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Impact of Curriculum Modifications on Access to the General Education Curriculum for Students with Disabilities
Abstract
This study investigated whether curriculum modifications predicted student and teacher behaviors related to the general education curriculum and if there were differences in ecological, student, and teacher variables depending on the presence of such curriculum modifications. The study observed 45 high school students with disabilities during instruction in core content areas. Findings indicated that there were significant differences in student and teacher variables depending on the presence of curriculum modifications. When curriculum modifications were provided, students were engaged in more academic-related responses and fewer competing behaviors and teachers were engaged in fewer classroom management activities. Implications and recommendations from these findings are provided pertaining to the importance and implementation of curriculum modifications for students with disabilities in general education settings.
... McDonnell et al. (2000) observed that special education teachers and peers provide more prompting, praise, and error correction to children with disabilities than to children without disabilities. Using time sampling in middle schools, Lee et al. (2010) found that classroom support was associated with high engagement in learning and task completion. To date, several ecobehavioral assessment have focused on individual subjects, such as mathematics, reading, science, and social studies. ...
... Through quantitative observations of exceptional children in the classroom, the system uses ecological behaviour analysis to collect information on teacher behaviours, students' academic engagement, and classroom ecology. Cross-sectional and intervention studies on inclusive classes have been conducted in primary and middle schools using this method (Lee et al. 2010). ...
... Approximately 70% of teaching time was spent on whole-class instruction, suggesting that the interaction between teachers and students dominated teaching. This ratio was slightly higher than the 68% observed by Wallace et al. (2002) and the 70.7% observed by Lee et al. (2010). Compared with independent and group learning, children with intellectual disabilities showed the least engagement in whole-class learning. ...
This study examined teacher behaviours, students' academic engagement, and classroom ecology in mainstream classrooms including children with intellectual disabilities, and examined the differences in academic engagement for students with and without intellectual disabilities. A mixed-method research methodology was employed. The study demonstrated that children with intellectual disabilities exhibited high level of engagement in the following situations: the classroom layout used grouping, the classroom organisation combined groups and independent learning, the learning tasks included reading aloud, copying, watching videos, and doing homework, and teachers paid attention to all students or to children with intellectual disabilities individually and walked around the classroom during lesson time. English was the discipline with most active engagement among children with intellectual disabilities, followed by music, art, science, Chinese, sports, social studies, and mathematics. Finally, academic engagement of children with and without intellectual disabilities was mostly passive. We discuss the factors related to academic engagement of children with intellectual disabilities and provide suggestions for improving their self-management skills and classroom organisation.
... However, for students with SEN, meaningful access to a class curriculum that effectively responds to these students' strengths and individual needs remains an elusive issue (Morningstar, Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015). To this end, several authors have urged necessary curriculum modifications (Kurth & Keegan, 2014;Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010) to improve the inclusion of students with SEN through differentiated instruction (DI), and the identification of the features that can affect teachers' use of available DI strategies (Strogilos et al, 2020;Kurth & Keegan, 2014). This study, conducted in Singapore, therefore aims to explore the types of modifications teachers use for students with SEN in mainstream classrooms, the contextual features that influence the use of DI strategies, and teachers' overall understanding of this approach. ...
... Despite limited research on DI, studies have reported a positive association between the use of DI and teachers' positive attitudes towards inclusive education (Saloviita, 2018), or a positive impact on students' learning, especially those with SEN. For example, Lee et al. (2010), in their observational study in three school USA districts, found that the use of curriculum modifications in mainstream classrooms for the students with SEN increased their academic engagement and decreased their challenging behaviours. Siraj- Blatchford and Sylva (2004) in a longitudinal study in English early childhood settings, found that the schools with the more effective pedagogic practice were those that matched curriculum differentiation with children's cognitive level. ...
... I say ok fine as long as you write something. (Teacher) The participants talked about a variety of modifications they use for students with SEN, which could be included under the umbrella of process or instructional modifications (Lee et al., 2010;Tomlinson, 2017). The most common ones were "enhanced instruction through individual support" and "extra time" to complete their work in class or even at home So I saw that this boy didn't understand. ...
This qualitative study explores what contributes to the development of differentiated instruction (DI) through the use of curriculum modifications for the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN) in three primary Singaporean schools. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, descriptive observations, lesson plans and focus groups. Five teachers, six allied educators, and two learning support teachers (n=13) participated in this research focusing on five students as “cases” for the professionals to provide individualized examples. Participants often provided restricted understandings about DI as an ability driven approach, which mainly requires modifications in the content of teaching based on staff perceptions of student readiness. However, undifferentiated learning objectives and assessment methods were commonly used. The participants described overreliance on the use of instructional modifications and lack of curricular and alternative modifications, which they deemed as inadequate and unfair for the students. The findings indicate resounding evidence that contextual constraints such as class size, a common standardized curriculum and national exams constitute critical impediments that affect the types of curriculum modifications used. The participants proposed an “exams-free” pedagogy to enhance diversity in modifications. The research implies a need to consider the contextual features that impact upon the quality of learner-centred instruction internationally.
... Wehmeyer et al. (2003) did not provide detailed analysis of the nature of adjustments made for students. Lee et al. (2010) observed 45 high school students, primarily with learning disabilities, in the USA who were accessing the general education curriculum in mainstream classrooms. Lee et al. (2010) found provision of adult (teaching assistant) support was by far the most frequently observed adjustment (62.2% of observed intervals). ...
... Lee et al. (2010) observed 45 high school students, primarily with learning disabilities, in the USA who were accessing the general education curriculum in mainstream classrooms. Lee et al. (2010) found provision of adult (teaching assistant) support was by far the most frequently observed adjustment (62.2% of observed intervals). A range of other adjustments were coded, including time adjustments, assistive technology, and adjustment of materials, but no other single adjustment was present in more than 20% of observations. ...
... Thus, some existing research has focused, in part or whole, on examining specific adjustments nominated by teachers (Finnerty et al., 2019;Kurth & Keegan, 2014;Strogilos et al., 2020) or broad classification of adjustments (Wehmeyer et al., 2003). Where assistance from educational staff has been examined as a form of adjustment, there is evidence that it is commonly employed (Lee et al., 2010;Strogilos et al., 2020;Ware et al., 2011), in particular the use of teaching assistants (Lee et al., 2010;Ware et al., 2011). In summary, limited research has been conducted on the range and focus of adjustments that are employed in schools or how the impact of these adjustments on student outcomes is monitored. ...
The current study was conducted to examine the types of adjustments used to support students with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms and how schools monitored the effectiveness of the adjustments they use. A range of stakeholders were interviewed in 22 mainstream schools across New South Wales, Australia, and the interviews were analysed for key themes. Some schools had a narrow focus on a few key areas, with teaching assistants being the most commonly reported adjustment. Few schools used formal formative monitoring to evaluate the effectiveness of adjustments. Options for improvement schools could consider include examining the breadth of adjustments, establishing clear measurable goals, considering alternative strategies for use of teaching assistants, and ensuring adjustments are monitored.
... There is no doubt that access to regular curriculum provides equality among students with and without disabilities, however, it is also undeniable that students have different family backgrounds, varying in their abilities, and different in their mental approach (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010). It is unjustifiable to treat them in same manners because, they have variations in their interests, abilities and mental capacities. ...
... Legal bindings such as IDEA (2004), andNCLB (2001), stressed that teachers have the skills to modify the curriculum and provide accommodations so that students with different abilities have access to regular curriculum. However, number of teachers found it difficult to modify the curriculum, so they frequently implement simple accommodations (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010). Without proper support and guidance, teachers are unable to design instructions and implement the adapted curriculum as per the needs of students with SENs. ...
Students with Moderate Physical Impairment (MPI) like other students with Specific Educational Needs (SENs) utilize adaptations in order to access the Single National Curriculum (SNC) in Punjab. All over the world, teachers use this didactical pedagogical strategy that impact student's school success and the improvement of their learning. Curriculum adaptations mean what, how and when to teach as well as what and how to be evaluated. In this study, researchers used a quantitative research approach and employed a descriptive research design. A well-known survey method was adopted with a self-made checklist to collect data from purposively selected 167 Junior Special Education Teachers (JSETs). The value of the Coefficient Alpha was .844. The survey focused on to measure the levels of teachers’ understandings about the concept of curriculum adaptations and to explore which type of adaptations most preferably used by the teachers. To analyse the data, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The results of this study described that teachers have ‘moderate’ levels of understandings about the concept of accommodations and ‘mild’ levels of understandings about the concept of modifications. These outcomes specifically suggest that majority teachers remain unclear to differentiate between modifications and accommodations. This study recommends that teachers need to enhance their skills through professional training to adapt and implement the curriculum in the classrooms.
... According to Vygotsky and Cole (1978) sociocultural theory, which emphasizes scaffolding and the zone of proximal development, teachers' support should be adapted to children's current abilities. Therefore, teachers who respond to children's learning with a good-fit pedagogical approach will lead to better developmental outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). In contrast, if teachers have insufficient awareness of children's diversity, some children might be labeled "tough to teach" and might receive less instruction to master their academic and SE skills that contribute to coping strategies and emotional understandings (Kirk & Jay, 2018). ...
... In contrast, if teachers have insufficient awareness of children's diversity, some children might be labeled "tough to teach" and might receive less instruction to master their academic and SE skills that contribute to coping strategies and emotional understandings (Kirk & Jay, 2018). In addition, Lee et al. (2010) found that classroom-based curriculum and instruction adaptations predicted children's behaviors. Students performed fewer behavioral problems in those classrooms with more curriculum modifications. ...
Linking classroom quality to separate domains of child development might neglect the transactional interactions across developmental domains. This research utilized latent profiles across academic and social-emotional development to explore which aspects of classroom quality can predict children's profiles at the classroom level. Data were drawn from 96 preschool classrooms and 547 children (3-5 years old) in China in 2020. Multilevel latent profile analysis identified three profiles (entitled low-, average- and high-level development at the individual level), and two classes (entitled average and below-, average and above) at the classroom level. Multinominal logistic regression analyses revealed that instructional quality in math, science, and diversity, and the interactional quality in supporting children's learning and critical thinking, predicted children's profiles.
