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Mitigating emissions from pig and poultry housing facilities through air scrubbers and biofilters: State-of-the-art and perspectives
Abstract
The global intensification of livestock production resulted in potentially higher emissions of ammonia, odour, particulate matter (PM) and greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide and methane). Air scrubbers and biofilters were introduced as a low ammonia emission housing technique. However, regulations with regard to the use of air scrubbers changed, including also removal efficiencies for odour and PM besides ammonia. In practice however, the required removal efficiencies for these pollutants are not always obtained, indicating the need of process optimisation in terms of process design and/or operation. When optimising air scrubbers, it is argued and recommended to anticipate the growing attention towards greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, which are present in exhaust air from animal housing facilities. However up till now, very little is known about the behaviour of greenhouse gases in air scrubbers and biofilters. Moreover, the formation of nitrous oxide in (biological) air scrubbing systems cannot be excluded. This contribution summarises the state-of-the-art of air scrubbers and biofilters for the reduction of emissions of ammonia, odour, nitrous oxide, methane and fine dust and points out perspectives for process optimisation in terms of design and control. The air and liquid flow configuration, packing dimensions and packing material should be carefully considered. Control options for water flow rate, water discharge and acid dosage need to be optimised. Dosage of apolar solvents and inoculation of the packing material can be innovative control options to achieve a better removal of less water-soluble components.
... However, a decreasing ventilation rate leads to the accumulation of harmful gases and PM [62]. Hence, it is essential to tailor mitigating emission system, such as changing the trickling density of chemical and biological air scrubbers in different seasons, to improve the indoor environment year-round [22,79,80]. ...
... When two or more ASs are positioned behind each other, the overall system is known as a combined ASs. This type has evolved from the separate chemical and biological scrubbers for joint use in the combined removal of differing types of pollutants, such as NH 3 , odor and PM [22]. ...
... When two or more ASs are positioned behind each other, the overall system is known as a combined ASs. This type has evolved from the separate chemical and biological scrubbers for joint use in the combined removal of differing types of pollutants, such as NH3, odor and PM [22]. Biofilters mainly consist of a filter bed with a microorganism attachment. ...
The fast development of large-scale intensive animal husbandry has led to an increased proportion of atmospheric pollution arising from livestock and poultry housing. Atmospheric pollutants, including particulate matter (PM), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and greenhouse gases (GHG), as well as other hazardous materials (e.g., gases, bacteria, fungi and viruses), have significant influences upon the local atmospheric environment and the health of animals and nearby residents. Therefore, it is imperative to develop livestock and poultry housing mitigation strategies targeting atmospheric pollution, to reduce its negative effects on the ambient atmosphere and to promote sustainable agricultural production. In this paper, we summarize the various strategies applied for reducing outlet air pollutants and purifying inlet air from mechanical ventilated livestock and poultry housing. This review highlights the current state of knowledge on the removal of various atmospheric pollutants and their relative performance. The potential optimization of processes and operational design, material selection, and other technologies, such as electrostatic spinning, are discussed in detail. The study provides a timely critical analysis to fill the main research gaps or needs in this domain by using practical and stakeholder-oriented evaluation criteria.
... In order to reduce emissions from animal husbandry, such as particulate matter, ammonia (NH 3 ) and odor, various exhaust air treatment systems (EATS) are used in mechanically ventilated livestock buildings for pigs and poultry in practice [1,2]. The current version of the "Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Intensive Rearing of Poultry or Pigs" lists EATS as BAT; however, at various points, it is noted that "This technique may not be generally applicable due to the high implementation cost" [3]. ...
... Section 2.8). (2) into the pilot plant (3). To the right of the test pilot plant is the equipment container (4), which housed the scrubbing water basin, the exhaust air treatment technology and its controls, as well as all measuring technology. ...
... [9])) during the test period (Table A2). In the literature, an optimum working pH range for scrubbing water in a bioscrubber is reported to be from 6.5 to 7.5 [1,2,20]. Furthermore, Table A2 shows that the ammonium and nitrite content of scrubbing water was too high in relation to the nitrate content. ...
In this study, biological exhaust air treatment was combined with a recuperative heat exchanger in one process stage. The aim of this plant development and testing is not only to reduce ammonia from the exhaust air of pig houses but also to recover thermal energy at the same time. This is intended to offset the high operating costs of exhaust air treatment with savings of heating costs in cold seasons and to use the plant more efficiently. This system was tested for the first time under practical conditions in a pig fattening house in southern Germany. Three different assembly situations of the heat exchanger were examined for 13 days each and then compared with each other. The heating performance of the plant is primarily dependent on the outside air temperature and secondarily on the scrubbing water temperature. Depending on the assembly situation of the heat exchanger, an average heating performance of between 6.0 and 10.0 kW was observed; the amount of recovered thermal energy was between 1860 and 3132 kWh. The coefficient of performance (COP) ranked between 7.1 and 11.5. Furthermore, ammonia removal up to 64% was demonstrated. A long-term investigation of the system under practical conditions is recommended to validate the data collected in this study.
... The NH 3 concentration in pig barns is considerable, because pigs are mostly intensively bred in warmed up closed structures with forced ventilation and high animal density per square metre [6]. Van der Heyden et al. [7] presented a literature overview of NH 3 concentration in various conventional mechanically ventilated pig fattening facilities and reported that NH 3 concentration usually ranges from 2 to 87 ppm. ...
... Furthermore, lower yearly mean values of approximately 30 m 3 h −1 per piglet have also been reported in the literature [41]. Ni et al. [42] reported CO2 concentrations between 2000 and 2300 ppm in a pig fattening barn and van der Heyden et al. [7] found a wider range between 1000 and 5000 ppm in a review of pig farms in Europe. The CO2 concentrations in the compartments were in a normal range, according to the age and the body mass of the piglets and far below the critical limit fixed by the legislation for the farmers (5000 ppm) (Commission Directive 2006/15/EC) and the ones fixed for the pigs, as reported in the German legislation for the animal welfare (3000 ppm) [9]. ...
... Moreover, the low animal density per square metre and the forced ventilation operating all day and night contributed to maintain these low values. The NH3 concentrations were low, but within a normal range regarding the body mass and the number of the animals [7,43] and very far from the critical limit defined by legislation. The NH3 concentration was about 17% lower (p < 0.01) in the compartment with plants (P) compared to the one without plants (CTR), with values of around 2.0 ppm and 2.4 ppm, respectively. ...
For animal welfare and for farmers’ health, the concentration of ammonia (NH3) in animal houses should be as low as possible. Plants can remove various atmospheric contaminants through the leaf stomata. This study examined the effect of ornamental plants installed inside a piglet barn on the NH3 concentration in the air. Gas measurements of the air in the ‘greened’ compartment (P) and a control compartment (CTR) took place over two measuring periods (summer–autumn and winter). Differences between the NH3 emissions were calculated based on the ventilation rates according to the CO2 balance. Fairly low mean NH3 concentrations between 2 and 4 ppm were measured. The NH3 emissions were about 20% lower (p < 0.01) in P than in CTR, in summer–autumn and in winter period.
... The NH 3 concentration in pig barns is considerable, because pigs are mostly intensively bred in warmed up closed structures with forced ventilation and high animal density per square metre [6]. Van der Heyden et al. [7] presented a literature overview of NH 3 concentration in various conventional mechanically ventilated pig fattening facilities and reported that NH 3 concentration usually ranges from 2 to 87 ppm. ...
... Furthermore, lower yearly mean values of approximately 30 m 3 h −1 per piglet have also been reported in the literature [41]. Ni et al. [42] reported CO2 concentrations between 2000 and 2300 ppm in a pig fattening barn and van der Heyden et al. [7] found a wider range between 1000 and 5000 ppm in a review of pig farms in Europe. The CO2 concentrations in the compartments were in a normal range, according to the age and the body mass of the piglets and far below the critical limit fixed by the legislation for the farmers (5000 ppm) (Commission Directive 2006/15/EC) and the ones fixed for the pigs, as reported in the German legislation for the animal welfare (3000 ppm) [9]. ...
... Moreover, the low animal density per square metre and the forced ventilation operating all day and night contributed to maintain these low values. The NH3 concentrations were low, but within a normal range regarding the body mass and the number of the animals [7,43] and very far from the critical limit defined by legislation. The NH3 concentration was about 17% lower (p < 0.01) in the compartment with plants (P) compared to the one without plants (CTR), with values of around 2.0 ppm and 2.4 ppm, respectively. ...
For animal welfare and for farmers’ health, the concentration of ammonia (NH3) in animal houses should be as low as possible. Plants can remove various atmospheric contaminants through the leaf stomata. This study examined the effect of ornamental plants installed inside a piglet barn on the NH3 concentration in the air. Gas measurements of the air in the ‘greened’ compartment (P) and a control compartment (CTR) took place over two measuring periods (summer–autumn and winter). Differences between the NH3 emissions were calculated based on the ventilation rates according to the CO2 balance. Fairly low mean NH3 concentrations between 2 and 4 ppm were measured. The NH3 emissions were about 20% lower (p < 0.01) in P than in CTR, in summer–autumn and in winter period.
... Alternatively, strategies for reducing odor emissions from livestock activities can be implemented in farms and can be divided into two main lines of action: (i) "upstream", aimed at reducing emissions before they are emitted; and (ii) "downstream", aimed at containing emissions, once produced. As an example, nutritional strategies [16] and building design [17,18] fall into "upstream" category, whereas the application of covering systems [19], manure treatments [20,21] or air treatment technologies [22] fall under "downstream". In particular, for what concerns air cleaning technologies, acid scrubbers, bio-scrubbers and biotrickling filters are considered effective techniques for odor removal in pig farms [23][24][25]. ...
... Biofilters need an accurate control of the medium moisture of the packing material is required for a correct functionality [36,37], other than of temperature and nutrients to guarantee the survival of the bacterial population [13]. Moreover, they have the disadvantage of producing N 2 O emissions if nitrifying bacteria are present [22]. ...
... Wet and acid scrubber are normally used in facilities provided with forced ventilation and removal efficiencies are calculated considering the difference in the odor concentration between the inlet and outlet air from the scrubber. An average odor removal of 27% for acid scrubbers in forced ventilation was reported by Melse and Ogink [25] and, Van der Heyden et al. [22], in their review, indicated removal efficiencies ranging from negative values up to 80%, for all types of air scrubbers. Variations are principally linked to the type of air scrubber and the method chosen for the analyses. ...
Livestock activities, in particular swine farms, are sources of odorant compounds that cause conflicts with the neighboring population. Beside the effects on the neighborhood, excessive odor emission can cause discomfort to farm workers. In this context the APPROAch project, aims to test the application of two different air cleaning technologies (a wet acid scrubber and a dry filter) to reduce dust, ammonia and odors, in naturally ventilated pig facilities. The aim of the present study is to evaluate, in a pig farm, the odor removal efficiency of the two tested abatement technologies, based on air samples analyzed by dynamic olfactometry. Odor sampling was carried out at a pig facility involved in the project and brought to the lab within 30 h from sampling, as established by the European Standard EN 13725:2004. Odor concentration was evaluated by dynamic olfactometry using an Olfaktomat-n 6 (PRA-Odournet B.V.—Amsterdam, The Netherlands). The results show that the wet acid scrubber prototype presents an average odor removal efficiency of 16%, whereas dry filter has from limited to no effect. This efficiency could be considered as a good result for a prototype even if further analysis, with longer sampling periods are needed.
