (p<0.001, per one). Conclusion: According to the results of this study, breast self-examination, a simple and economical diagnostic tool which protects women's privacy, should be performed regularly and properly by women themselves.
Article
Each January, the American Cancer Society (ACS) publishes a summary of its recommendations for early cancer detection, including guideline updates, emerging issues that are relevant to screening for cancer, and a summary of the most current data on cancer screening rates for US adults. In 2004, there were no updates to ACS guidelines. In this article, we summarize the current guidelines, discuss recent evidence and policy changes that have implications for cancer screening, and provide an update of the most recent data pertaining to participation rates in cancer screening by age, gender, and insurance status from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.
Article
Study objective-The aim was to determine whether breast self examination leads to earlier diagnosis and whether this translates into a larger utilisation of conservative surgical procedures. Design-The study was a survey of a cohort of breast cancer patients diagnosed over the period September 1986-July 1988. Subjects-Participants were 1315 women enrolled in a clinical trial testing the effectiveness of two follow up regimens by 30 general hospitals throughout Italy. Measurements and main results-Overall, 511 patients (39%) reported some breast self examination practice, but only 109 (8%) did this regularly and in a way deemed correct by their physicians. Breast self examination practice was positively associated with patients' education and past history of benign breast disease and negatively with age. Self examiners were found to have a significantly greater chance of being diagnosed with a primary tumour coded as pT1 according to the 1982 TNM classification (odds ratio = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.13-1.79). This protective effect was mostly evident in the subgroup of optimal performers (odds ratio = 1.54, CI = 1.01-2.34). Nearly half the patients (319/655) eligible for conservative surgery still had an unnecessary radical procedure. Conclusions-Premorbid breast self examination seems to have a modest effect on the extent of disease at diagnosis. The still widespread use of radical surgery suggests that a careful reanalysis of priorities among possible public interventions is needed before launching massive educational campaigns targeted exclusively at consumers.