... In their studies, the authors discovered that the positive behavior and academic achievement of students with special needs increased with changes in the educational programs. Similarly, another study (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup and Palmer, 2010) found that with appropriate changes to educational programs, students with special needs increased their participation in academic studies, problematic behaviors decreased so teachers implemented fewer classroom management activities. ...
... Although the number of students with special needs in general education classes has increased when evaluated at the international level, the type and quality of education provided to these students is still being discussed (Morningstar, Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015). Some researchers (Kurth & Keegan, 2014;Lee et al., 2010), argued that it was important to make the necessary changes to improve the quality of education provided to students with special needs through differentiated teaching. It is known that there are some problems with this issue in the implementation of inclusive education. ...
... Changes in curriculum can also have a significant impact on learning outcomes (Lee et al. 2010). Curriculum revisions, updates, or modifications can affect the content, structure, and delivery of educational programs, influencing students' learning experiences and outcomes. ...
The Engineering Accreditation Council (EAC) requires the implementation of an outcome-based education (OBE) approach in all engineering programs in Malaysia, emphasizing the evaluation of course learning outcomes (CLOs). The student learning outcome for Solid Waste Management has been assessed as it is one of the courses taught in Civil Engineering Programme. In Malaysia, solid waste management is an important part of engineering education because of its direct impact on environmental sustainability and public health. The course covers the elements involved in solid waste management, implementing and evaluating efficient, sustainable and cost-effective waste management systems. This study evaluates the attainment of specified CLOs for a solid waste management course; eligible to be taken by all civil engineering students in a private university in Malaysia. The three main CLOs were evaluated based on curriculum alignment with Program Outcomes (PO) and Course Learning Outcomes (CLO) as documented in the EAC Self-Assessment Report. Attainment of these outcomes was measured by student performance on formative and summative assessments, particularly CLO1, CLO2 and CLO2. Semester 32334 results showed the highest overall achievement in CLO, while CLO1 showed the lowest achievement, ranging from 39.4% to 55.8%. Other CLOs achieved significantly higher rates, ranging from 72 percent to 95.9 percent. These findings highlight the need to refine targeted instructional strategies to improve learning outcomes in future offerings of the course.
... Still, barriers to inclusive change persist, such as a lack of effective training, negative attitudes toward inclusion, and a lack of knowledge of instructional techniques, all of which can hinder students with disabilities from being effectively educated in the inclusion setting (Grant & Jones-Goods, 2016). Scholars seeking to understand the creation of effective inclusive schools have expanded into several areas, including the role of district-level administrators and school principals in fostering inclusive change (Coviello & DeMatthews, 2021;DeMatthews et al., 2020), developing mindsets and school cultures supportive of inclusion (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010;Billingsley & Bettini, 2019), implementing multi-tiered systems of support and co-teaching models (Batsche, 2014;Scruggs et al., 2007), and curriculum modification for students with disabilities (Lee et al., 2010). The role of professional development in addressing school-wide problems of practice-related inclusion will be discussed in further detail below. ...
This study examined the effectiveness of professional development for inclusive education and best practices through a short-term technical assistance (TA) model across 15 schools. The professional development was structured to enhance school professionals’ knowledge about inclusion as a concept, as well as best practices in inclusive education. Topics included the use of accommodations and modifications, differentiation and Universal Design for Learning (UDL), building an inclusive school culture, and co-teaching. Pre- and post-test measures were utilized to measure participants’ growth in the knowledge of these topics. Descriptive statistics and dependent t-tests were utilized to analyze data across all topic areas. The findings indicate that short-term TA models of professional development prove beneficial for improving attitudes and beliefs in inclusive education for content knowledge and building an inclusive school culture. Short-term TA did not yield statistically significant increases for classroom strategies or implementation, suggesting that more intensive professional development models need to be incorporated as a wider professional development plan for using best practices in inclusive education by school professionals.
... Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University 36/40 1) Targeting training efforts to address concerns about effective inclusive practices, particularly in rural schools with limited resources (Ravet & Mtika, 2021), 2) Revising the cascade training model to integrate on-site support and hands-on experience, ensuring practical skills are developed alongside theoretical knowledge (King, 2018;Kuroda et al., 2017), 3) Focusing on curriculum modification skills, which improve academic outcomes, reduce disruptive behaviors, and boost teachers' self-efficacy (Lee et al., 2010), 4) Fostering a collaborative, inclusive culture through shared responsibility, school leadership involvement, and providing access to resources (Emmers et al., 2020;Pijl, 2010;Valdés & Gómez-Hurtado, 2023), 5) Extending the duration of inclusive education training (MoEYS, 2017) 6) Making inclusive education courses mandatory in pre-service teacher training programs (Ekins et al., 2016;, and 7) Conducting more studies exploring the effectiveness and challenges of inclusive education courses and field experiences (Kroesch & Peeples, 2021). ...
... In response, educational institutions worldwide are adapting their frameworks to accommodate diverse learners, fostering environments that embrace inclusivity as a fundamental principle. Lee (2019) emphasizes that creating inclusive learning environments requires curriculum adaptation and sustained teacher support. Educators face challenges in addressing the varied needs of students, necessitating professional development initiatives focused on Educators, particularly those teaching students with hearing impairments, psychosocial difficulties, intellectual disabilities, and physical impairments, encounter significant challenges in delivering inclusive instruction (Paguirigan, 2020). ...
This study examined the perceived challenges of junior and senior high school teachers in implementing Inclusive Education in the Division of San Pablo. Employing a descriptive-correlational research design, the study surveyed 63 purposively selected teachers who had experience teaching Learners with Special Educational Needs (LSENs) during the academic year. The Kruskal-Wallis H test assessed differences in perceived challenges based on demographic profiles, while the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient determined the relationship between these challenges and existing school measures. Descriptive statistics, including frequency, mean, and standard deviation, were utilized to analyze respondents’ demographic characteristics. Findings indicated that teachers experienced low levels of challenges in creating, producing, and evolving inclusive policies. However, a significant relationship emerged between perceived challenges and the schools’ measures to address them, underscoring the need for stronger institutional support. These results emphasize the importance of equipping school administrators with strategies to mitigate challenges through targeted interventions. Specifically, implementing an Individual Learning Plan (ILP) would enable systematic monitoring of both student progress and teachers' experiences in the inclusive teaching-learning process. Strengthening these measures can enhance the effectiveness of Inclusive Education, ensuring better learning outcomes for LSENs.
... Many countries have adopted differentiated instruction and modified curricula Numerous studies have highlighted several benefits associated with these approaches, including positive correlations with students' academic progress, attitude towards education, reduced instances of disruptive behaviours, and fewer negative behaviours in the classroom. [28][29][30] However, systemic challenges in education persist, including issues such as class size, a standardised curriculum and national exams. 31 Notably, the average Malaysian classroom size is 26-27 pupils per class. ...
Background & Objective: Learning difficulties pose significant challenges for academic achievement and skill development in children. This study explored characteristics of children with learning difficulties and assessed existing practices at a tertiary medical centre in Malaysia. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted at the Universiti Malaya Medical Centre, including children aged 6 to 18 with learning difficulties. Data was obtained from electronic medical records, and 187 cases were analysed for demographic details, referral patterns, diagnoses and associated conditions. Results: The study revealed that learning difficulties often emerged by age 5, and primarily affected males, characterised by behavioural concerns. Half of the children were in mainstream education without additional support. Challenges in the assessment process were due to limited healthcare professionals, and absence of standardised, linguistically and culturally applicable tools. Associated conditions, including developmental delays, language disorders, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder were commonly found. Conclusion: The study identified service gaps in the healthcare setting vital for planning future services, necessitating increased resources and funding for child development centres nationwide. Such challenges necessitate the shift from diagnosis-focused approaches, to identifying accommodations for learning within existing structures. Future research should prioritise reliability and validity of locally-developed assessment tools to enhance the assessment process. Larger-scale audits are crucial for accurate insights into current practices of assessing learning difficulties in Malaysia.
... Training programs for in-service teachers should focus on developing the skills necessary for implementing curriculum modifications. Integrating modified curricula into general education classrooms has been shown to significantly improve students' academic outcomes, reduce disruptive behaviors, and, importantly, enhance teachers' sense of self-efficacy in managing student behavior and classroom activities (Lee et al. 2010). Moreover, fostering a sense of shared responsibility among teachers, promoting collaborative support for inclusive practices, involving school leadership teams in the inclusive education process, and providing access to resources are all crucial steps in creating and fostering an inclusive culture and advancing inclusive practices at the school level (Emmers et al. 2020;Pijl 2010;Valdés and Gómez-Hurtado 2023). ...
In Cambodia, students with disabilities remain marginalized and excluded from regular education settings, leading to low attendance and primary education completion rates. These challenges highlight critical concerns about teachers' inclusive practices. This study utilized the Theory of Planned Behavior to explore how teachers' attitudes (attitudes toward inclusion), subjective norms (concerns about inclusion), perceived behavioral control (self‐efficacy for inclusive practices), and behavioral intentions shaped their actual behavior to include students with disabilities. A survey was conducted with 1008 in‐service teachers from 236 primary schools across Cambodia using the teachers' attitudes toward inclusion scale, concern about inclusive education scale, and teacher efficacy for inclusive practices. Data analysis employed a mediation analysis using structural equation modeling with the lavaan package in RStudio. The study revealed that subjective norms and perceived behavioral control significantly and directly predicted teachers' intentions to support students with disabilities. Behavioral intentions, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control also directly predicted their actual behavior. Indirect effects showed that subjective norms and perceived behavioral control significantly predicted actual behavior through behavioral intentions. The findings highlight the importance of strengthening policy and training programs to alleviate teachers' concerns and enhance their self‐efficacy to promote inclusive practices.