... Concentrated animal production results in significant air pollutant emissions that contribute to environmental pollution and global warming issues. Various air pollutants, such as NH 3 , H 2 S, CH 4 , and CO 2 , can originate from animal housing, manure storage, and land application [1]. There is a need to mitigate these pollutants while sustaining animal protein supplies. ...
... There is a need to mitigate these pollutants while sustaining animal protein supplies. This mitigation will not only protect the environment but also improve indoor air quality critical for animal health and welfare, as well as the safety and health of farm workers [2,3]. ...
Numerous technologies have been investigated for mitigating air pollutant emissions from swine barns. Among them, algal photobioreactors (PBRs) can remove and utilize air pollutants such as CO2 and NH 3 from barn exhaust. However, a challenge to PBR operation is that it involves multiple system input parameters and output goals. A key question is then how to determine the appropriate CO 2 and NH 3 concentrations in this case. Conventional statistical methods are inadequate for handling this complex problem. Multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) emerges as a practical methodology for comparison and can be utilized to rank different CO 2-NH 3 interactions based on their environmental and biological performance. By employing MCDM methods, producers can effectively control the ratio of CO 2 and NH 3 concentrations, enabling them to identify the optimal range of operating parameters for various housing types, ensuring efficient pollutant mitigation. In this study, a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach was employed to support operation management. Specifically, influent CO2 and NH 3 concentrations were optimized for three scenarios (the best biological, environmental, and overall performance), using a combination of two MCDM techniques. This study is anticipated to facilitate the system analysis and optimization of algae-based phytoremediation processes.
... All technologies, with the exception of the BF, can be easily controlled and automated (van der Heyden et al., 2015). Among some parameters to be controlled we find pH (by alkali dosage), products and byproducts accumulation (by water discharge) and trickling density (by liquid flowrate, mainly for BSs) (van der Heyden et al., 2015). ...
... All technologies, with the exception of the BF, can be easily controlled and automated (van der Heyden et al., 2015). Among some parameters to be controlled we find pH (by alkali dosage), products and byproducts accumulation (by water discharge) and trickling density (by liquid flowrate, mainly for BSs) (van der Heyden et al., 2015). In terms of manpower requirements, the latter means that qualified personnel are needed to keep them operating (Estrada et al., 2012). ...
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) removal from biogas is of high relevance as it damages combustion engines used for heat and power generation and causes adverse public health and environmental effects. Biological processes have been reported as a cost-effective and promising approach to desulfurize biogas. This review presents a detailed description of the biochemical foundations of the metabolic apparatus of H2S oxidizing bacteria, namely chemolithoautotrophs and anoxygenic photoautotrophs. The review focuses on the current and future applications of biological processes for biogas desulfurization and provides insights into their mechanism and main factors influencing their performance. The advantages, drawbacks, limitations, and technical improvements of the biotechnological applications currently based on chemolithoautotrophic organisms are covered extensively. Recent advances, sustainability and economical aspects of biological biogas desulfurization are also discussed. Anoxygenic photoautotrophic-bacteria-based photobioreactors were herein identified as useful tools to improve the sustainability and safety of biological biogas desulfurization. The review addresses gaps in the existing studies concerning the selection of the most suitable desulfurization techniques, their benefits and consequences. The research is useful for all stakeholders involved in the management and optimization of biogas and its findings are directly applicable in the development of new sustainable technologies for biogas upgrading processes on waste treatment plants.
... Technologies are seen as the main solution in order to reduce emissions in both international and Flemish policies. This can be recognised in lists that set out government-approved technologies for reducing emissions (Jacobsen et al. 2019;Kros et al. 2013; Van der Heyden et al. 2015). ...
... A second set of technologies are focused on preventing the formation of ammonia in manure. A third option is to prevent the emission of ammonia to the outside air, either by trapping manure gasses or by using air scrubbers to filter the outgoing air in the livestock shed ( Van der Heyden et al. 2015). ...
This study is focused on unsustainable agri-food systems, especially intensive livestock farming and its resulting environmental harms. Specifically we focus on the development of technologies that seek to mitigate these environmental harms. These technologies are generally developed as incremental innovations in response to government regulation. Critics of these technological solutions allege that these developments legitimate unsustainable food production systems and are incapable of supporting agri-food systems transformation. At the same time, technology developers and other actors seek to present these technologies as the legitimate solution to agri-environmental harms. Our study seeks to explore the perceptions and constructions of legitimacy for technologies that are developed to reduce ammonia emissions in intensive livestock farming in Flanders (Belgium). We use a qualitative case study, employing semi-structured interviews and workshops, with technology developers of ammonia-emission reducing technologies and stakeholders in the intensive livestock farming industry in Flanders. What our study shows is that technologies developed to reduce emissions are dependent on regulative legitimacy. The normative and cognitive legitimacy of these technologies is lacking, both due to ties to the intensive livestock industry and due to uncertainty over the performance of these technologies. With the delegitimation of intensive livestock farming, the legitimacy of these technologies is also under threat. In response, technology developers are looking to (re-)construct this legitimacy through knowledge claims over the performance of their technologies. We show several ways for other actors to deal with this, centred on either re-legitimising technologies to maintain the status quo, or to contest these knowledge claims and use them to disrupt path dependencies.
... The authors promote yucca-based products because they are relatively cheap. Van der Heyden et al. (2015) published an overview of biofilters and air scrubbers applied for the mitigation of emissions from livestock buildings for poultry and pigs. They characterize the exhaust air from pigsties and henhouses and present the general principle of operation of devices and parameters influencing their performance. ...
... Compared with the biofilter, it has a higher ammonia removal capability. The poorer performance of the biofilter can be explained by problems with bed wetting and the escape of untreated gas from the device ( Van der Heyden et al., 2015). ...
Poultry breeding takes place in intensive, high-production systems characterized by high animal density, which is a source of harmful emission of odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and greenhouse gases, which in turn sustain animal welfare. This study identified and examined the characteristics of chemical compounds emitted in intensive poultry farming (laying hens, broilers) and their toxicity, which led to recommending methods of deodorization. Emphasis was placed on the law relative to air purification in poultry farms. Various methods of air treatment in poultry farms have been described: the modification of animal diet to improve nutrient retention and decrease the amount of their excrement; chemical oxidation technologies (ozonation, photocatalysis, Fenton reaction); various types/brands of biofilters, bioscrubbers and membrane reactors. Numerous studies show that biofilters can reduce ammonia emissions by 51%, hydrogen sulfide by 80%, odors by 67%, while scrubbers brings down ammonia emissions by 77% and odors by 42%, and the application of UV light lowers ammonia emissions by 28%, hydrogen sulfide by 55%, odors by 69% and VOCs by 52%. The paper presents both the solutions currently used in poultry farming and those which are currently in the research and development phase and, as innovative solutions, could be implemented in the near future.
... According to 25 , adequate dimensioning and proper operation of EATSs is very important to ensure effective and continuous emission reduction 24,26 . Even if these conditions are fulfilled, exhaust air treatment is connected with high investment and running costs 27 and further research is needed to reduce costs 19,28 . ...
... Regulatory requirements and guidelines on airborne emissions from intensive livestock production are well described by 26,28 . The current version of the "Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Intensive Rearing of Poultry or Pigs" lists EATSs as BAT, but at various points it is noted that "This technique may not be generally applicable due to the high implementation cost" 5 . ...
Exhaust air treatment systems (EATS) are used in animal husbandry to reduce emissions. However, EATS are associated with high acquisition and operating costs. Therefore, a plant technology is being developed that integrates a recuperative heat exchanger into a biological air scrubber. The overall aim is to reduce total costs of livestock buildings with EATS by saving heating costs and to improve animal environment. In this study, a special pilot-plant on a small-scale, using clean exhaust air, was constructed to evaluate the heating performance on laboratory scale. Three assembly situations of the heat exchanger into trickle-bed reactor were part of a trial with two different defined air flow rates. In all three assembly situations, preheating of cold outside air was observed. The heating performance of the assembly situation with the sprayed heat exchanger arranged below showed an average of 4.4 kW at 1800 m ³ h ⁻¹ (outside air temperature range 0.0–7.9 °C). This is up to 18% higher than the other two experimental setups. The heating performance of the pilot-plant is particularly influenced by the outside air temperature. Further research on the pilot-plant is required to test the system under field conditions.
... The VOCs emitted from chicken feces and bodily fluids can be odorous [8]. Some odorous substances from these facilities may pose health risks to livestock, workers and the environment [4,5,9,10]. Prolonged exposure to odor causes respiratory and campylobacters infection, the major poultry-borne zoonotic pathogens [11,12]. ...
The increasing demand for free-range poultry products has led to a surge in their availability in the market, prompting a potential decline in premium prices associated with these products. This shift places considerable pressure on upstream costs in chicken production. A comprehensive under-standing of its impact on the environment is essential to ensure the success of commercial and industrial free-range chicken production. However, there exists a significant knowledge gap concerning the emission and concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from organic-free range chicken, and their environmental implications have yet to be understood. We aim to address this critical knowledge gap by elucidating the role of VOC emissions in chicken production and assessing their impact on human and animal health, as well as environmental challenges. Understanding the implications of VOC emissions is essential for promoting sustainable and responsible free-range chicken farming practices. By identifying the sources of VOC emissions and their impacts, stakeholders can implement appropriate measures to optimize air quality and enhance the well-being of chickens and workers. Ultimately, this review highlights the role of VOCs in animal production, providing valuable insights for improving the efficiency, environmental sustainability and welfare aspects of free-range chicken farming.
... Ammonia (NH 3 ) is an odorous and toxic air pollutant that poses a significant threat to ecosystems and public health either through its deposition or formation of smog [1][2][3][4]. The widespread occurrence of ammonia emissions from agricultural activities, wastewater treatment plants, and composting facilities has made ammonia control a focal point for various industries [5,6]. Biofilters have been widely employed to mitigate low-level ammonia emissions owing to their costeffectiveness and remarkable removal efficiency [7]. ...
... 10% [13] Clinoptilolite as feed additive 30% [29] Yucca extract as feed additive 50% [29] Housing New and largely rebuilt broiler housing 20-90% [13] Naturally ventilated house or insulated fan-ventilated house with a fully littered floor and equipped with non-leaking drinking system 20-30% [13] Litter with forced manure drying using internal air 40-60% [13] Tiered floor and forced air drying 90% [13] Tiered removable sides; forced air drying 90% [13] Combideck system 40 [13] Magnesium sulfate as litter additive 45% [5] Aluminium sulphate as litter additive 50-70% [13,30] Clinoptilolite as litter additive 28% [6] Scrubbing of exhaust air 70-90% [13] Biofiltration of exhaust air 50% [31] and cardiovascular diseases in humans [21]. In terms of environmental impacts, CO 2 in the atmosphere contributes significantly to global warming, but does not contribute to the greenhouse effect because it is part of the so-called short C cycle, with CO 2 originated by animal production not being accounted in national inventories [14,35]. ...