... However, throughout adulthood and associated with moments of transition, new and different demands are made on these SD skills (Shogren & Raley, 2022d). It is known, for example, that SD skills are fundamental for young people and adults with disabilities to face the challenges related to school, the transition to adulthood, and employment (Lee et al., 2010). ...
Self-determination (SD) is considered one of the most relevant constructs in the field of disability,
particularly in developmental disabilities (DD). Among others, SD has been shown to have a positive
impact on variables in different life spheres of people with disabilities, like school life, transition from
school to post-school education and job market, socio-emotional, and quality of life. Within the
contemporary Causal Agency Theory, SD is defined as a dispositional characteristic manifested as acting
as the causal agent in one's own life, comprising three essential characteristics: action-control beliefs,
volitional action, agentic action. Despite the advances in international research into the SD of people with
DD, the Portuguese context lacks assessment tools and interventions to promote SD in line with the state of-the-art as well as research relating SD with other variables. The current thesis aimed (1) to provide
researchers and professionals with a valid and reliable assessment tool to evaluate SD in adults with and
without DD; and (2) to examine the relationships between SD and various contextual factors that can
serve as predictors of SD, as well as potential outcomes associated with SD in Portuguese adults with
DD. Specifically, three cross-sectional studies were carried out to (i) describe the process of translation
and adaptation of the Self-Determination Inventory: Adult Report Portuguese, as well as study the
psychometric properties of this instrument in adults with and without DD; (ii) examine the direct and
indirect relationship, through the educational attainment, of SD and community integration of adult people
with DD, and examine the influence of being supported in decision-making in the former relationship;
and, finally, (iii) study the impact of three personal and environmental factors on the three essential
characteristics of SD in the adult population with cerebral palsy. The current work presents itself as a
pioneer work in the field of SD in disability in Portugal, more specifically in DD in adulthood, contributing
to aligning Portuguese research with the international context. Both practice and research will be provided
with specific guidelines aimed at the effective promotion of SD in the population with DD.
... Another group of scholars (Cho & Kingston, 2014;S. Lee et al., 2006;Lee et al., 2008;Lee et al. 2010;Soukup et al., 2007;Strogilos & Stefanidis, 2015;Wehmeyer et al., 2003) use different terminology to describe the same concepts. In 2001, Wehmeyer and colleagues used the term "modifications" as an umbrella term to encompass adaptations (the equivalent to Ontario's "accommodations"), "augmentations" (the equivalent to Ontario's "alternative"), and "alterations" (the equivalent to Ontario's "modifications") (see Figure 2). ...
Modifying the curriculum is a common practice used to support students with Individual Education Plans (IEPs). Up to 15% of students in the Toronto District School Board (TDSB) have curriculum modifications by the time they reach Grade 8. Yet, despite their frequent use, the efficacy of this long-standing practice has rarely been studied. Research from Author (2022) suggests that racialized students are disproportionately overrepresented in this practice. Furthermore, their research suggests that there are negative long-term impacts associated with this practice. This literature review queries what is known about curriculum modifications. Findings reveal two significant issues with the terminology used in the existing literature. Additionally, the limited research available centres on only one exceptionality group (students with significant intellectual disabilities). These findings lay a foundation for future research on curriculum modifications—an area that warrants urgent attention from the anti-oppression movement within special education.
... A pesar de ello, la mayor parte de estudios sobre autodeterminación están centrados en personas con discapacidad intelectual o trastornos del aprendizaje, lo que evidencia una escasa investigación centrada en las personas con TEA (Chou, Wehmeyer, Shogren et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2010). No obstante, las últimas investigaciones en niños y adolescentes con TEA y discapacidad intelectual en el contexto español destacan que, de las ocho dimensiones del constructo de Calidad de vida (Schalock y Verdugo, 2002), la autodeterminación y la inclusión social se erigen como áreas prioritarias de intervención e investigación (Morán et al., 2019). ...
La autodeterminación es una habilidad necesaria en la vida de las personas, con y sin discapacidad, que les permite ser el agente causal de sus vidas, contribuyendo así a mejorar su calidad de vida. La investigación de la autodeterminación en personas con Trastorno del Espectro Autista (TEA) es aún incipiente. El presente trabajo pretende revisar los últimos estudios empíricos que hayan llevado a cabo una intervención con la finalidad de mejorar la autodeterminación en jóvenes con TEA. La búsqueda arrojó seis estudios cuya información fue analizada teniendo en cuenta diferentes variables. Esta revisión sugiere resultados prometedores, a pesar del escaso número de estudios. Por otro lado, resulta necesario ampliar el número de investigaciones en este ámbito para obtener resultados concluyentes.
... Inclusive education research focuses on strengthening schools' capacity for change [8,21] through the development of an inclusive culture [22,23], including addressing the beliefs and perceptions about students with disabilities [24]. Similar research focuses on practical considerations for fostering greater inclusion, like creating organizational flexibility that encourages collaborative problem-solving and shared responsibility [10]; instituting models of multi-tiered systems of support [25]; implementing a model of co-teaching [26]; effectively modifying the curriculum [27]; and addressing complexities of scheduling for students and educators [2]. Overall, the body of research concerning inclusive instructional practices centers on the creation of learning environments where all students belong and learn, a process of capacity-building that requires effective professional learning opportunities for both general and special educators, and all school-based professionals with whom students interact. ...
This study investigated the effectiveness of a five-session virtual professional development program designed to increase the knowledge of inclusive education practices among school-based professionals from 26 schools on a topic of their choice. Participants, including administrators, general and special education teachers, child study team members (i.e., school psychologists, school counselors, and social workers), and others, demonstrated statistically significant increases in content knowledge on Accommodations and Modifications, Universal Design for Learning (UDL), Co-teaching, and Differentiation, as measured by pre- and post-assessments. Utilizing multilevel modeling and dependent samples t-tests, the results confirm the usefulness of virtual professional development in building knowledge of inclusive education practices. The findings provide empirical support for virtual training and offer insights into best practices for delivering professional development in inclusive education, suggesting future research should investigate the long-term impacts on classroom practices and student outcomes.
... These findings highlight the significant impact of education in general classrooms on students' access to challenging, grade-level curriculum (Lee et al., 2010;Morningstar et al., 2015). Despite this emphasis, many schools still follow a placement continuum, determining the education of students with ID based on the severity of their disability and entrenched school processes, procedures, and programs (Kurth et al., 2019). ...
This chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of the historical, legislative, and practical aspects of educating individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID). Beginning with an overview of the definition and significance of ID, the chapter delves into the historical evolution of special education laws and policies, tracing the paradigm shifts that have influenced approaches to educating individuals with ID over time. The legislative framework is examined, with a focus on the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), emphasizing the principles of Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) and Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), as well as the crucial early intervention programs under Part C and Part B.
The chapter further explores critical aspects of special education, including early childhood special education, inclusive education, and the educational continuum. Early childhood intervention, transition from Part C to Part B, and the presumption of inclusive placements are discussed alongside challenges, opportunities, and the impact of IDEA on educational placements. Additionally, the chapter addresses the challenges and opportunities presented by disproportionality in special education, the importance of cultural sensitivity, and the transition challenges faced in secondary education. The concluding section emphasizes evidence-based practices, highlighting the significance of effective instructional strategies, teacher training, and the dissemination of evidence-based practices for the successful education of individuals with intellectual disabilities and ethnic disproportionately.
... All three elements are equally important. Research has shown that for students with intellectual disability to rise to the challenge of grade-level curriculum, they must be in the general education classroom (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010;Wehmeyer, Lattin, Lapp Rincker, & Agran, 2003). In the general education classroom, there must be effective supports for participation (how) and learning (what). ...
... Individualized instruction involves two essential components: (a) identification of individual characteristics and needs via student assessment, and (b) arrangement of educational environments and provision of instruction to meet individual needs, especially through instructional adaptations (Janney & Snell, 2011). Extensive research has demonstrated positive effects of individualized instruction or adaptations on the behavioral and learning outcomes of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD; e.g., Collins et al., 2011;Lee et al, 2010). ...
This study investigated Chinese special education teachers’ perceptions and practices of individualizing instruction for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). Semistructured interviews were conducted with 31 teachers who taught elementary Chinese language arts and math in six public special education schools for students with IDD in Shanghai. In addition, lesson plans written by 19 of the 31 teachers were collected. Thematic analysis revealed that teachers recognized the necessity of adapting instruction. However, practices and beliefs associated with one-size-fits-all approaches to teaching were prevalent. Although all teachers described making efforts to address individual differences, these efforts appeared to be inadequate. Teachers perceived fully addressing the needs of individual students as difficult and described challenges in four areas.
... However, studies suggested that if curriculum changes are made, students respond more in academic ways. As a result, teachers' engagement decreases in classroom managing activities (Lee, Wehmeyer, & Palmer, 2010). ...
The paper is focused on the status of disability-inclusive education from policies to practices at the secondary level of education in Bangladesh. The paper explored the classroom teaching[1]learning practice and available resources in secondary schools in this regard. It also attempted to explore the perception of different stakeholders towards disability-inclusive education. 10 secondary schools were selected from Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions following a convenient sampling technique. Data were gathered from teachers, students, and parents of that level and disability-inclusive education experts using the Interview and FGD method. Data were processed and analyzed using Barun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic analysis technique. The results have shown that participation of students with disabilities in secondary schools is nominal and the dropout rate is higher. Though teachers and parents expressed a sympathetic view toward disability, special schooling is the better option for students with a disability according to their opinion. Thus, they lack a positive attitude toward disability inclusion. Moreover, school infrastructure and teaching-learning are not very convenient. Therefore, the study recommends that training facilities, available resources, and the existing infrastructure be redesigned and enhanced; curriculum modification and adaptation in the assessment system should be introduced to successfully implement disability-inclusive education. Vol. 48 (University of Dhaka Centennial Special Issue), June 2022 p.167-184
... 5, there are many studies at various levels of evidence supporting the efficacy of the SDLMI. There are multiple studies using randomized control trial designs providing causal evidence with regard to the efficacy of the SDLMI to promote selfdetermination (Lee, Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010; and more positive school-related outcomes, including educational goal attainment (Shogren, Palmer, Wehmeyer, Williams-Diehm, & Little, 2012). In addition, there are more than a dozen single-case design studies that have examined the efficacy of the SDLMI. ...