Broiler housing is a significant source of airborne pollutants from animal production, which lead to degradation of indoor air quality and outdoor emissions, particularly ammonia, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, odours and particulate matter. In this chapter, we first analyse the current state of the art on the consequences of these pollutants on broiler farming, farm workers, and the environment. This includes the factors affecting pollutants generation, quantification, and mitigation measures suppressing airborne pollutants. Next, we describe different best available techniques for environmental protection and sustainability of broiler production, namely feeds and feeding management, feed supplements, bedding management and treatment of exhaust air. Thus, broiler farms should select mitigation strategies based on several considerations, such as location, climate conditions, environmental policies and financial resources.
... Technologies already exist to do this today, and some are quite simple and relatively inexpensive. For example, biofilters, which can be as simple as passing outgoing air through a pile of wood chips are quite effective at reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Van Der Heyden, 2015). There are however tradeoffs; to push air through a filter of any kind requires a larger fan motor, which will use more electricity (Shang, 2022). ...
One major challenge when discussing sustainability is deciding where the box needs to be drawn with regards to what pieces need to be included to look at the whole of sustainability. For example, it would be easy to draw the box around a pig and only look at the direct outputs of the pig, but production of that pig requires crops to be grown, harvested, and processed to make feed, for the pig. The feedmill, that manufactures the feed uses energy to run grinding and mixing equipment. The feedmill had to be constructed, which used energy and raw building materials. The concrete floor of the feedmill had to be trucked in. The cement trucks had to be manufactured, and the truck manufacturing plant uses energy. So the box can get to be very large. The larger the box gets, the more complex the sustainability question becomes. Ultimately, we need to sustain the planet and swine production has to be part of that process (Figure 3). Therefore, while it is important to strive towards sustainability in swine production, ultimately swine production is only one piece of agriculture and agriculture is one piece of the planetary sustainability puzzle. It will take a coordinated effort across all facets of society to truly move the sustainability needle. Individual pieces like environmental sustainability of swine production should continue to be advance, but it is important to understand the impacts of progress in one area on the whole of sustainability. So, is sustainability sustainable? Well, we all hope so, but there are a finite number of natural resources available and with a still growing human population, it will be increasingly more challenging, and let's face it, we have not done the best job so far! We need to shift away from placing blame on others or drawing the box to bias sustainability efforts or to effectively blame one area over another and focus more on fitting all the pieces together for a sustainable planet. Conflict of interest statement. None declared.
... Furthermore, NH 3 emissions are expected to increase [10], which gives cause for concern. In the EU, the focus lies on pig and poultry housing facilities, which contribute to NH 3 emissions [11]. According to [12], pig farming is globally responsible for about 15% of emissions associated with livestock breeding. ...
Citation: Kunes, R.; Havelka, Z.; Olsan, P.; Dolan, A.; Stehlik, R.; Petrovic, B.; Smutny, L.; Bartos, P.; Xiao, M.; Kriz, P.; et al. Comparison of the Three Approaches for Determining Ammonia Emissions in the Intensive Breeding of Fattening Pigs with Respect to the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control: Case Study for the Czech Republic. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 2084. https://
... Furthermore, NH 3 emissions are expected to increase [10], which gives cause for concern. In the EU, the focus lies on pig and poultry housing facilities, which contribute to NH 3 emissions [11]. According to [12], pig farming is globally responsible for about 15% of emissions associated with livestock breeding. ...
This study compares three approaches in the monitoring of ammonia (NH3) emissions from intensive breeding of fattening pigs in relation to compliance with the standards arising from the requirements of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) used in the Czech Republic. The first approach was based on the determination of NH3 emissions calculation by measurement using reduced sampling days focused on the final fattening phase. The second approach was based on the determination of NH3 emissions calculation by measurement respecting the Best Reference Document for Intensive Rearing of Poultry or Pig (BREF IRPP) and relevant best available techniques (BAT) conclusions under Directive 2010/75/EU. The third approach was based on estimation by using emission factors respecting BREF IRPP and Methodological Instruction of the Air Protection Department of the Czech Republic. The results show that the determined emission factors in the Czech Republic may not always reflect the actual production of NH3 emissions even when reduced by the applied BAT. Determination of NH3 emissions calculation by measurement respecting BREF IRPP represents the predominant phases of fattening (refinement) and microclimatic conditions; however, it is time and money-consuming.
... To reduce the emission in the outlet air from mechanically ventilated livestock buildings, end-of-pipe systems are also in use. Acid scrubbers can achieve an emission reduction close to 100% and bio-scrubbers have an average ammonia removal of 70% [72][73][74]. The outlet air purification is limited to mechanically ventilated buildings, with the highest costs compared to other mitigation measures, showing declining costs with growing livestock [23,75]. ...
The emission of ammonia (NH3) is predominantly caused by agriculture, especially by livestock keeping. The health effects of NH3 and the related formation of particulate matter are the reasons for solid efforts to reduce their ambient concentrations. In addition, the impact of global warming on livestock is increasing due to heat stress, likely also increasing NH3 emissions. Therefore, adaptation measures are under discussion to reduce the heat stress of animals inside livestock units. Because of the relationship between temperature increase and NH3 release, the impact of the adaptation measures to cool the indoor air of livestock units (three different energy-saving air preparation systems, an inversion of the feeding and resting times by half a day, a reduction of the stocking density and doubling the maximum volume flow rate) was investigated. The NH3 release was calculated by the following predictors: indoor air temperature; ventilation rate describing the turbulence inside the livestock building; and the diurnal variation caused by the animal activity. These parameters were calculated by a simulation model for the indoor climate of livestock buildings. The monthly mean of the NH3 emission for several adaptation measures, which were applied to reduce heat stress, were compared with the emission of a reference building for 1800 fattening pigs, divided into nine sections with 200 animals each for an all-in-all-out production cycle to calculate the mitigation potential. The higher the cooling power of such adaptation measures, the higher the mitigation potential for NH3. In particular, those adaptation measures which cool the inlet air (e.g., cooling pads reduce the emission by −2%, earth-air heat exchangers by −3.1%) show the best performance to mitigate the NH3 emission of livestock buildings.
... Acid scrubbers are often used to remove these gases/pollutants because of their high efficiency of NH 3 removal, low water consumption, and recovery of gaseous nitrogen into liquid fertilizers (Jafari et al., 2018). Acid scrubbing can reduce NH 3 emissions from animal houses by more than 80 %, however, very less removal efficiency of odor and bacterial aerosol (Aarnink et al., 2011;Heyden et al., 2015). Caustic scrubbing can effectively remove hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), up to 100 % with 5 % NaOH solution (Tira and Padang, 2016). ...
Odor and bioaerosols have serious impacts on the biological safety of animal production and the ecological environment. Thus, it is particularly important to explore synergistic air cleaning technology to solve these problems. In this study, a pilot-scale air cleaning equipment were applied to an experimental manure storage house to determine the removal efficiency of gaseous pollution using four treatments groups. These treatment groups include acid scrubbing + caustic scrubbing (AC), acid scrubbing + caustic scrubbing + photocatalytic oxidation (ACP), acid scrubbing + caustic scrubbing + biological scrubbing (ACB), and acid scrubbing + caustic scrubbing + biological scrubbing + photocatalytic oxidation (ACBP). Results showed that ACP can synergistically remove odor and bioaerosol, with ammonia, odor concentrations, hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, methyl sulfide, bacterial aerosol, and fugal aerosol removal efficiencies of 89.1 %, 76.3 %, 100 %, 94.2 %, 91.2 %, 75.6 %, and 83.6 %, respectively. Furthermore, ACBP has the highest removal efficiency of 79.2 % for odor concentration, but this combination has a low inactivation efficiency (< 25 %) for bacterial aerosols. Moreover, adding biological scrubbing before photocatalytic can reduce the conversion from aromatic hydrocarbons to Oxygenated VOCs. Findings of this study provide a theoretical basis and technical support for the application of air cleaning technology in livestock houses.
... However, due to its propensity to negatively impact the environment by causing acid rain, its emissions are studied during the biodegradation of organic matter [96]. Ammonia can also be a precursor for the formation of secondary pollutants such as N2O [108]. However, few studies have measured NH3 emissions during BSFL breeding and bioconversion operations (Table 1). ...
The black soldier fly (BSF) is recognised as a valuable insect for mitigating feed and organic waste management challenges. Thus, concerted efforts are being directed toward the promotion of the BSF. Despite the numerous advantages of BSF larvae, there are several critical environmental aspects, particularly its global warming potential, that need to be considered before large-scale adoption due to the complexity of the insect’s value chain. The direct assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) and ammonia emissions from BSF larvae biotreatment is crucial for conducting a life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the insect products’ environmental performance. This article reviews the emissions of GHG from BSF larvae bioconversion activities based on different gas sensing techniques while highlighting the factors that influence these emissions. Generally, low gas emissions were reported. However, the influence of various factors influencing emissions remains unclear, especially for nitrous oxide. We also analysed LCA studies on BSFL products while emphasising the uncertainties and variabilities among the studies. The wide variation of impact scores reported in the studies suggests that standardised guidelines should be developed to streamline methodical approaches for impact assessments pertaining to system boundaries, functional units, allocation, and system expansion assumptions. We identified several aspects for future improvements to harmonise studies in order to enhance the comparative assessment of the BSFL products.
... Zat berbau dari limbah hasil industri dapat mencemari lingkungan dan dapat mengganggu berbagai aspek aktivitas manusia di sekitarnya (Wysocka, 2019). Sumber zat berbau busuk mencakup produksi industri (misalnya, produksi asam fosfat, pupuk nitrogen, kertas, dan lainnya) (Boumnijel et al., 2016), instalasi pengolahan limbah, (Lewkowska et al., 2016;Zhou et al., 2016), tempat pembuangan sampah kota (Lucernoni et al., 2016), produksi ternak dan unggas (misalnya, kandang ayam, lumbung, dan lainnya) (Van der Heyden et al., 2015), proses pengolahan limbah, misalnya proses pembuatan kompos (Wang et al., 2015). Limbah yang dihasilkan dalam proses pembuatan es krim yang dikategorikan sebagai industri pengolahan makanan merupakan salah satu yang menghasilkan gas berbau busuk (Lee et al., 2013;Qamaruz-Zaman et al., 2015;Qamaruz-Zaman & Milke, 2012). ...