... Mainstream schools should include children in school activities as much as possible in varied roles and encourage full participation through interactions with others in various circumstances (Eriksson et al. 2007). Teachers often helped children with intellectual disabilities participate in academic and social activities (Lee et al. 2010). Early-grade students and those with severe disabilities needed more support (Yao et al. 2021), and teachers were also social role models who helped create a classroom environment that welcomed children with disabilities (Yao et al. 2021). ...
Although school engagement is crucial to child development, research on children with intellectual disabilities in mainstream schools is scant. This sequential, explanatory mixed-methods study examined the ways in and extent to which children with intellectual disabilities participate in mainstream school activities, as well the personal and environmental factors that affect their participation. A total of 101 general teachers provided quantitative data, while eight children with intellectual impairments and their teachers and peers provided qualitative data. In the quantitative survey, no significant differences were observed between children with and those without intellectual disabilities regarding school absence, but a low similarity existed in their extent of participation. Children with intellectual disabilities engaged most frequently in life-skills and after-school activities and least frequently in social and volunteer activities. School participation was affected by the degree of disability and environmental variables. We derived two themes from qualitative research: (1) school participation of children with intellectual disabilities; and (2) factors associated with school participation of children with intellectual disabilities. The results suggest strategies that may promote the participation of children with intellectual disabilities in mainstream schools.
... Children who are given a variety of opportunities can be provided choices based on these experiences, which informs their decisions when they are older (Ryan & Deci, 2000). However, research has shown that children with disabilities have limited opportunities for self-determination, which limits their choices and involvement in their communities when they are adults (Lee et al., 2010). Thus, it is not surprising that children with sensory impairments participate less often in activities outside their schools than their typically developing peers (Engel-Yeger & Hamed-Daher, 2013). ...
Introduction: The Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) and the Preferences for Activities of Children (PAC) are useful measures to assess how children with visual impairments are meeting the nine areas of the expanded core curriculum (ECC). Each item of the CAPE and PAC includes an activity with an accompanied image to illustrate it. However, the measures do not provide standardized image descriptions for each item, which limits its validity and reliability for this population. Thus, the purpose of this Delphi study was to validate and standardize image descriptions for the CAPE and PAC so they can be used more effectively with children with visual impairments. Methods: The expert panel consisted of 11 professionals with extensive knowledge and experience with individuals with visual impairments and six dyads of parents and their child with a visual impairment. Each panel member assessed the accuracy of wording for 57 image descriptions on a 4-point Likert scale and provided feedback on items rated below 3. Results: Consensus on all image descriptions was reached after two rounds. Discussion: The results of this study help to increase the validity and reliability of the CAPE and PAC for children with visual impairments. Implications for Practitioners: The CAPE and PAC can be used more effectively by practitioners and researchers to assess the areas of the ECC for children with visual impairments.
... Possessing robust self-determination skills is highly correlated with positive academic (S. H. Lee et al., 2010), employment (Martorell et al., 2008;Papay & Bambara, 2014), and quality-of-life outcomes (Nota et al., 2007). ...
Students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) who attend inclusive postsecondary education (IPSE) programs gain many new and beneficial skills, including independent living, social, and employability skills. Another skill set that may be strengthened by attending an IPSE program is self-determination. There is limited research available identifying the impact of IPSE programs on self-determination growth. We addressed this gap by using a longitudinal study designed to examine the changes in self-determination levels of students with IDD across 3 years in an IPSE program. Data collected from 23 students with IDD at 4 points of time within 3 years showed that there was an increasing trend in students’ self-determination levels at the end of each year. The difference was highly significant between the baseline and the end of the third year. This suggests that IPSE programs can play a critical role in the improvement of the self-determination levels in students with IDD. Implications and future research are discussed.
... The study concluded that classroom teachers used physical arrangements at a higher rate than teaching arrangements. Lee et al. (2010), in their research on whether curricular arrangements were dependent on teacher and student behaviors in relation to regular curriculum, concluded that students could make explanations in more academic fields and that competitive behavior between students decreased when curricular arrangements were made. Mcintosh et al. (1993) compared the attitude of 60 regular education teachers towards their typically developing students and their students with learning disabilities that are studying in inclusive classrooms. ...
Giriş: Özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrenciler kaynaştırma öğrencileri içerisinde büyük bir grubu oluşturmaktadır. Özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilerin kaynaştırma sınıflarındaki öğretimden en iyi şekilde faydalanmaları için bu sınıfın en az kısıtlayıcı eğitim ortamı olması amaçlanmaktadır. En az kısıtlayıcı eğitim ortamı öğretim ile ilgili çeşitli uygulama ve uyarlamaları gerektirmektedir. Bu araştırmada sınıflarında özel öğrenme güçlüğü tanısı konulmuş öğrencileri bulunan ortaokul matematik öğretmenlerinin öğretim ile ilgili uygulama ve uyarlamaları nasıl yaptıklarını detaylı olarak incelemek ve bu faaliyetleri nasıl gerçekleştirdiklerini ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır.Yöntem: Bu nitel araştırma, durum çalışması desenlerinden iç içe geçmiş çoklu durum deseni olarak tasarlanmıştır. Araştırmanın katılımcıları bir devlet okulunda 6. sınıf öğrencilerinin matematik dersine giren ve sınıfında özel öğrenme güçlüğü tanısı konulmuş kaynaştırma öğrencisi bulunan 3 matematik öğretmenidir. Araştırmanın verileri araştırmacılar tarafında geliştirilen demografik bilgi formu, görüşme formu ve gözlem formu kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Elde edilen ham veriler, nitel araştırma analiz yöntemlerinden betimsel analiz ile analiz edilmiştir.Bulgular: Araştırma bulgularına göre matematik öğretmenlerinin öğretim ile ilgili olarak; öğretim programı, öğretim yöntemi, öğretim materyalleri, öğretim grupları, ödevler, öğrenme becerilerinin geliştirilmesi, davranışın geliştirilmesi ve ilerlemenin izlenmesini kolaylaştırma (değerlendirme) ile ilgili çeşitli uygulama ve uyarlamalar yaptıkları görülmüştür.Tartışma: Öğretmenlerin daha çok öğretim programı ve değerlendirme çalışmalarında önlem ve düzenlemelere yer verdikleri tespit edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda ortaokul matematik öğretmenlerinin öğretimin program ve değerlendirme uygulamalarının yanında öğretim sürecindeki tüm uygulama ve uyarlamalara önem vermeleri önerilmektedir.
... The strategy helps in creating an inclusive environment for students with disabilities specifically physical and mental impairment that would have a limiting factor on some life activities. The strategy helps in removing barriers such as (Lee et al., 2010): ...
... Many studies have evidenced the importance of selfdetermination in different areas of the lives of people with ID. Firstly, people with ID who have higher levels of self-determination attain better academic performance [5] and achieve more positive adult outcomes including the following: autonomous community living [6,7]; more independence, being more financially independent or obtaining better job benefits [8,9]; and higher quality of life [10], such as higher life satisfaction, better people may be more comfortable with demonstrating their self-determination competencies than their self-determination autonomy [32]. While recent studies conducted in Western countries have begun to stress autonomy support and partnership in decision-making from paid and unpaid caregivers [40][41][42], people with ID in Chinese societies have less autonomy in financial matters and over major life decisions [43]. ...
Self-determination is regarded as an adult outcome for people with an intellectual disability (ID). However, self-determination curricula are rarely available in Hong Kong. This paper outlines a protocol for an experimental study that examines the effectiveness of a group-based self-determination enhancement intervention for adults with mild ID and their caregivers. A randomized controlled trial with pre-test, post-test and three-month follow-up is proposed. A total of 120 participants will be randomly assigned to three conditions: self-determination enhancement group, self-determination enhancement PLUS group (with caregivers in a parallel group) and leisure activity group as a control condition. Five groups will be organized for each of the three conditions. There will be 10 sessions per group covering the core components of self-determination including self-knowledge, goal setting and attaining goals, self-regulating and adjusting plans. Components for caregivers include understanding how self-determination and REACH responding skills can support their children to exercise self-determination through positive interaction. Self-determination competencies and personal well-being will be measured at three points in time. The proposed study is the first evidence-based local study aimed at examining a culturally tailored self-determination enhancement intervention for people with ID and fills a research gap in existing interventions. If the intervention is demonstrated to be effective, it will provide new knowledge for a group-based intervention and will be used with Chinese-speaking people with ID in different parts of the world. (Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05167929)
... These meetings provide an ideal opportunity for students with disabilities to be active participants, allowing them to articulate their personal desires and aspirations, to advocate for themselves, and to set goals for their futures. Not only is encouraging students with disabilities to perform these self-determined actions best practice (Test et al., 2009), fostering students' self-determination directly connects students to transition planning and is therefore ultimately linked to students' positive academic and post-school outcomes (Konrad et al., 2007;Lee et al., 2010). An important aspect of transition planning includes students' making plans for their lives and developing goals related to employment, education, independent living and participation in recreation and leisure activities. ...
Three-dimensional (3D) printed materials have been found to promote spatial awareness in people who are blind and visually impaired. Research has shown 3D printed materials can make abstract concepts, such as severe weather, easier to understand. Much of the existing research related to weather and disability is focused on people with physical disabilities. Severe weather poses a safety threat. Therefore, it is important to address spatial awareness and understanding of severe weather patterns in this population. Developing 3D printed models of severe weather patterns (i.e., clouds and hail) is one way to accomplish this. Occupational therapy practitioners have the skills to develop 3D printed models for use as a teaching tool and assistive technology intervention. This study explores how 3D printed models influence spatial awareness and understanding of severe weather patterns (i.e., clouds and hail) in people who are blind and visually impaired. This study employed a nonexperimental descriptive design using an electronic survey to collect data from a nonprobability sample. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. The information gained from this study can be used to inform future research and guide clinical practice.