The growing number of industries in Indonesia causes industrial waste to increase. Substances with upleasant smell from industrial waste can pollute the environment. Currently, not many people process and utilize industrial waste in the form of sludge left over from the WWTP process. The biofilter method will be very effective in handling air pollution because it has several advantages, among them are an easy and simple process, low investment and operational costs, and a relatively long operational time. The study began with the manufacture of incubation equipment and biofilter columns, testing the feasibility of the biofilter and incubation column, selecting fillers based on the results of a literature review, sampling fillers, preparing fillers, preparing samples of ice cream waste sludge from the ice cream industry in the Jababeka area, followed by analysis proximate sludge, analysis of ammonia gas in sludge with various variations of sludge weight and time, biofiltration process using coconut shell charcoal in order to obtain optimal variations in coconut shell charcoal size, then biofiltration using coconut shell charcoal briquettes with added zeolite content variations to determine the most effective filler material to remove odors. The results show that coconut shell charcoal with a particle size of 100 mesh is the most optimal biofilter filler for removing ammonia gas with an efficiency of 75% compared to a particle size of 20 mesh and 60 mesh which has an ammonia gas removal efficiency of 64% and 68%. Biofilter IV has the highest efficiency in removing ammonia gas, which is 90%. Keywords: Black soldier fly maggot, Biofilter, Coconut shell charcoal. Zeolite, Odor remover ABSTRAK Semakin banyaknya industri di Indonesia menyebabkan limbah industri semakin meningkat. Zat yang berbau dari limbah hasil industri dapat mencemari lingkungan. Saat ini belum banyak yang mengolah dan memanfaatkan limbah industri berupa sludge sisa proses IPAL. Metode biofilter akan sangat efektif dalam penanganan pencemaran udara karena memiliki beberapa keuntungan, diantaranya proses yang mudah dan sederhana, biaya investasi dan operasional yang rendah, serta waktu operasional yang relatif dapat bertahan lama. Penelitian diawali dengan pembuatan alat inkubasi dan kolom biofilter, pengujian kelaikan kolom biofilter dan inkubasi, pemilihan bahan pengisi berdasarkan hasil kajian literatur, sampling bahan pengisi, preparasi bahan pengisi, preparasi sampel sludge limbah es krim dari industri es krim di wilayah Jababeka, dilanjutkan dengan analisis proksimat sludge, analisis gas amonia pada sludge dengan berbagai variasi bobot sludge dan waktu, proses biofiltrasi menggunakan arang tempurung kelapa agar didapatkan variasi ukuran arang tempurung kelapa yang optimal, kemudian biofiltrasi menggunakan briket arang tempurung kelapa yang ditambahkan variasi kandungan zeolit untuk mengetahui bahan pengisi yang paling efektif menghilangkan bau. Hasil penelitian didapatkan bahwa arang tempurung kelapa dengan ukuran partikel 100 mesh adalah bahan pengisi biofilter yang paling optimal untuk menghilangkan gas amonia dengan efisiensi sebesar 75% dibandingkan dengan ukuran partikel 20 mesh dan 60 mesh yang memiliki nilai efisiensi penghilangan gas amonia sebesar 64% dan 68%. Biofilter IV memiliki nilai efisiensi paling tinggi dalam menghilangkan gas amonia yaitu sebesar 90%. Kata kunci: Black soldier fly maggot, Biofilter, Arang tempurung kelapa, Zeolit, Penghilang bau
... Various mitigation technologies have been developed to reduce such air pollution, and the mitigation technologies are divided mainly into "source-based type", (meant to fundamentally reduce the emissions) and "end-of-pipe type" (physicochemical and biological treatment of the output from barns to reduce the release into the environment) [7]. Interestingly, ultraviolet light (UV) can be considered as both end-of-pipe (treating exhaust air from barns) and source-based type (treating air inside the barn) [8,9]. ...
Ultraviolet (UV)-based photocatalysis has been the subject of numerous investigations focused on mitigating undesirable pollutants in the gas phase. Few works report on applications beyond the proof of the concept. Even less is known about the current state of the art of UV photocatalysis in the context of animal agriculture. A growing body of research published over the last 15 years has advanced the knowledge and feasibility of UV-A photocatalysis for swine and poultry farm applications. This review paper summarizes UV-A photocatalysis technology’s effectiveness in mitigating targeted air pollutants in livestock and poultry farms. Specifically, air pollutants include odor, odorous VOCs, NH3, H2S and greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O). We trace the progression of UV-A photocatalysis applications in animal farming since the mid-2000 and developments from laboratory to farm-scale trials. In addition, this review paper discusses the practical limitations and outlines the research needs for increasing the technology readiness and practical UV application in animal farming.
... De Vries and Melse, 2017;Hadlocon et al., 2015;Kristiansen et al., 2011;Kros et al., 2011;Li et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2017;Melse and Ogink, 2005;Moore et al., 2018;Mostafa et al., 2017;Opaliński et al., 2015;Thomas et al., 2006;Van der Heyden et al., 2016;Van der Heyden et al., 2015;Vaneeckhaute et al., 2016;Zhao et al. ...
The livestock industry has developed rapidly in recent decades, but the improper treatment of livestock manure, especially slurry, causes environmental pollution. Treatment technologies are considered to be effective in alleviating nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses from livestock slurry. Here, we used published research data to conduct a meta-analysis of the recovery efficiencies of N and P of five mainstream treatment technologies, including ammonia stripping, air scrubbing, membrane filtration, microalgae cultivation and struvite crystalli-zation. Additionally, the agronomic effects of the recovered products of these treatment technologies were evaluated. The results showed that all technologies exhibited clear recovery effects on N and P. The N recovery efficiencies ranged from 57% to 86%, and those of P ranged from 64% to 87%. Struvite crystallization was the most efficient treatment technology for both N and P recovery; moreover, the ammonia stripping and microalgae cultivation technologies were less efficient. The pH levels and temperatures are the main factors that influence ammonia stripping, struvite crystallization and microalgae cultivation, while membrane filtration and air scrubbing are mainly affected by the membrane types and properties. When the equal amount of N or P input to fields, the recovered products (ammonium sulfate and struvite crystals) may achieve a similar crop yield, relative to commercial N or P fertilizers. Our findings can provide deep suggestions and parameters for designing proper treatment technologies to reduce nutrient discharge from livestock slurry in regions with high livestock density and also for identifying the research gaps that should be paid more attention in the future.
... Mitigating air pollutants from pig operations not only reduces emissions but also provides an improved indoor environment for animals and farm workers. Numerous methods such as ozonation (Bildsoe et al., 2012;Liu et al., 2011), scrubbers (Feilberg and Sommer, 2013;Mostafa et al., 2020;Van der Heyden et al., 2015), biofilters (Tymczyna et al., 2010), barriers (Berg et al., 2006), dietary manipulation (Recharla et al., 2017;Saeed et al., 2018), and photocatalysis (Yang et al., 2020), have been investigated. However, many of these technologies are not extensively practiced because of installation difficulties and high costs. ...
The continual consolidation and concentration of animal feeding operations (AFOs) raises various environmental challenges, including air pollutant emission. Cost-effective mitigation technologies are pursued to protect the health and wellbeing of animals and farmers as well as the environment. Previous lab studies utilized ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2), two major air pollutants in AFOs, for microalgal cultivation. However, the field performance of this algae-based mitigation approach has yet to be investigated. In this study, two photobioreactors (PBRs) were tested in a nursery pig barn to mitigate NH3 and CO2 while growing Scenedesmus dimorphus (S. dimorphus). Pit air was fed into the PBRs where the two pollutants were adsorbed by S. dimorphus as nutrients to produce algal biomass and oxygen gas (O2). The cleaned air then recirculated back to the room space. S. dimorphus reached its maximum cell count on the 17th day of the experiment when NH3 and CO2 concentrations in the pit air were 25.6 ppm and 3150 ppm, respectively. The maximum biomass concentration occurred on the 11th day when the NH3 and CO2 concentrations were 14.6 and 2250 ppm, respectively. The average mitigation efficiency was 31–50% for NH3 and 1–1.7% for CO2. The costs for removing 1 g NH3 and CO2 were estimated to be $3.77 and $0.20, respectively. This study shows that an integrated PBR system is technically feasible for reducing pig barn air pollutant emission while producing microalgae as a valuable product.
... Air pollutants are mainly divided into particulate matter and gaseous pollutants. The former can be treated by physical methods such as filtration [16], electrostatic precipitation [17] and wet washing [18], and the latter can be treated by biological methods [19]. ...
In recent years, non-thermal plasma technology has gained considerable attention. It can produce highly reactive hydroxyl radicals and other strong oxidants, which is promising in environment pollutants removal. This article mainly reviews the recent advances in environment contaminants removal with several well-known non-thermal plasma technologies. We first introduce non-thermal plasma technology and its development，and then summarize their applications for air purification organic wastewater treatment and sludge organic crack，and prospect their further development in the future.
... Real-time monitoring of VOC concentration levels can provide useful information about the early stages of decomposition and thereby lead to the improvement of safety standards in the agri-food sector [8,9]. Furthermore, malodorous VOCs with toxic properties from industrial production [10], sewage treatment plants [11,12], municipal landfill sites [13], livestock and poultry production [14] and waste treatment processes [15] would benefit from early warning systems of malodour emission, because of the increasing number of complaints from the human population who live near emission sources (reviewed by Conti et al [3]). ...
Organic decomposition processes, involving the breakdown of complex molecules as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, release small chemicals known as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), smelly even at very low concentrations, but not all readily detectable by vertebrates. Many of these compounds are instead detected by insects, mostly by saprophytic species, for which long-range orientation towards organic decomposition matter is crucial. In the present work the detection of aldehydes, as an important measure of lipid oxidation, has been possible exploiting the molecular machinery underlying odour recognition in Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). This voracious scavenger insect is of interest due to its outstanding capacity in bioconversion of organic waste, colonizing very diverse environments due to the ability of sensing a wide range of chemical compounds that influence the choice of substrates for ovideposition. A variety of soluble odorant binding proteins (OBPs) that may function as carriers of hydrophobic molecules from the air-water interface in the antenna of the insect to the receptors were identified, characterised and expressed. An OBP-based nanobiosensor prototype was realized using selected OBPs as sensing layers for the development of an array of quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs) for vapour phase detection of selected compounds at room temperature. QCMs coated with four recombinant H. illucens OBPs (HillOBPs) were exposed to a wide range of VOCs indicative of organic decomposition, showing a high sensitivity for the detection of three chemical compounds belonging to the class of aldehydes and one short-chain fatty acid. The possibility of using biomolecules capable of binding small ligands as reversible gas sensors has been confirmed, greatly expanding the state-of the-art in gas sensing technology.
... It's release in animal barns, the influence on animal welfare or the effects of feeding on NH 3 emissions has been investigated (Lengling et al., 2020;Liu et al., 2017;Li et al., 2015). In this context, the effectiveness of air scrubbers and biofilters (Van der Heyden et al., 2015) and the spread of such emissions under different conditions have also been examined. ...
The accurate measurement of environmentally-relevant gases such as ammonia (NH3) is increasingly important, especially in agricultural science. Accurate and continuous measurement of gases is essential for evaluating NH3 and other gases as resource-based indicators of air quality in forced ventilation barns and for determining emission rates. To better assess measuring devices under different barn conditions (e.g. relative humidity or concentration range) self-conducted tests should be implemented at the laboratory scale before, during and after (experimental) measurements in the barn, independent of the manufacturer's specifications. Therefore, in this study, a gas calibration unit was set up for measurements at the laboratory scale. Moreover, measurement protocols were developed to investigate the accuracy at different gas concentrations and relative humidity levels and the responsiveness to rapid gas concentration changes. Measurements were performed with photoacoustic gas analysers (INNOVA 1412) and transmitters with electrochemical gas sensors (Polytron 8100 and C300). In addition to the presentation of results of the devices used in this case, this study should above all offer suggestions for quality monitoring to test sensors more intensively at the laboratory scale in order to be able to use them in a more targeted manner according to their optimal suitability.
... While application on land is still the main treatment method for sewage sludge and dewatered sewage sludge digestate can also be applied on arable land, there have been concerns related to the safety of utilizing sewage sludge in this manner. Sewage sludge contains heavy metals (Fytili and Zabaniotou, 2008), pathogens (Bibby and Peccia, 2013), and pharmaceutical residues (Malmborg and Magnér, 2015), and can work as a route for microplastics entering into soil ( Van der Heyden et al., 2015). Therefore, there has been interest in thermal treatment of sewage sludge (Fytili and Zabaniotou, 2008), which can tackle these issues. ...