Many students with autism spectrum condition who require augmentative and alternative communication systems attend inclusive-oriented schools, where it is expected that curricula support their preferred communication methods. While augmentative and alternative communication is recognized as an evidence-based practice, its integration within inclusive-oriented school curricula remains insufficiently understood. To address this gap, a scoping review was conducted in alignment with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, examining 34 studies on augmentative and alternative communication use in inclusive-oriented school settings for students with autism spectrum condition. The findings highlight limited teacher engagement, a variety of strategies, and an emphasis on communication skills, but leave a gap in understanding how inclusive-oriented schools employ augmentative and alternative communication to promote learning for autistic students. The review also addresses the restricted curricular integration of augmentative and alternative communication, noting that it is often implemented outside the classroom and primarily for social rather than academic purposes.
Lay Abstract
a. What is already known about the topic? It is well established that in inclusive-oriented schools, both the attitudes and training of teachers, as well as the accessibility of the learning environment, are crucial for the participation and success of individuals with autism. While practices like augmentative and alternative communication systems are used in these schools, their effectiveness is often contingent on the level of training and the time available to the professionals involved.
b. What does this paper add? This article highlights that augmentative communication for individuals with autism in inclusive-oriented schools is not effectively integrated into the curriculum. Instead, it is mainly used for brief socialization activities, without proper evaluation, and with limited involvement from teachers.
c. Implications for practice, research, or policy: The findings suggest the need for a more inclusive curriculum that incorporates augmentative and alternative communication systems, enabling them to be taught, assessed, and applied in a way that supports the learning of individuals with autism.
Öğretim programlarının öğrencilerin farklı özellik, ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına göre esnek biçimde düzenlenmesi sürecini ifade eden program uyarlama kavramı, eğitim teknolojilerindeki gelişmeler, eğitimde bireysel farklılıklara atfedilen önemin artması ve bireyselleştirilmiş öğrenme uygulamalarının yaygınlaşması, özel gereksinimi olan veya farklı öğrenme profillerine sahip öğrencilerin de eşit fırsatlarla eğitim almasına olanak tanıyan düzenlemeler ile özellikle son yıllarda uzaktan eğitim sistemlerine olan ihtiyacın artması gibi faktörlerle daha da önem kazanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda sadece öğrencilerin bireysel öğrenme ihtiyaçlarına yanıt vermek amacıyla değil, aynı zamanda eğitimde kapsayıcılık, eşitlik ve erişilebilirlik ilkelerinin hayata geçirilmesi için de kritik bir araç olarak görülmekte olan program uyarlama konusuna yönelik olarak gerçekleştirilen araştırmalar da dikkat çekici bir düzeyde artış göstermiştir. Bu araştırma program uyarlama ile ilgili literatürdeki bilimsel bilgi birikimini kapsayıcı bir bakış açısıyla incelemeyi, bu alandaki araştırmaların farklı değişkenler temelindeki dağılımlarını ve araştırma eğilimlerini analiz ederek ilgili alanın kuramsal çerçevesini ve entelektüel altyapısını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında 1980-2024 yılları arasında 595 farklı dergide yayımlanan 984 makale bibliyometrik analiz yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Araştırmada elde edilen bulgular, program uyarlama ile ilişkili araştırmaların giderek daha geniş bir yelpazede ele alındığını göstermektedir. Özellikle COVID-19 pandemisinin etkisiyle çevrimiçi eğitim ve dijitalleşme süreçlerinin yaygınlaşmasının bu alanda gerçekleştirilen araştırmaların sayısında kritik bir artışa neden olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, ilgili alanda yayın ve atıf sayısı bakımından en etkili ülkelerin Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Avustralya, Çin, Kanada ve Birleşik Krallık olduğu ve son 5 yıllık dönemde program uyarlama çalışmalarında yapay zeka, özel eğitim, program tasarımı ve çevrimiçi öğrenme konuları en çok öne çıkan alanlar arasında yer aldığı elde edilen bir diğer bulgudur. Diğer taraftan ortak sözcük ağı analizi sonuçları alandaki “Kapsayıcı Eğitim ve Özel Eğitimde Program Uyarlama”, “Öğretmenlikte Mesleki Gelişim”, “Uzaktan Eğitim, Çevrimiçi Öğrenme ve Yapay Zekâ”, “Program Uyarlamanın Dinamikleri” olarak üç tema etrafında toplandığını gösterirken; ortak atıf ağı analizi sonuçları ise alanyazındaki teorik ve entelektüel altyapının “Eğitimde Kapsayıcılık ve Özel Eğitim”, “Eğitim Psikolojisi, Sosyal-Duygusal Öğrenme ve Farklılaştırılmış Öğretim Yaklaşımları” ile “Eğitim Politikaları, Öğretim Tasarımı ve Ölçme-Değerlendirme” olmak üzere üç tema etrafında şekillendiğini ortaya koymaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Program uyarlama, program geliştirme, eğitim programları ve öğretim, bibliyometrik analiz
La investigación se centra en la importancia del apoyo familiar en la aceptación y gestión de las Necesidades Educativas Especiales (NEE) de los hijos en la Unidad Educativa Juan León Mera, utilizando un enfoque cualitativo y como método se aplicó la entrevista. A través de este enfoque, se ha podido profundizar en las percepciones, experiencias y prácticas de los padres en relación con las NEE de sus hijos. Se ha evidenciado que el apoyo familiar desempeña un papel crítico en el bienestar general y el éxito académico de los estudiantes con NEE. Los hallazgos revelan que cuando los padres están emocionalmente comprometidos y ofrecen un apoyo constante, los niños se sienten más aceptados y seguros, lo que a su vez impacta positivamente en su autoestima y motivación para aprender. Esta comunicación abierta y constructiva permite una mejor comprensión de las necesidades individuales de cada estudiante y la implementación de estrategias educativas más personalizadas y efectivas. Se destaca la necesidad de promover una mayor conciencia en los padres, fomentando una colaboración positiva para la familia, así como el acceso equitativo a recursos y servicios educativos especializados, para garantizar el pleno desarrollo y bienestar de todos los estudiantes.
This chapter provides the results from a large-scale systematic review of adjustments provided to children with special educational needs in general education classrooms. Initially, demographic characteristics of the research will be examined, including geographic region, types of school examined, diagnostic features and characteristics of participants contributing data. This is followed by a consideration of methodology and research quality. Subsequently, the nature of adjustments will be examined across the areas of assessment; instruction; curriculum; classroom environment; organisation and management; human resource use; and technology. Key findings in these areas will be contextualized and discussed. Finally, an analysis of the key themes identified across the research will be offered and some limitations of the review acknowledged.
Inclusion of children with special educational needs in general education classrooms has been a consistent trend over several decades. Many jurisdictions have introduced legislation and processes to require adjustments to educational programs to ensure the needs of students are addressed. This chapter provides the background to a large-scale systematic review examining the nature of adjustments provided in classrooms. Issues addressed include terminology used to refer to adjustments, frameworks relevant to the provision of adjustments such as Universal Design for Learning and various multitiered approaches, as well as the role of teaching assistants. The chapter also considers approaches to examining adjustments and presents the key aims of the systematic review.
Transition planning is a federally-mandated process that involves systematic planning for life after a child with a disability exits the school district. Family engagement in transition planning is central to ensuring positive post-school outcomes for individuals with disabilities. Using a family-friendly framework for transition planning, such as person-centered planning, enhances family engagement. Innovations in technology have made active participation in transition planning easier than ever before. Educators who can successfully navigate current technologies and encourage technology use with the families they serve can reduce barriers many families face when engaging in transition planning. By enhancing family-friendly transition planning strategies (such as person-centered planning) with technology, educators have a powerful tool to increase student self-advocacy and self-determination while increasing family engagement in the transition process. Early and ongoing communication with families will also increase family engagement throughout the process.
Osoby z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną często napotykają różne bariery, które utrudniają im doświadczanie samostanowienia – podstawowego prawa każdego człowieka. Dominujące obecnie w pedagogice specjalnej paradygmaty: pozytywnie ukierunkowany oraz humanistyczny pozwoliły na zmianę postrzegania osób z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną, uznawanych dotychczas za zaburzonych, biernych, niezdolnych do podejmować decyzji o sobie, jako jednostki sprawcze – zdolne do samostanowienia. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu przybliżenie Teorii Działania Sprawczego, której opracowanie opierało się o doniesienia empiryczne zwracające uwagę na istotę samostanowienia w życiu osób z niepełnosprawnościami. Zwrócono również uwagę na fundamentalne znaczenie podstawowych potrzeb psychologicznych w procesie wspierania samostanowienia i poprawy jakości życia tychże osób. Aby podjąć bardziej precyzyjne i zindywidualizowane oddziaływania rehabilitacyjne niezwykle istotna jest obecność rzetelnych narzędzi pomiarowych. Zatem pokrótce przedstawiono Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction and Frustration Scale – Intellectual Disability (BPNSFS-ID), będące propozycją niderlandzkich badaczy. Biorąc pod uwagę rezultaty dotychczasowych badań podkreślających znaczenie podstawowych potrzeb psychologicznych dla samostanowienia osób z niepełnosprawnościami, istnieje potrzeba opracowania polskich narzędzi do pomiaru potrzeby autonomii, kompetencji i relacji oraz kwerenda zagranicznych propozycji programów wspierających ich zaspokojenie.
Students with disabilities stand a higher chance of dropping out of school before completing their primary or secondary education. As a result, their full integration into society may be hindered. Globally, there is a movement towards addressing this issue through targeted interventions. For example, the Guyana Council of Organisations for Persons with Disabilities (GCOPD), has been operating at a national level to develop educational programmes (e.g., STEM-Robotics), which expose youngsters with disabilities to skills that are needed for the twenty-first-century. During the 2020/2021 iteration of the STEM-Robotics programme, the GCOPD leveraged the support of 7 mentors from the University of Guyana’s Robotics Club and Department of Computer Science to design, develop, adapt, and execute the curriculum for 48 special needs students within the age range of 11 to 27 years old. The curriculum was delivered using a hybrid approach for approximately 12 weekly sessions. Feedback in the form of observations and experiences was collected from the mentors. Overall, the mentors observed positive improvements in the students’ critical thinking, problem-solving, environmental awareness and presentation skills. Notably, the majority of the participants managed to complete class activities and graduated from the programme. The lessons learned from our study may prove useful for future related programmes.