Due to the global trend of urbanization, the amount of sewage water is increasing in cities. This calls for efficient treatment of the resulting sewage sludge. To date, in the 27 European Union member countries (EU-27), the prevailing treatment method is application on arable land. Anaerobic digestion is one of the treatment methods being increasingly used nowadays. However, the resulting digestate requires further utilization. Therefore, in this study, the environmental performance of composting, combustion, and pyrolysis options for dewatered sewage sludge digestate is evaluated based on a life cycle assessment. The results show that digestate combustion and composting performed better than pyrolysis for most of the selected impact categories. However, pyrolysis of sewage sludge is still under development, and there are, to some degree, uncertainties in the data related to this technology; thus, more information for the performance assessment of pyrolysis is still required.
... To sustainably meet the expanding demand for poultry products, improving resource use efficiency and reducing the emissions associated with their production is essential. This includes attention to the development of optimal housing systems for intensive, confined poultry production that meet physiological requirements and support efficient production while reducing associated non-renewable energy use and environmental impacts [3,4]. ...
The livestock sector is a key source of greenhouse gas emissions and other impacts. Poultry (meat and eggs) is the fastest growing livestock sector globally. Poultry housing, including both infrastructure and operating energy, may account for as much as 50% of the total non-renewable energy (non-RE) use and up to 20%–35% of some of the life cycle impacts of poultry production. The application of net zero energy (NZE) building technologies (i.e. that enable net zero non-RE consumption on site) for poultry housing represents a promising but under-considered mitigation strategy, which could help lessen reliance on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Insights from commercial and residential net zero energy building (NZEB) research can, to a limited extent, inform design considerations for NZE poultry housing, but a variety of unique design considerations and challenges inherent to confined, intensive animal husbandry must be considered. Towards this end, this review seeks to: 1) identify insights from research of residential and commercial NZEBs that might be applied in designing NZE poultry housing; 2) quantify the magnitude and distribution of energy use in poultry housing in order to determine key energy consuming components; and 3) identify priority design considerations for NZEBs for intensive confined poultry production, taking into account the physiological requirements of poultry as well as specific requirements for intensive, confined production. To accomplish these goals, 249 relevant papers were identified and reviewed. It was found that, similar to commercial/residential applications, design strategies should focus on a combination of aspects respectively aimed at (1) reducing direct energy (DE) use via structural design, (2) improving the energy efficiency of active technology systems and (3) installing context-appropriate renewable energy (RE) generation systems. Some common passive design strategies like maximizing glazed area may be less applicable for poultry housing where photoperiod control is required. Heating (during heating seasons) and ventilation (during cooling seasons) are the two main contributors to DE use in poultry housing but vary considerably based on geography and climate. HVAC systems should hence be a priority focus, considering the high ventilation rates required in confined poultry housing in order to maintain air quality. However, any modifications to current technologies should be based on careful consideration of the physiological requirements of poultry (for example, ambient temperature, air quality, feed and water provision, etc.), along with local climatic factors, technical feasibility and availability of alternative technologies, as well as both environmental and economic payback times.
... × 10 2 CFU/m 3 , which is comparable to other studies from Asia and Europe [33,34]. Ammonia deteriorates the air quality of animals and poultry farms, where it was detected in the range of 0.7-20 ppm [35]. High ammonia concertation could negatively impact livestock production by increasing the severity of disease [36][37][38][39]. ...
The outbreak of airborne pathogens, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) through bioaerosol, and their molecular characterization around domestic poultry farming areas, was not completely understood. This imposes risk of a MRSA-associated health threat for the relevant livestock food production units. To address this issue, the present study investigated the role of bioaerosol in transmitting MRSA strains in poultry house settings by combining molecular typing, phylogenetic classification, antibiotic susceptibility, and virulence gene distribution patterns. The present study highlights that all 18 bioaerosol and stool samples collected were MRSA positive, with a unique set of virulence factors. Out of 57 isolated MRSA isolates, 68.4% and 19.3% consisted of SCCmec I and IV elements, respectively, which are commonly linked with hospital-acquired and livestock-associated MRSA strains. It is worth noting that the exfoliative toxin eta and etb genes were carried by 100% and 70.2% of all isolates, respectively. Only 17.5% of strains showed the presence of enterotoxin entC. These MRSA isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol (C), ciprofloxacin (CIP), clindamycin (DA), erythromycin (E), and tetracycline (T), signifying their multi-drug resistance traits. A cluster of phylogenetic analysis described that 80.7% and 15.8% of total isolates belonged to Staphylococcus aureus protein A (spa) type t002 and t548. Whereas 3.5% were reflected as a new spa type. Additionally, as per the chi-squared test score value, these two spa types (t002 and t548) have a distribution correlation with HA-MRSA and LA-MRSA in all the samples (p < 0.005, chi-squared test; degree of freedom = 1). Ultimately, this study highlights the prevalence of MRSA colonization in the conventional poultry farm environment, showing the risk of bioaerosol transmission, which needs epidemiological attention and prevention strategies.
... Odors emitted from environmental facilities, such as livestock farms, sewage treatment plants, and food waste treatment facilities, are unpleasant and prompt complaints from the adjacent residents [1][2][3]. In particular, the generation of highly concentrated odors can cause discomfort, even with a small leak. ...
The odor released from environmental facilities is recognized as a major problem in environmental industries. In this study, reactive absorption, using an electrolyzed water solution (electrolyzed water scrubber, EWS), was developed to treat the odorous gases H2S and NH3, which are representative odorous substances. In addition, a numerical model composed of mass transfer coefficients and zero-order kinetic constants was established to predict the performance of EWS. The model was verified through experiments and data fittings. In the experiments, the concentration of H2S varied from 500 to 2000 ppm, while NH3 was fixed at 500 ppm. The results revealed that the H2S removal rate varied depending on the inlet H2S concentration, but no changes were observed for NH3. The numerical model appropriately described the experimental results to further predict the performance of EWS. The model prediction results for the shock loading of H2S indicated that a 100% removal rate can be achieved by increasing the current density to 70 mA cm−2 or higher. Finally, the EWS can be used to reduce the odor, owing to its flexible operation that responds to fluctuating loading rates.
... Air ventilation is crucial for NH 3 accumulation to eliminate excess humidity from air and litter and reduce climate impacts. It allows air regeneration by eliminating toxic gases produced in the plant (Van der Heyden et al., 2015). Depending on climate conditions and air quality, the poultry farming atmosphere is a critical factor affecting production efficiency. ...
High ammonia (NH3) levels (>25 ppm) in poultry houses reduce the body weight gain, feed conversion, survival ability, carcass conviction rate, and immune system of birds. High NH3 levels can also cause pain, eye-inflammation, and increased oxidative stress. The volatility rate of NH3 in poultry litter depends on the pH, humidity, ventilation rate, air velocity, manure nitrogen (N) content, and temperature. The litter's pH is a major factor regulating the volatilization of NH3because it specifies the volatile ammonium (NH4⁺)/NH3 ratio between their ionic and nonvolatile forms. High NH3 levels damage birds' respiratory systems' mucous membranes, thereby increasing their susceptibility to respiratory infections, particularly to Escherichia coli infection. In this review, the existing knowledge on soil-nitrifying bacteria and NH3 nitrification approaches for advancing poultry manure microbial nitrification and environmental implications of using various NH3 emission control techniques were summarized. Although few studies have focused on reducing NH3 volatilization by nitrification, nitrification is deemed a sustainable approach for reducing N excretions and controlling NH3 emissions in poultry houses. However, further studies are required to determine the most suitable soil nitrification bacteria to increase microbial nitrification.
... Despite high VOC removal efficiency, the biofilter itself produced small amounts of VOCs that could be a concern in a CEA system [71,165]. Biofiltration of N2O and CH4 has proven more challenging than ammonia due to their low solubility in water [166]. The degradation process happens in a gas-liquid interphase around a layer of biofilm in the biofilter matrix [167]. ...
Controlled environment agriculture (CEA), specifically advanced greenhouses, plant factories, and vertical farms, has a significant role to play in the urban agri-food landscape through provision of fresh and nutritious food for urban populations. With the push towards improving sustainability of these systems, a circular or closed-loop approach for managing resources is desirable. These crop production systems generate biowaste in the form of crop and growing substrate residues, the disposal of which not only impacts the immediate environment, but also represents a loss of valuable resources. Closing the resource loop through composting of crop residues and urban biowaste is presented. Composting allows for the recovery of carbon dioxide and plant nutrients that can be reused as inputs for crop production, while also providing a mechanism for managing and valorizing biowastes. A conceptual framework for integrating carbon dioxide and nutrient recovery through composting in a CEA system is described along with potential environmental benefits over conventional inputs. Challenges involved in the recovery and reuse of each component, as well as possible solutions, are discussed. Supplementary technologies such as biofiltration, bioponics, ozonation, and electrochemical oxidation are presented as means to overcome some operational challenges. Gaps in research are identified and future research directions are proposed.
In the development and implementation of housing systems for pigs, there has been a significant focus on pig welfare including loose housing of lactating sows either indoors or outdoors. However, it is equally important to consider the environmental and economic aspects of housing systems to ensure sustainability in livestock production. The aim of this work was to review the sustainability (societal and animal welfare, environmental and economic impact) of different approaches for housing farrowing and lactating sows in indoor environments. The review illustrates that like outdoor systems, indoor housing systems are challenged in meeting the three pillars of sustainability when changing the housing of lactating sows from conventional crates with permanent confinement to systems with temporary or zero-confinement. Increased space allowance increases sow welfare, but in addition, pen designs with increased space increase ammonia emission, investment and running costs. Furthermore, indoor loose lactation systems come with an increased risk for piglet mortality, which unless effectively managed, reduces animal welfare and the economic sustainability of the system. If farms retrofit existing buildings, the larger space per loose farrowing pen leads to a reduction in pen numbers and therefore herd size, reducing the farm profitability. If farmers choose to reduce herd size to meet requirements, welfare will be reduced while emissions will be increased as more sows are brought into production again in other countries, often in conventional systems with fully slatted flooring, to meet the demand for animal protein to feed the growing global population. The review indicates there are ways to house lactating sows loose indoors with increased opportunity to perform highly motivated species-specific behaviours compared to the conventional crates with continuous confinement. These systems can offer a lower risk for environmental impact and economic risk through reducing piglet mortality. Nevertheless, a trade-off for continual freedom of sow movement may be required as zero-confinement increases the risk of piglet mortality and increased emissions. It is important to raise awareness among citizens and policy makers that loose farrowing and lactating systems if applied today, come with a higher production cost and the risk of increased environmental impact. More research and development is needed in relation to the environmental and economic impact of these systems in order to give farmers the best information to invest in new and more sustainable production systems.
Despite its projected crucial role in stringent, future global climate policy, non-CO2 greenhouse gas (NCGG) mitigation remains a large uncertain factor in climate research. A revision of the estimated mitigation potential has implications for the feasibility of global climate policy to reach the Paris Agreement climate goals. Here, we provide a systematic bottom-up estimate of the total uncertainty in NCGG mitigation, by developing ‘optimistic’, ‘default’ and ‘pessimistic’ long-term NCGG marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves, based on a comprehensive literature review of mitigation options. The global 1.5-degree climate target is found to be out of reach under pessimistic MAC assumptions, as is the 2-degree target under high emission assumptions. In a 2-degree scenario, MAC uncertainty translates into a large projected range in relative NCGG reduction (40–58%), carbon budget (±120 Gt CO2) and policy costs (±16%). Partly, the MAC uncertainty signifies a gap that could be bridged by human efforts, but largely it indicates uncertainty in technical limitations.