This study was focused on the most effective means of educating severely challenged students. The study compares the effectiveness of the Modified Curriculum or a Vocational Life-Skills Curriculum in helping the student attain independence and success after educational or training services. This is conducted in Central Maryland, USA, High School classrooms. This endeavor helps guide parents and other stakeholders, educators, related service providers, and policymakers in determining the most effective way to educate or train students with severe cognitive and physical limitations. This study is important because it addresses the different curricula that may be used for a successful and meaningful classroom experience for severely challenged students. This study helps teachers to implement a curriculum that best serves this population. The study shows that Modified Curriculum and Vocational Life Skills Training are effective for students with Severely Challenged Students if implemented with ample time, resources, planning, and collaboration between Special Educators, Instructional Supports, Other Health Providers, and Parents/Guardians. There’s no significant difference in the performance of the respondents before and after using the Modified Curriculum and Vocational Life Skills Training curriculum.
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin ilk ortaokul öğretim programı olan “1924 Ortamektep Müfredat Programı”, 1913 yılında Osmanlı Döneminde yürürlüğe girmiş olan “Tedrisat-ı İptidaiye Kanunu Muvakkatı”
programının Cumhuriyet ilkelerine göre düzenlenmiş halidir. Bu programdan günümüze kadar birçok ortaokul öğretim programı hazırlanarak uygulanmıştır. Bu çalışmada, Cumhuriyetin ilk ortaokul fen öğretim programından günümüze kadar uygulanan programlardaki, Canlılar ve Yaşam öğrenme alanı kapsamında yer alan biyoloji, çevre ve sağlık konuları derlenerek tek bir kaynakta toplanmış ve karşılaştırmalı olarak tartışılmıştır. Araştırma ortaokul öğretim programlarını kapsadığı için 2013 programına kadar 6., 7. ve 8. sınıflar, 2013 ve 2018 programlarında ise 5., 6., 7. ve 8. sınıflar çalışmaya dâhil edilmiştir. Araştırma doküman incelemesi yöntemiyle yürütülmüş olup veriler betimsel analiz ile değerlendirilmiştir. Doküman incelemesinde yazılı belgelerin içeriği titizlikle, sistematik olarak ve kronolojik sıra gözetilerek analiz edilir. Araştırma kapsamında kullanılan veriler birincil kaynaklardan
elde edilmiştir. Söz konusu bu kaynaklar Milli Kütüphane, MEB Ders Kitapları ve Yayımlar Daire Başkanlığı Arşiv Kütüphanesinde yer alan orijinal kaynaklardır. Literatürde yakın geçmişteki fen öğretim programlarını çeşitli açılardan inceleyen çok sayıda çalışma bulunurken, Cumhuriyet'ten günümüze uygulanan Fen Bilgisi Öğretimi Öğretim Programlarında yer alan konuların karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesine yönelik çok az çalışma bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışma fen öğretim programlarında yer alan
Canlılar ve Yaşam öğrenme alanı konularının yaklaşık bir asırlık aşamada geçirdiği değişiklikleri ortaya koymaktadır. Bu nedenle fen eğitim tarihi ile ilgilenen araştırmacılara ve kurumlara önemli katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir.
Students with complex support needs frequently experience restrictive educational placements such as self-contained and separate school classrooms. Given the need to support students with complex support needs to experience positive outcomes and make progress in the general education curriculum, there is a need to investigate the characteristics of the classroom contexts in which they are learning. The purpose of this study was to use ecobehavioral assessment observation methods to investigate how student behaviors, educator behaviors, and classroom ecology vary across general education, resource, self-contained, and separate school classrooms. We observed 116 students with complex support needs across the United States, and results indicated that contextual features of resource, self-contained, and separate school classrooms do not offer superior levels of instruction or supports for students with complex support needs as compared with general education classrooms. We were more likely to observe no one interacting with the focus student, no instruction, and the presence of distractions in self-contained and separate school classrooms compared with general education classrooms. Implications for policy, research, and practice are presented.
This study explored the classroom experiences of Meranao teachers who are handling learners with special educational needs in an inclusive classroom. The study was conducted at Bangon Elementary School, West District of Marawi City Division during the school year 2018-2019. The participants were the six Meranao teachers in an inclusive classroom. This study utilized the qualitative research method specifically the descriptive phenomenology design of Spiegelberg (1976). In depth interview and focus group discussion were used as tools to gather the data. In transcribing the data, the researcher followed the thematic analysis of Clarke and Braun (2006). The findings were organized in three themes namely; professional capability and dynamism, one size fits all, and barrier free learning atmosphere.
Research in self-determination has expanded in recent years, especially in the special education field. Instruments to measure self-determination in students with disabilities are not available in the Romanian language, and this issue has led to the development of the current study, a cultural adaptation , and validation of The ARC’s Self-Determination Scale which provides a strong psychometric measure of self-determination. Based on the Functional Model of Self-determination, this scale is designed to measure the four components of self-determination construct and global self-determination in students with disabilities. This pilot test study aims to explain the cultural adaptation and validation process of The ARC’s Self-Determination Scale for use in the Romanian research context and the educational approach. The participants’ sample for the validation process of the scale comprised 275 young students with learning disabilities, and mild and moderate intellectual disabilities, the participants were ranging ages from 11 and 19 years old (M = 14.93; SD = 1.47). Through the structuraequation modeling approach, the estimation of the latent model fit provided evidence of internal validity of the scale, demonstrating the adequacy to measure self-determination in adolescents with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities. The values of internal consistency coefficients and validity characteristics are discussed. .
The purpose of this research was to examine the pedagogical practices that encourage students with severe disabilities’ participation in an elementary physical education program through the lens of ableism. Focus group interviews were conducted with elementary students and semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight educators in the school. Field notes were conducted and documents, including the lesson plan and journal entries were collected. Findings reveal the teacher’s intentional instructional practices fostered students’ engagement with peers and classroom activities. The results of this research augment the literature describing teachers’ orientations and pedagogical innovation that serve the needs of students with disabilities within general physical education settings.
Although valuable for an individual's quality of life and participation in society, many individuals with complex support needs (CSN) do not receive appropriate literacy instruction. Recent expansion of postsecondary education opportunities for individuals with CSN offers new opportunities for continued literacy skill development (e.g., participation in coursework, employment, social activities). This scoping review explored existing research to understand how students with CSN experience literacy learning opportunities in postsecondary education. Results reveal a need for future research to include as participants individuals who are reading at pre-first grade levels and to investigate opportunities to acquire or develop literacy skills for these students within inclusive university classes with students who do not have disabilities. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
Calls to support inclusive educational experiences for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) have been longstanding. General education STEM classes may provide a rich context for promoting the inclusion of these students within a relevant curricular area. To assess inclusive class participation, we directly observed 15 secondary students with IDD—along with a comparison group of their classmates without disabilities—in STEM-related classes. We focused on academic, social, and contextual measures. Although some similarities were found in the academic and social participation of students and their classmates, key differences were observed in the areas of what they learned, who they conversed with, and how they learned. We present recommendations for future research and practice aimed at strengthening inclusive educational experiences.
Federal mandates, most notably the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), guarantee education rights for children classified under one of the 13 categories of disabilities, ensuring that they are educated with their peers in the general education classroom as much as possible based on their ability and needs. State educational agencies and local educational agencies are responsible for ensuring that the pedagogical needs of all children with a disability are met in accordance with the law. This chapter discusses IDEA and the concept of inclusion and how special and general educators must increase their efforts to promote and support equitable opportunities for all students.
Introduction
Classroom accommodations are a primary means of supporting the appropriate education for students with disabilities. Student involvement in the accommodation process is valuable. Therefore, we need to teach students to be knowledgeable and strategic regarding their accommodations.
Methods
Four high school students with visual impairments were taught the Student Self-Accommodation Strategy (SSA). A comparative case studies approach within a sequential explanatory design was used to investigate their accommodations knowledge and practices.
Results
Participants improved or maintained accommodations knowledge. Their most-used types of accommodations were access accommodations and accommodations for content support. Three of the participants increased advocacy after strategy instruction. The participants’ accommodation practices were influenced by emotional-behavioral regulation, independence, and teacher involvement.
Discussion
Findings from this study relate to existing literature on accommodations support, teacher involvement in the accommodations process, instruction in accommodations advocacy, and the relationship between accommodations and emotional-behavioral dysregulation.
Implications
Findings emphasize the need to be explicit about the accommodations available to students with visual impairments and the need for strategy instruction in the SSA to address emotional-behavioral dysregulation.
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the Teacher Performance Rate and Accuracy Scale (TPRA) which is a method of direct teacher observation used in the teacher evaluation and training component of the Comprehensive Application of Behavior Analysis to Schooling (CABAS®) model of schooling. The TPRA builds on the concept of academic engaged time (a measure frequently employed during ecobehavioral assessment) by counting the presence or absence of learn units (interlocking three-term contingencies for both students and teachers) during instruction. Implementation procedures for the TPRA, its application for identification and analysis of instructional problems, and its use for training and ongoing evaluation of teachers are presented and discussed.
This study examined the instructional contexts of six students with severe disabilities and six peers without disabilities enrolled in the same general education classes. The two groups of students were compared on (a) the extent to which they were the exclusive focus of instruction; (b) the amount of one-to-one, small group, and whole group instruction that they received and the amount of independent work they were asked to complete; (c) who delivered instruction; and (d) the types of instructional interactions that were directed toward them. Data were collected using The Code for Instructional Structure and Academic Response Mainstream Version (MS-CISSAR; Carta, Greenwood, Schwartz & Miller, 1990). The results indicate that students with severe disabilities were much more likely than their typically developing peers to have instruction focused exclusively on them and to receive one-to-one instruction. The results are discussed in terms of the implications for educational programs for this group of students and future research.