Pollutant gases originating from animal production and negative environmental effects, especially global warming, are disturbing producers, environmentalists and relevant government institutions day by day. Although pollutant gas emissions also negatively affect agriculture and livestock, there are not many scientific studies on reducing emissions in our country. Emission reduction methods applied in developed countries, on the other hand, are not sustainable systems, which negatively affects their applicability in our country. Microalgae, which has been a renewable raw material source in recent years, is a more economical and sustainable method for reducing the pollutant gases released from animal barns. In this study, it is aimed to reduce the polluting gases originating from animal production structures by means of photosynthesis through microalgae.
In the study, two photobioreactor systems were integrated into the pig farm of South Dakota State University and algae growth (Scenedesmus dimorphus) was monitored with the exhaust barn air for 3 weeks. Scenedesmus dimorphus reached maximum cell count at day 17, when the NH3 and CO2 concentrations in the exhaust air were 25.6 ppm and 3150 ppm, respectively. The maximum biomass concentration was obtained on the 11th day, when the NH3 and CO2 concentrations were 14.6 and 2250 ppm, respectively. The NH3 and CO2 reduction efficiencies of the photobioreactor system were 31-50% and 1-1.7%, respectively. In this system, the abatement costs of 1 g of NH3 and CO2 were calculated to be $3.77 and $0.20, respectively. The results show that photobioreactor systems can be used as an alternative method to reduce polluting gases originating from animal production. In addition, the air coming out of the photobioreactor in winter will be recirculated into the barn, thereby reducing the heating load of the building.
Considering the time spent in enclosed environments, it is essential to study the relationship between pollutants and building ventilation systems to find whether the types and levels of pollutants and greenhouse gasses, which are expected to be exhaled through ventilation systems into the atmosphere, have been adequately evaluated. We propose the hypothesis that the exhaled air from residential buildings contains pollutants that may become another source of contamination affecting urban air quality and potentially contributing to climate drivers. Thus, the main goal of this article is to present a cross-review of the identification of pollutants expected to be exhaled through ventilation systems in residential buildings. This approach has created the concept of “exhalation of buildings” a new concept enclosed within the research project in which this article is included. We analyze the studies related to the most significant pollutants found in buildings and the studies about the relation of buildings' ventilation systems with such pollutants. Our results show that, on the one hand, the increase in the use of mechanical ventilation systems in residential buildings has been demonstrated to enhance the ventilation rate and generally improve the indoor air quality conditions. But no knowledge could be extracted about the corresponding environmental cost of this improvement, as no systematic data were found about the total mass of contaminants exhaled by those ventilation systems. At the same time, no projects were found that showed a quantitative study on exhalation from buildings, contrary to the existence of studies on pollutants in indoor air.
Graphical Abstract
Odor emission seriously affects human and animal health, and the ecological environment. Nevertheless, a systematic summary regarding the control technology for odor emissions in livestock breeding is currently lacking. This paper summarizes odor control technology, highlighting its applicability, advantages, and limitations, which can be used to evaluate and identify the most appropriate methods in livestock production management. Odor control technologies are divided into four categories: dietary manipulation (low-crude protein diet and enzyme additives in feed), in-housing management (separation of urine from feces, adsorbents used as litter additive, and indoor environment/manure surface spraying agent), manure management (semi-permeable membrane-covered, reactor composting, slurry cover, and slurry acidification), and end-of-pipe measures for air treatment (wet scrubbing of the exhaust air from animal houses and biofiltration of the exhaust air from animal houses or composting). Findings of this paper provide a theoretical basis for the application of odor control technology in livestock farms.
High livestock densities and the subsequent generation of large quantities of manure, in some areas of the world, generate hotspots of increased environmental risks through ammonia (NH3) and greenhouse gases (methane, CH4; nitrous oxide, N2O) emissions. Livestock production is therefore facing increased pressures from society to comply with environmental legislation, so that production systems are managed in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. A key solution to minimize or avoid environmental and health concerns associated with manure, is to ensure appropriate manure management through the entire manure management chain from animal housing, storage of manure, treatment operations and finally application to soil. An integrated framework is needed to allow practical, cost-effective on-farm strategies to be selected, which will reduce losses and improve resource use efficiencies
In this chapter, we first analyse the contribution of manure management to NH3 and GHG emissions with focus on bovine, pig and poultry manure. We then describe different mitigation options for reducing gaseous emissions along the manure management chain in terms of their efficiency to decrease NH3 and GHG emissions and their applicability. Finally, we present and assess two case studies of integrated manure management strategies to reduce gaseous emissions.
The poultry industry is a major source of odor pollution and has received significant attention because of its impact on air quality and human health. Acid scrubbing has been widely used in livestock houses to remove ammonia (NH3), but this method has not been optimized for other odorous compounds, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In this study, on-farm acid scrubbing equipment was operated in an experimental closed broiler house to determine the removal efficiency of gaseous pollution. The equipment was applied to the broiler exhaust system. The pH value and the gas residence time (gRT) were evaluated using central composite design and response surface methodology to establish a quadratic regression NH3 removal model and to reduce emissions of VOCs and greenhouse gases under field conditions. The results showed that at gRT of 1.7 s and pH of 4.0 were the optimal process parameters. Under optimal treatment conditions, the NH3 removal efficiency reached a maximum of 83.4%. Oxygenated VOC (OVOC) removal efficiency affected the removal of other components, such as hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and sulfides by dissolving into the organic aqueous solution. The results indicate that OVOCs might be the key factors influencing the removal of total VOCs. The removal efficiencies of acetaldehyde, dimethyl disulfide, methyl mercaptan, methyl sulfide, acetone, ethane, propane, and CO2 under the optimal process were 90.6%, 69.5%, 81.7%, 100%, 97.5%, 84.3%, 70.6%, and 54.7%, respectively. The methane removal efficiency was undetermined because of the undetectable inlet concentration. This method can provide a basis for the application of acid scrubber equipment and technical support for collaborative treatment of gaseous pollutants in livestock houses.
Ammonia (NH3) originating from high-intensity pig farms has caused a global air pollution problem. In this study, a deodorizing spray net device (DSND) is designed, which is inexpensive and achieves a good deodorizing effect. The DSND comprises a steel frame, three spray layers, two 12-needle nylon mesh layers and a backflow device. The device exerts the least impact on the wind speed at a given pig farm when installed at a distance of 2.5 m from blower fans. The device reaches an NH3 reduction rate of 73 %. To further reduce operating costs, microbial liquid is collected and sprayed in cycles according to the peak pig farm NH3 emissions. After two microbial liquid recycling steps, the NH3 reduction rate still reaches 71 %. The construction cost of the device is $3200, and the annual operation cost reaches $2600. Through microbial diversity determination and redundancy analysis (RDA), we find that the reasons for the higher NH3 reduction rate of the device may include the higher dust removal rate and both the higher denitrifying bacterial abundance and lower pH and electrical conductivity (EC) values of the sprayed microbial liquid. The device provides a practical solution to resolve the NH3 problem in mechanically ventilated livestock housing system.
Ammonia (NH3) is the most common air pollutant in pig farms, affecting animals and workers’ health, and causing damages to ecosystems. Hence, there is a need to reduce NH3 emissions. Many mitigation strategies can be applied to limit gaseous emissions, such as the application of air treatment technologies.
In this study, the environmental impact of a typical Italian pig farm, adopting a wet acid scrubber to abate NH3 emissions, was evaluated using the Life Cycle Assessment approach. 1 kg of live weight (LW) was selected as Functional Unit. Two scenarios were considered. The baseline scenario (BS) represents the situation as it is, while the alternative scenario (AS) a wet scrubber prototype (with 70% NH3 removal efficiency) was adopted. For 8 of the 12 evaluated impact categories, AS shows the highest environmental impact, due to the scrubber construction and maintenance. However, it was the best for those impact categories most affected by NH3. Observed reduction ranged from 10% (for acidification, TA, and terrestrial eutrophication, TE) to 0.4% (for marine eutrophication, ME). The climate change impact was 3.55 kg CO2 eq kg⁻¹ LW and 3.65 kg CO2 eq kg⁻¹ LW for BS and AS, respectively. For almost all impact categories, the consumable materials for wet scrubber operation represented around 85% of the total impact of the scrubber. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that variation in NH3 removal efficiency had the greatest effect on particulate matter formation, TA, and TE. The achieved results provide a first quantitative indication of the environmental benefits that can be achieved using wet acid scrubber in naturally ventilated pig facilities.
Agriculture contributes significantly to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). Livestock production, including pig production, is associated with several gaseous pollutants released into the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including alcohols, aldehydes, and aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, as well as typically odorous pollutants, are an inseparable element of raising and breeding farm animals. These emissions can degrade local and regional air quality, contribute to surface water eutrophication and acid rain, and increase the greenhouse gas footprint of the production sector. The paper is organized as follows. First, the sources and factors influencing the level of emissions from pig houses are described. Next, the effects of dietary methods (optimization of animal diets), hygienic methods (including microclimate optimization) and technological methods (application of technological solutions) for mitigating emissions from pigs are discussed.
The air and water pollution has become one of the most serious problems of the world due to industrialization and population increase. Therefore, advanced technologies are urgently required to remediate air and water pollutants from the environment. This chapter provides the fundamental principles and mechanisms of photocatalysis for air (VOCs, inorganic gases) and water (CECs, EDCs, pathogenic germs, and cyanotoxins) pollutants removal. At the end, the influence of various operating parameters on photocatalysis efficiency the material for pollutants degradation is also described.
Biofilters are an effective air pollution control technology to break down gaseous contam-inants and produce innocuous end products. This laboratory study aimed to evaluate a biofiltermedia, mainly composed by tomato waste, as packing material to reduce NH3, N2O, CO2and CH4losses from stored pig slurry. Three mixtures of packing materials, with and without oxalic acid,were arranged in treatments, namely: mixture of tomato waste, pine bark and agricultural compost;mixture of tomato waste and rice husk; tomato waste only. A control treatment (no biofilter) was alsoincluded. The experiments were conducted using a system of laboratory scale biofilters connected tojars filled with pig slurry and under a constant airflow rate. The gas concentrations were measuredfor 14 days and the physicochemical of the packing materials were assessed. Results showed thatbiofilter media mixtures had a potential for NH3retention ranging from 51 to 77% and the additionof oxalic acid to these biofilters increased NH3retention to 72–79%. Additionally, the biofilter mediamixtures with and without oxalic acid showed a potential retention for CH4(29–69%) but not forN2O, yet with no impact on the global warming potential. It can be concluded that tomato basedbiofilters had the potential to reduce gaseous emissions from slurry.
Intensive livestock farming is a major production system in Flemish agriculture, with nearly 6 million pigs and 28 million poultry units. Over the last five years, there’s a tendency towards fewer, but larger farms, resulting in about the same end production values. This evolution can pose both acute and long term problems in a region with a high population density like Flanders. The most recent odour research in Flanders is documented by Ghent University (De Bruyn et al., 2001; Van Langenhove and De Bruyn, 2001; Van Langenhove and Defoer, 2002). Since 2004, it became obligatory in Flanders to build low ammonia emission housing systems. Until now, the impact of this important evolution is not investigated with regard to indoor odour concentration and emission behavior. This lack of knowledge results today in a problematic situation for the livestock industry, whereby the exploitation of extensive animal farming can be hindered. Therefore, ILVO started some odour focused research projects in collaboration with Ghent University.