In the last 20 years, teacher preparation programs have come under close scrutiny by the public and governmental agencies charged with monitoring teacher quality and the academic achievement of American students. Both regular and special education teacher preparation programs struggle with the requirement to collect valid and reliable evidence of teacher candidate performance and their effects on student learning. This study incorporated an ecobehavioral assessment tool (MS-CISSAR) in the evaluation of 13 special education teacher candidates during their internship experiences. Special education teacher candidates taught in deaf education classrooms and self-contained and resource rooms for students with disabilities. Results showed that the instructional arrangements, teaching behaviors and student responses were similar to studies using inservice teachers and students with disabilities as subjects. The incorporation of data gathered through the MS-CISSAR program could be used to meet university and NCATE requirements for evidence of teacher candidate performance.
Addressing federal mandates regarding both the delivery of transition services and access to the general education curriculum has been a challenge for secondary special educators. A practice common to both initiatives, however, has been efforts to promote self-determination. This study examined the impact of promoting self-determination as an instructional strategy to examine (a) the relationship between self-determination and access to the general education curriculum and (b) the impact of promoting self-determination as a curriculum augmentation on access to the general education curriculum for high school students with disabilities. The study implemented a randomized trial control group design in which classroom observations were conducted to determine student access to the general education curriculum before and after the implementation of an instructional model to enable students to self-regulate learning. Analyses were conducted using multilevel model methods. The findings indicated the potential positive impact of promoting self-determination on access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities as well as the degree to which curriculum modifications and other supports are needed to further access and student progress.
This study investigated the effectiveness of a main idea strategy and self-monitoring instructional procedure for improving comprehension of textual material in students with high-incidence (e.g., learning and behavioral) disabilities. Thirty-three middle school students with disabilities were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Students in the experimental condition were trained to identify and generate main idea statements using main idea strategy instruction and a self-monitoring procedure. Results indicated that the instructional procedures led to increased reading comprehension of students in the experimental group on the training measure, which was maintained over time. On near and far transfer measures, the experimental group statistically outperformed students in the control group on posttest and delayed posttest items requiring selection responses. Students in the experimental group maintained strategy usage 6 weeks later on selection type responses on the near transfer measure but, not on the far transfer measure. Implications for practice are discussed.
Access to the core curriculum for students with disabilities has been a goal of many practitioners and a focus of much research. The purposes of this study were to describe the ways in which students with significant disabilities accessed the core curriculum and to identify the services and supports necessary for participation in general education classrooms. The experiences of three students with significant disabilities (one elementary, one middle school, and one high school) who had been members of general education classrooms in urban schools for at least 3 years are described. Four themes emerged: (a) individualized, content-specific accommodations and modifications; (b) collaboration among the teaching team; (c) involvement of peers; and (d) a disconnect between the IEP and curriculum and instruction. Implications for instructional design and teacher roles are discussed.
The predictors of student and teacher variables on the access to the general education curriculum of 19 students with intellectual and developmental disabilities were examined based on the observation data collected for a total of 1, 140 minutes. Multilevel regression analyses were employed to analyze the data. The. findings indicated that both student and teacher variables are strong predictors of access to the general education curriculum. A complicated pattern of the relationship between student and teacher variables (e.g., suppression, correction of distortion) was found along with interaction between these variables and environmental factors. These findings also suggest future practices and research that can be considered to enhance access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities.
Curriculum modification strategies, particularly curriculum adaptations and augmentations, have been identified as important to enable learners with disabilities to achieve access to and progress in the general curriculum. There is, however, relatively little research on the effect of these strategies with students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. The purpose of this paper is to examine curriculum adaptation and augmentation strategies that might promote student involvement and progress in the general curriculum for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities, and to provide recommendations with regard to how such augmentations might be modified to be more appropriate for use with this population. More than five years after the 1997 amend- ments to IDEA first required that the IEPs of all students receiving special education ser- vices describe how a child's disability affects his or her involvement with and progress in the general curriculum and provide state- ments concerning measurable goals, services, and program modifications to achieve such involvement and progress, there are still too few frameworks that describe strategies to ad- dress "access to the general curriculum" for all students with disabilities, particularly students with intellectual and developmental disabili- ties. Many educators working with students with more severe disabilities are dubious that the focus on access is either achievable or advisable. Agran, Alper, and Wehmeyer (2002) conducted a survey of teachers work- ing with students with severe disabilities about their perceptions of the IDEA access require- ments. When asked if ensuring students' ac- cess to the general curriculum would help increase educational expectations for students with severe disabilities, 75% of teachers
The 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act included requirements that students with disabilities have access to and progress in the general curriculum. Most discussions of efforts to promote such access and progress do not take into account the unique needs of learners with mental retardation. Wehmeyer, Lattin, and Agran (2001) introduced a decision-making model to enable IEP teams to make decisions about the educational program of students with mental retardation taking into account both the general curriculum and unique student learning needs. This article places that decision-making process into the context of other steps needed to ensure access for students with mental retardation, providing a multi-step and multi-level model to ensure access for students with mental retardation.
Discusses the biasing effects of nonindependence of observations on the mean squares used to test the effect of some discrete independent variable. Nonindependence of observations is defined, and 3 commonly assumed patterns of nonindependence are identified: nonindependence due to groups, nonindependence due to sequence, and nonindependence due to space. How the bias in both the mean square for treatment and the mean square for error can be derived when each of the 3 patterns of nonindependence is ignored in analyzing the effect of a discrete independent variable is demonstrated. Ways to eliminate the sometimes considerable biases, either by including the source of nonindependence in the analysis, transforming the data to remove it, or modeling it, are discussed. It is concluded that nonindependence of observations should be viewed as a substantive issue central to many areas by psychological research. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We conducted a longitudinal investigation of differences in classroom ecological arrangements and student behaviors (processes) on low-SES and high-SES elementary students' growth in academic achievement (products). An experimental, low-SES group received Classwide Peer Tutoring implemented by their teachers during each grade from first through fourth, while a low-SES control group and a high-SES comparison group received teacher-designed instruction. Results indicated that the experimental group and the comparison group, with distinctly different ecological arrangements and significantly higher levels of academic engagement, produced significantly greater product gains than did the control group. The implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigated the degree to which students with intellectual and developmental disabilities have access to the general education curriculum and the degree to which such access is related to and predicted by classroom setting and ecological variables. We observed 19 students during science or social studies instruction and collected data with Access CISSAR, a computer-based observation system that uses time sampling observation. The results of the study indicated that accommodations and modifications were provided depending on the amount of time students were educated with their nondisabled peers. Further, one-on-one or independent instructional groupings were better predictors of access than whole-group instruction, as were entire or divided group physical arrangements.
The effects of three grouping formats—1:1 (one teacher with 1 student), 1:3 (one teacher with 3 students), and 1:10 (one teacher with 10 students)—on the reading outcomes of second-grade struggling readers was studied. Students in all groups were given the same supplemental reading intervention for the same number of sessions, thus holding intervention type and intensity constant and varying group size. Students made significant gains in phoneme segmentation, fluency, and comprehension following the intervention, and these gains were maintained at follow-up (4—5 weeks after intervention). Based on effect sizes, both 1:1 and 1:3 were highly effective intervention group sizes for supplemental reading instruction. Although the 1:1 grouping format yielded significantly higher scores for phoneme segmentation, fluency, and comprehension than the 1:10, it was not superior to the 1:3 on any outcome measure.
Writing development involves changes that occur in children’s strategic behavior, knowledge, and motivation. The authors examined the effectiveness of self-regulated strategy development (SRSD), a strategy instructional model designed to promote development in each of these areas. Instruction focused on planning and writing stories and persuasive essays. The addition of a peer support component to SRSD instruction aimed at facilitating maintenance and generalization effects was also examined. SRSD had a positive impact on the writing performance and knowledge of struggling second-grade writers attending urban schools serving a high percentage of low-income families. In comparison with children in the Writers’ Workshop condition, SRSD-instructed students were more knowledgeable about writing and evidenced stronger performance in the two instructed genres (story and persuasive writing) as well as two uninstructed genres (personal narrative and informative writing). Moreover, the peer support component augmented SRSD instruction by enhancing specific aspects of students’ performance in both the instructed and uninstructed genres.
A real need exists for the development of effective instructional procedures for students with autism and other developmental disabilities in community-based settings. The purpose of the present project was twofold: a) to conduct an ecobehavioral analysis of classroom instruction in order to provide a description of naturally occurring effective procedures; and b) to experimentally validate the effectiveness of those procedures across teachers and classrooms. Twenty-four subjects from six different classrooms participated in Study 1. An ecobehavioral analysis model was implemented with systematic observations to measure environmental effects on student performance. These observations, along with informal observations conducted by the experimenters, were used to provide data-based and qualitative descriptions of naturally occurring classroom procedures and events. Study 2 sought to experimentally determine functional relationships between the identified effective procedures from Study 1 and levels of student academic responding and learning. Twenty-one subjects from 5 classrooms participated in a series of single-subject designs to test the intervention procedures during small group instructional sessions. Intervention groups were characterized by a variety of media materials interspersed with verbal interactions, frequent rotations of materials, fast-pacing, group (choral) responding, and student-to-student interactions. Results, based on procedural checklist data and criterion-referenced assessments, indicated reliable replications across teachers and students for the identified naturally occurring effective procedures with increased student learning during interventions.
This exploratory study examined several instructional characteristics of elementary classrooms serving students with severe disabilities including the individuals who provided instruction to students, the instructional behaviors of these teachers, and grouping structures. The analysis focused on the impact of these variables on the academic responding of students and the extent to which they were the exclusive target of instruction by the various teachers. Observation data were collected on six students with severe disabilities participating in general elementary classrooms for reading or math, and at least one other subject area. The academic responding of students was similar across general education teachers, special education teachers, paraprofessionals, and peers; and the instructional behaviors of each of these groups of instructors was similar. Students had higher rates of academic responding during one-on-one and small group instruction, but they also were engaged in instructional tasks during whole class instruction. Finally, academic responding was positively associated with instruction focused on the student, one-on-one instruction, and instructional interactions with teachers. Academic responding was negatively correlated with whole class instruction and instructional behaviors that were not directed at the student.