In 2011, ILVO started with the development of an olfactometric measuring facility in order to generate up to date odour concentration and emission levels from animal houses in Flanders. The “Odour Lab” at ILVO is built to fully comply with the European and Belgian standard for olfactometry, CEN EN 13725 (2003) and NBN EN 13725 (2003). Since November 2011, the odour panel selection procedure was started. Up to now, from a test population of 43 candidates, 30 persons performed n-butanol tests on 3 nonconsecutive days. From these 30 persons, 11 persons were found qualified for both criteria of CEN; 16 persons failed for either one criterion and 3 persons failed for both criteria. So both criteria of the European Standard proved to be bottlenecks. It could also be concluded that sustaining a workable number of panel members, makes the panel selection procedure a continuous and dynamic process.
A first sampling and measurement campaign was started in January 2012. Odour sampling was done in both a traditional and a low ammonia emission compartment of a pig fattening facility in Diksmuide, Belgium. During the sampling campaign, both compartments were cleaned intensively with water and disinfectant. The first olfactometric results of this campaign give some preliminary indications of present indoor odour concentrations. They also suggest possible effects of compartment cleaning. At present, no clear differences could be noted when comparing the results from the traditional and the low ammonia emission compartment. These first odour measurements also indicate some possibilities to further optimize and validate the sampling and measurement protocols.
Seven different animal facilities were studied to determine daily variations in emissions of odor ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. Air samples were collected every two hours over a 12-hour period during the day for odor and gas measurements from these facilities. A nursery building land the highest emission rates for oiler and hydrogen sulfide (max: 50 OU . m(3)/s/m(2) and 140 mu g/s/m(2), respectively). The naturally ventilated swine finishing,building had the highest ammonia emission rate (max: 170 mu g/s/m(2)). The data also showed that there was no significant difference in average ammonia and hydrogen sulfide concentrations over the 12-h sampling period for ail the animal facilities. Ventilation rates play a key role in determining the emission rates of aerial pollutants from animal buildings. However; when comparing the overall odor and gas emissions among animal buildings with different sizes, it is necessary to consider building sizes in addition to ventilation rates.
An above ground pilot-scale biofilter filled with wood chips was tested to treat ammonia emissions from a piggery located in Brittany (France). A long-term experiment corresponding to the fattening period was carried out during 124 days (from October 13th 2012 to February 5th 2013) at a constant Empty Bed Residence Time (EBRT = 12 s). NH3 concentrations at the inlet of the biofilter mainly ranged between 8 and 12 mg m−3, which correspond to moderate loading rates (LR from 2.4 to 3.0 g m−3 h−1). After the acclimation period (one month), the biofilter was able to treat the NH3 pollution satisfactorily (removal efficiencies, RE, of around 80%). This study reveals that NH3 biofiltration induced the production of N2O. The N2O concentrations at the outlet of the biofilter were consistently higher than that measured at the inlet, which ranged between 2 and 3 mg/m3 according to the time course of the fattening period. The part of NH3–N converted into N2O–N was estimated as ranging from 10% to 40% while the maximal N2O production was around 1 gN2O–N m−3packed-bed h−1. Although N2O generation seemed to increase with NH3 removal, no correlation between NH3 and N2O could be found.
Recently several manufacturers of nitrifying biotrickling filters for ammonia (NH3) removal at animal houses have started to add a denitrification step to the installation, aiming to reduce the amount of discharge water by conversion of NH3 to nitrogen gas (N2). The aim of this research was to quantify the possible formation of nitrous oxide (N2O), which is a potent greenhouse gas, in three of these farm-scale installations. Furthermore, the removal efficiency of NH3 and odor was determined. All installations were successful in reducing the amount of discharge water. The average NH3 removal efficiency for the three locations was 85, 71 and 86%, respectively. However, a significant part of the NH3 removed from the inlet air was not converted to N2 but to N2O, which is a potent greenhouse gas. The part of the inlet NH3-N that was converted to N2O-N amounted to 17, 66 and 24%, respectively. The high N2O production might have been caused by a too low scarcity of biodegradable carbon/N ratio for complete denitrification. The average odor removal efficiency was 21, 32 and 48%, respectively. Further research is necessary to explore how process conditions can be adjusted and controlled in order to reduce the production and emission of N2O from these types of systems.
Biological treatment using methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) immobilized on six porous carrier materials have been used to mitigate methane emission. Experiments were performed with different MOB inoculated in building materials at high (~20 % (v/v)) and low (~100 ppmv) methane mixing ratios. Methylocystis parvus in autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) exhibited the highest methane removal rate at high (28.5 ± 3.8 μg CH4 g(-1) building material h(-1)) and low (1.7 ± 0.4 μg CH4 g(-1) building material h(-1)) methane mixing ratio. Due to the higher volume of pores with diameter >5 μm compared to other materials tested, AAC was able to adsorb more bacteria which might explain for the higher methane removal observed. The total methane and carbon dioxide-carbon in the headspace was decreased for 65.2 ± 10.9 % when M. parvus in Ytong was incubated for 100 h. This study showed that immobilized MOB on building materials could be used to remove methane from the air and also act as carbon sink.
Description: Intensive poultry and pig operations concentrated in the south and east of the Netherlands are major contributors to ammonia, odor and particulate matter (PM) emissions. In the Netherlands, livestock production is responsible for 95% of the national ammonia emission causing acidification and eutrophication of natural ecosystems, and 50% of the total
Air samples from animal farming are analysed in parallel using traditional TD-GC-MS (thermal desorption gas chromatography mass spectrometry) and SIFT-MS (selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry). In samples from 4 different livestock buildings, 23 odorous compounds are detected and quantified based on TD-GC-MS, including organic acids, sulphur compounds and phenols. Significant concentration differences are found between pig stables and poultry houses. SIFT-MS spectra show similar differences in product ion intensities, suggesting SIFT-MS as a promising fast technique for evaluation of odorous emissions from livestock buildings.
Air scrubbers are commonly used for removal of ammonia and odor from exhaust air of animal houses in the Netherlands. In addition, air scrubbers remove a part of the particulate matter. In this article, the results of an on-farm monitoring are presented in which PM10 removal was monitored at 24 scrubbers. It was found that scrubbers with long air contact times (empty bed residence time (EBRT) > 3 s) achieved relatively high PM10 removal efficiencies (on average 79%). However, at short air contact times (EBRT < 3 s), efficiencies were lower (on average 49%). As dust particles travel through the humid scrubber environment, they grow in size and mass, which increases their chance of being intercepted and removed from the air. The results suggest that the maximum particle size is reached within this period of 3 s, but a controlled experimental setup is required to prove this assumption. Possible formation of salt aerosols inside the scrubbers may have affected measured removal efficiencies, especially for acid scrubbers, that are operated at EBRT < 3 s. As multistage scrubbers have a higher average air residence time, they show a higher PM10 removal efficiency than acid scrubbers and bioscrubbers. In addition, it is suggested that the gravimetric PM10 determination method might need to be improved to eliminate the effect of differences in moisture levels between scrubber inlet and outlet air on particle cutoff.
Great effort is paid to the development of new technologies, that enable the short-cut of the nitrification-denitrification cycle avoiding the oxidation of NO-2 to NO-3 (nitrite route). The nitrification of NH+4 only to NO-2 and its reduction to gaseous N2 offers several advantages: lower oxygen demand for nitrification, lower demand of organic matter for the denitrification of NO-2, higher denitrification rates of NO-2. The aim of this work was to obtain more detailed information about the inhibitive forms (dissociated or nondissociated) of the substrate/product as well as about the concentrations that cause inhibition. The substrate - product inhibition was tested in batch tests. Each experiment at a certain pH was carried out using a set of six reactors. One of them served as a reference, while the five others contained different concentrations of the tested compounds. Five sludges from different municipal wastewater treatment plants were used in the experiments. The results obtained from batch inhibition tests carried out on different sludges are briefly summarized in this work. The very similar behaviour of different sludges is worth to note.
In Canada, the piggery industry is an essential part of the agricultural sector, but the main waste product of this industry, swine slurry, is particularly harmful to the environment. The anaerobic storage conditions and the excessive use of slurry for agricultural fertilization contribute, respectively, to the emission of greenhouse gases and to aquatic pollution. This paper provides a review of these environmental concerns and of the existing mitigation technologies. Water pollution from swine slurry is associated with the nutrients it contains, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, while the main greenhouse gases produced by the piggery industry are methane and nitrous oxide. Available technologies can valorize the slurry through agricultural fertilization, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, by limiting nutrient availability for example, or treat the effluents using solid-liquid separation, flaring or biological processes. Specific attention is paid to biofiltration due to its potential to simultaneously treat these two types of pollution.
Emissions of air pollutants from livestock houses may raise environmental problems and pose hazards to public health. They can be reduced by scrubbers installed at the air outlets of livestock houses. In this study, three multi-stage scrubbers were evaluated in terms of their effectiveness in reducing emissions of airborne dust, total bacteria, ammonia, and CO(2) from pig houses in winter The three multi-stage scrubbers were one double-stage scrubber (acid stage + bio-filter), one double-stage scrubber (acid stage + bio-scrubber), and one triple-stage scrubber (water stage + acid stage + bio-filter). Results showed that these scrubbers reduced concentrations of PM(10) by 61% to 93%, concentrations of PM(2.5) by 47% to 90%, concentrations of airborne total bacteria by 46% to 85%, and concentrations of ammonia by 70% to 100%. Concentrations of CO(2) were not affected. Most of the airborne bacteria emitted from the pig houses were larger than 3.3 mu m (73% to 95%). The multi-stage scrubbers removed 53% to 92% of them, compared with -42% to 20% removal effectiveness of the bacteria in the size range of 0.65 to 3.3,mu m. The triple-stage scrubber was the most efficient in removing dust and ammonia. Compared to single-stage scrubbers, all three multi-stage scrubbers performed more consistently in reduction of PM(10), PM(2.5), total bacteria, and ammonia emissions from livestock houses and removed these pollutants more efficiently. It should be noted that all measurements were performed in winter at low ventilation rates, thus at low loadings of the multi-stage scrubbers.
Using a newly developed bubble column apparatus, a series of aqueous phase uptake studies have been completed for the reduced sulfur species DMS, H2S, CS2, CH3SH, and OCS. Aqueous phase uptake has been studied as a function of temperature (278-298 K), pH (1-14), H2O2 concentration (0-1 M), NaCl concentration (0-5 M), and (NH4)2SO4 concentration (0-4 M). The Henry's law coefficients for CH3SH and CS2 were determined for the first time, as were the Setchenow coefficients for all the species studied. -from Authors
Sumario: This study investigated the environmental conditions on pig farms and the respiratory health of pig farmers and their immunological response to airborne contaminants. Airborne concentrations of dust and ammonia were measured in 20 pig houses; viable microorganisms, endotoxins, and aeroallergens were measured in 6 of these houses, chosen to represent the range in dustiness. This paper describes the feeding and ventilation systems in the pig houses in vestigated and summarizes the aerobiological, clinical, and immunological findings
In 2010 during a test of a biological air cleaner 16 samples in triplicates were collected before and after the air cleaner over 8 weeks and analysed within 30 hours at two Danish laboratories and one German laboratory. There was a significant difference between the results from the three laboratories. The mean values of odour concentration from the laboratory with the highest results were up to 27 times higher than those from the laboratory with the lowest results (n = 16). Besides the discrepancy between the results from the laboratories, the odour removal efficiency of the air cleaner varied from 16 % to 80 %, indicating that the result of the test of the air cleaner largely depends on the choice of laboratory. One of the main groups of odorants from pig production is the volatile organic compounds containing sulphur, especially hydrogen sulphide and methanethiol, which are considered to be some of the most important and potent odorants. Hydrogen sulphide was always measured when odour samples were collected. Analytical results from one of the Danish laboratories and the German laboratory obtained in 2011 showed that hydrogen sulphide contributes to odour concentration to a different degree in the two laboratories. Both laboratories comply with CEN EN 13725: 2003 (CEN EN 13725, 2003) standard and use the same kind of olfactometer.
Mitigation of ammonia (NH 3) emissions from animal production buildings has been a challenge because of the large volume of low NH 3 concentration laden air being released. Among emission mitigation technologies for concentrated animal feeding operations, acid spray scrubbers have the greatest potential for adaptation to the existing large animal facilities because of their lower fan airflow reduction, ability to simultaneously remove particulate and gaseous pollutants, and viability for zero or less waste generation by recycling effluents as liquid fertilizer. A multi-stage wet scrubber prototype that can be operated with a maximum of three stages was developed and optimized for reducing NH 3 emissions using simulated conditions typically encountered at an animal building exhaust. The parameters optimized for a single-stage wet scrubber include nozzle type, nozzle operating pressure, sulfuric acid concentration, spray coverage, and air retention time. The optimized single-stage wet scrubber settings can remove emissions from 60% ±1% at 5 ppmv inlet NH 3 concentration (IAC) to 27% ±2% at 100 ppmv IAC at a normal exhaust superficial air velocity (SAV) of 6.6 m s -1. A high concentration of droplets inside the contact chamber increased the rate of inter-collision between droplets, which led to high droplet coagulation and decreased surface area for gas-liquid contact. These phenomena were prevented by operating the nozzles in the higher stages co-current to the airflow and by using fewer nozzles in higher stage. The two-stage and three-stage wet scrubbers were therefore optimized by determining the least number of nozzles in each stage that provided the most effective NH3 removal. The optimized two-stage scrubber could remove NH 3 emissions from 60% ±0% at 5 ppmv IAC and 35% ±1% at 100 ppmv IAC. The optimized three-stage scrubber could remove emissions from 63% ±3% at 5 ppmv IAC and 36% ±3% at 100 ppmv IAC. Airflow retention time was found to significantly affect NH 3 absorption. Reducing the superficial air velocity to 3.3 m s -1 from 6.6 m s -1, which increased the air retention time from 0.2 s to 0.4 s, improved NH 3 removal efficiencies to 98% ±3% at 5 ppmv IAC and 46% ±2% at 100 ppmv IAC for the single-stage scrubber. Similarly, the performance of the two-stage scrubber at a SAV of 3.3 m s -1 improved to 77% ±0% at 20 ppmv IAC and 57% ±1% at 100 ppm IAC. Lastly, the performance of the three-stage scrubber at a SAV of 3.3 m s -1 improved to 70% ±1% at 30 ppmv IAC and 64% ±1% at 100 ppmv IAC. It was observed that the three-stage wet scrubber did not increase the overall wet scrubber performance, as predicted theoretically. Further studies are needed so that the application of these scrubber designs becomes feasible for treating air emissions from animal buildings. The wet scrubber caused an additional backpressure of 27.5 Pa, resulting in about 8% airflow reduction for a fan operating at 12.5 Pa. © 2007 American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) contribute to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Due to its spatial and temporal variation in emissions, whole plant characterization of GHG emissions from WWTPs face a number of obstacles. In this study, a tracer dispersion method was applied to quantify plant-integrated, real-time emissions of methane and nitrous oxides. Two mobile cavity ring-down spectroscopy sampling devices were used to record downwind gas concentrations emitted from a municipal WWTP situated in Copenhagen, Denmark. This plant is equipped to remove biological nitrogen and employs anaerobic digestion for sludge stabilization. Over the course of nine measurement campaigns, a wide range of emissions were detected: methane from 4.99 kg h(-1) up to 92.3 kg h(-1) and nitrous oxide from below the detection limit (0.37 kg h(-1)) up to 10.5 kg h(-1). High emissions were observed during periods experiencing operational problems, such as during foaming events in anaerobic digesters and during sub-optimal operation of biological nitrogen removal in the secondary treatment of wastewater. Methane emissions detected during measurement campaigns corresponded to 2.07-32.7% of the methane generated in the plant. As high as 4.27% of nitrogen entering the WWTP was emitted as nitrous oxide under the sub-optimal operation of biological treatment processes. The study shows that the unit process configuration, as well as the operation of the WWTP, determines the rate of GHG emission. The applied plant-integrated emission measurement method could be used to ease the burden of quantifying GHG emissions from WWTPs for reporting purposes and could contribute to the development of more accurate depictions of environmental performance of WWTPs.
The present study aimed at maximizing the performance of a standard biotrickling filter (BTF) devoted to the treatment of CH4 at low concentrations by enhancing the mass transfer using optimum liquid recycling rates and an innovative gas recycling strategy. Internal gas recycling favored CH4 abatement in the early stages of BTF operation and supported stable elimination capacities (ECs) above 30 g m(-3) h(-1) at an empty bed residence time of 4 min and a liquid recycling velocity of 5 m h(-1) higher than most ECs achieved in single phase BTFs to date. The BTF exhibited a high microbial diversity (Shannon-Wiener indices of 2.5-2.8) dominated by Type I methanotrophs, likely due to the presence of high Cu2+ concentrations. Mass transfer limitations from the aqueous phase to the microorganisms, attributed to biomass accumulation in the packing material, were identified under the long term operation.
Treatment of ventilation air from livestock production by biological airfiltration has emerged as a cost-effective technology for reduction of emissions of odorants and ammonia. Volatile sulfur compounds from livestock production include H2S and methanethiol, which have been identified as potentially important odorants that are not removed sufficiently by biological air filters. Light-expanded clay aggregates (Leca®) is a biotrickling filter material that contains iron oxides, which can oxidize H2S and methanethiol, and thus potentially may help to remove these two compounds in biological air filters. This study used on-line PTR-MS measurements to investigate the performances of two Leca® biotrickling filters (abraded Leca® filter and untreated Leca® filter) for removal of odorants and ammonia emitted from an experimental pig house. The results indicated that the abraded Leca® filter had a similar or slightly better capability for removing odorants than the untreated Leca® filter. This may be due to the enlargement of the surface area by the friction process. The volatile sulfur compounds, however, were not removed efficiently by either of the two Leca® filters. Kinetic analysis of a ventilation controlled experiment during the first period indicated that Grau second-order kinetics could be applied to analyze the removal of sulfur compounds and other odorants, whereas the Stover-Kincannon model could only be applied to analyze the removal of odorants other than sulfur compounds, partly due to the limitation of mass transfer of these compounds in the biotrickling filters. In the last measurement period, a production of dimethyl disulfide and dimethyltrisulfide coinciding with strongly enhanced removal of methanethiol was observed for the untreated filter. This was assumed to be enhanced by an incidence of low local air velocity in the filter and indicated involvement of iron-catalyzed reactions in the removal of sulfur compounds.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of two pen cleaning techniques for pig fattening houses on the indoor concentrations of particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10), ammonia (NH3) and greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O), using a multi-pollutant approach. Both cleaning techniques were tested in a conventional housing system and in a low-ammonia-emission housing system. In total, four compartments from the conventional housing system and four from the low-ammonia-emission housing system were sampled during two consecutive fattening periods between August 2011 and June 2012. Two compartments from each housing system were only cleaned dry, while the other two received a more intensive cleaning. Indoor concentrations of NH3, CO2, CH4, N2O and PM were measured continuously.
Overall, the low-ammonia-emission housing system showed no reduction in indoor pollutant concentrations compared to the conventional system, except for CH4. The additional wet cleaning and disinfection step in the more intensive cleaning protocol did not result in consistently lower indoor concentrations for the studied pollutants.
The objective of the study was to investigate indoor concentrations (IC) of particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10), NH3, N2O, CH4 and CO2 in different conventional pig fattening facilities and one low-emission fattening facility. Concentration data were used to calculate respective emission factors (EF), which were assessed and evaluated with regard to similar studies. In total, six pig fattening stables were sampled during two fattening periods. The average indoor PM concentrations were 15.0, 38.9 and 719 μg m−3 for PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 respectively for conventional pig fattening stables, while for the low emission stable, these were 14.2, 41.2 and 595 μg m−3 respectively. The average indoor gas concentrations for the conventional stables were 18.7, 817, 128 and 2034 ppm for NH3, N2O, CH4, and CO2 respectively and for the low emission stable 16.3, 0.731, 164 and 2156 ppm. The emission factors of the conventional fattening facilities were 3.4, 7.8 and 99.9 g a−1 yr−1 for PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 respectively, while the EF was 2.2 kg a−1 yr−1 for NH3, 154 g a−1 yr−1 for N2O, 10.4 kg a−1 yr−1 for CH4, and 420 kg a−1 yr−1 for CO2. For the low emission stable the EF were 2.3, 7.3 and 85.3 g a−1 yr−1 for PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 respectively, while the EF was 1.6 kg a−1 yr−1 for NH3, 136 g a−1 yr−1 for N2O, 19.5 kg a−1 yr−1 for CH4, and 545 kg a−1 yr−1 for CO2. Furthermore, the particle size distribution and the correlations between EF, IC and different operational conditions were investigated.
The removal of ammonia (NH3) by a full scale packed-bed biotrickling filter (packing volume: 3.8 m(3); water buffer tank: 20 m(3)) under fluctuating loading conditions was studied. The unit was operated at an animal house for treatment of exhaust air at an average air contact time of 1.2 s. Continuous long-term ammonia measurements showed average inlet and outlet air concentrations of 14 ppm and 2.4 ppm, respectively, and a removal efficiency of 82%. The average temperature of the water was 16 degrees C, the pH 6.6, the ammonium concentration 1.9 g N l(-1), and the nitrate concentration 1.8 g N l(-1); no nitrite was detected. The average ammonia loading and removal rate were 29 and 24 g NH3 m(-3) h(-1), respectively. A daily and seasonal pattern could be observed in the ammonia removal performance. With increasing outside temperature ammonia loading rate, ammonia removal rate, and ammonia outlet concentration increased, resulting in a net decrease of the ammonia removal efficiency. This phenomenon might be explained by the existence of equilibrium between the ammonia concentration in the outlet air and the concentration of dissolved ammonia in the water, which is influenced by fluctuating air and water temperature. A nitrogen balance indicated that 86% of the removed ammonia-N was discharged or accumulated in the water as ammonium and nitrate, and 5% was emitted as nitrous oxide (N2O). The fluctuating removal patterns that were found suggest that current regulatory performance monitoring practices need to be improved. (c) 2012 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.