Writing is a complex task. Its development depends in large part on changes that occur in children’s strategic behavior, knowledge, and motivation. In the present study, the effectiveness of an instructional model, Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD), designed to foster development in each of these areas, was examined. Adding a peer support component to SRSD instruction to facilitate maintenance and generalization was also examined. Struggling, third grade writers, the majority of whom were minority students attending schools that served primarily low-income families, received SRSD instruction focused primarily on learning writing strategies and knowledge for planning and composing stories and persuasive essays. These students wrote longer, more complete, and qualitatively better papers for both of these genres than peers in the comparison condition (Writers’ Workshop). These effects were maintained over time for story writing and generalized to a third uninstructed genre, informative writing. SRSD instruction boosted students’ knowledge about writing as well. The peer support component augmented SRSD instruction by increasing students’ knowledge of planning and enhancing generalization to informative and narrative writing. In contrast, self-efficacy for writing was not influenced by either SRSD condition (with or without peer support).
Deaf education teacher training programs have received criticism for graduating students with gaps in knowledge and skills required for specific placements. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) requires that accredited programs engage in self-study, and NCATE guidelines require programs to collect valid, reliable evidence of teacher candidate performance and candidates' effect on student learning. In the present study, an ecobehavioral assessment computer program, MS-CISSAR (Mainstream Code for Instructional Structure and Student Academic Response), was used in evaluations of 8 teacher candidates during internship experiences. Results were mixed. Some of the instructional arrangements, teaching behaviors, and student responses resembled those found in studies using in-service teachers as subjects; however, some data revealed a need for changes in instruction. Data gathered with MS-CISSAR could be added to evaluations to help training programs meet NCATE requirements for evidence on teacher candidate performance and candidates' effect on student learning.
Many studies conducted in health and social sciences collect individual level data as outcome measures. Usually, such data have a hierarchical structure, with patients clustered within physicians, and physicians clustered within practices. Large survey data, including national surveys, have a hierarchical or clustered structure; respondents are naturally clustered in geographical units (e.g., health regions) and may be grouped into smaller units. Outcomes of interest in many fields not only reflect continuous measures, but also binary outcomes such as depression, presence or absence of a disease, and self-reported general health. In the framework of multilevel studies an important problem is calculating an adequate sample size that generates unbiased and accurate estimates.
In this paper simulation studies are used to assess the effect of varying sample size at both the individual and group level on the accuracy of the estimates of the parameters and variance components of multilevel logistic regression models. In addition, the influence of prevalence of the outcome and the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) is examined.
The results show that the estimates of the fixed effect parameters are unbiased for 100 groups with group size of 50 or higher. The estimates of the variance covariance components are slightly biased even with 100 groups and group size of 50. The biases for both fixed and random effects are severe for group size of 5. The standard errors for fixed effect parameters are unbiased while for variance covariance components are underestimated. Results suggest that low prevalent events require larger sample sizes with at least a minimum of 100 groups and 50 individuals per group.
We recommend using a minimum group size of 50 with at least 50 groups to produce valid estimates for multi-level logistic regression models. Group size should be adjusted under conditions where the prevalence of events is low such that the expected number of events in each group should be greater than one.
A multilevel problem concerns a population with a hierarchical structure. A sample from such a population can be described as a multistage sample. First, a sample of higher level units is drawn (e.g. schools or organizations), and next a sample of the sub-units from the available units (e.g. pupils in schools or employees in organizations). In such samples, the individual observations are in general not completely independent. Multilevel analysis software accounts for this dependence and in recent years these programs have been widely accepted. Two problems that occur in the practice of multilevel modeling will be discussed. The first problem is the choice of the sample sizes at the different levels. What are sufficient sample sizes for accurate estimation? The second problem is the normality assumption of the level-2 error distribution. When one wants to conduct tests of significance, the errors need to be normally distributed. What happens when this is not the case? In this paper, simulation studies are used to answer both questions. With respect to the first question, the results show that a small sample size at level two (meaning a sample of 50 or less) leads to biased estimates of the second-level standard errors. The answer to the second question is that only the standard errors for the random effects at the second level are highly inaccurate if the distributional assumptions concerning the level-2 errors are not fulfilled. Robust standard errors turn out to be more reliable than the asymptotic standard errors based on maximum likelihood.
This study investigated general education classrooms in one elementary school to determine impact of grade and disability on interactions among students, teachers, and the environment (i.e., instructional context). Twelve students were randomly selected from four strata (mild disabilities/grades 1-2; mild disabilities/grades 3-5; severe disabilities/grades 1-2; severe disabilities/grades 3-5) and observed during academic general education classes. An interval recording procedure was used to collect data on seven variables. Data suggest that differences in the instructional context were present for grade and/or disability level in the areas of curriculum, instructional format, and partner. No differences were found for type of activity, location, or student response. Preliminary findings include: 1) students with severe disabilities, particularly in grades 3-5, spent less time in general education classrooms than students with mild disabilities and were more likely to receive special education support from a paraprofessional than a special education teacher; 2) curriculum adaptations were almost non-existent for students with mild disabilities yet they were used regularly with students with severe disabilities; and 3) number of students with severe disabilities receiving individual instruction varied by grade level, raising questions about how decisions regarding instructional format were made. Implications for evaluating and improving inclusive schools are discussed.
This article presents results from an observational study analyzing the effect of instructional variables on the engaged behavior of 29 students with moderate, severe, or profound intellectual disabilities who were included full time in general education elementary classrooms. Results indicated that one-to-one, small group, and independent work arrangements were associated with higher engaged behavior than whole class instruction. Three instructional contexts associated with the highest levels of engaged behavior were identified. Results are discussed in relation to building effective instructional contexts for students with severe disabilities in general education elementary classes.
SAS PROC MIXED is a flexible program suitable for fitting multilevel models, hierarchical linear models, and individual growth models. Its position as an integrated program within the SAS statistical package makes it an ideal choice for empirical researchers and applied statisticians seeking to do data reduction, management, and analysis within a single statistical package. Because the program was developed from the perspective of a "mixed" statistical model with both random and fixed effects, its syntax and programming logic may appear unfamiliar to users in education and the social and behavioral sciences who tend to express these models as multilevel or hierarchical models. The purpose of this paper is to help users familiar with fitting multilevel models using other statistical packages (e.g., HLM, MLwiN, MIXREG) add SAS PROC MIXED to their array of analytic options. The paper is written as a step-by-step tutorial that shows how to fit the two most common multilevel models: (a) school effects models, designed for data on individuals nested within naturally occurring hierarchies (e.g., students within classes); and (b) individual growth models, designed for exploring longitudinal data (on individuals) over time. The conclusion discusses how these ideas can be extended straighforwardly to the case of three level models. An appendix presents general strategies for working with multilevel data in SAS and for creating data sets at several levels.
This study examined teacher behaviors, student responses, and classroom ecology in inclusive classrooms in four high schools that have had success at including students with disabilities in general education, and examined the differences in teacher and student behavior for students with and without disabilities. Using a computerized ecobehavioral assessment tool (EBASS), 199 observations in 118 inclusive classrooms were conducted. Major results were that (a) students with and without disabilities showed high levels of academic engagement and low levels of inappropriate behavior; (b) there were no significant differences in the behavior of students with and without disabilities; (c) teachers were active in their classrooms, spending more than 75% of their time involved in instructing, managing, and interacting with their students; and (d) students with disabilities were more often the focus of the teachers' attention than students without disabilities. Possible explanations for these results and implications for practice are discussed.
Change is constant in everyday life. Infants crawl and then walk, children learn to read and write, teenagers mature in myriad ways, and the elderly become frail and forgetful. Beyond these natural processes and events, external forces and interventions instigate and disrupt change: test scores may rise after a coaching course, drug abusers may remain abstinent after residential treatment. By charting changes over time and investigating whether and when events occur, researchers reveal the temporal rhythms of our lives. This book is concerned with behavioral, social, and biomedical sciences. It offers a presentation of two of today's most popular statistical methods: multilevel models for individual change and hazard/survival models for event occurrence (in both discrete- and continuous-time). Using data sets from published studies, the book takes you step by step through complete analyses, from simple exploratory displays that reveal underlying patterns through sophisticated specifications of complex statistical models.
An exploratory study that involved two male and two female elementary students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was carried out in homeschools and public schools. The general purpose of the study was to deter- mine whether parents could provide instructional environments that facilitated the acquisition of their children's basic skills over time. Students were observed using the Mainstream Version of the Code for Instructional Structure and Student Aca- demic Response (MS-CISSAR), an eco-behavioral direct classroom observation instrument that produces information on ecological, teacher, and student behavior processes. Pre and post standardized achievement test scores and rate-based mea- sures were analyzed to determine gains in reading and math for all students. The results indicated that homeschool students were academically engaged about two times as often as public school students and experienced more reading and math gains. The key variable appeared to involve student to teacher ratios that existed between the two settings.
The purpose of this investigation was to describe the nature of preschool children's experiences in inclusive early childhood programs. The momentary time-sampling data reported in this article represented 3 hours of observational information per child for 112 preschoolers with and without disabilities in 16 community-based, inclusive preschool programs in four states. In general, children with and without disabilities exhibited similar child behaviors and were meaningfully engaged in a variety of adult- and child-initiated activities within similar activity contexts. Two noteworthy between-group differences were that (a) children without disabilities, compared to those with disabilities, participated in more child-child social behaviors and (b) children with disabilities received more adult support and attention than peers without disabilities. These ecobehavioral data begin to "paint a portait" of preschool inclusion. This "portrait" revealed that children with disabilities were physically included but suggested that if social integration of young children with and without disabilities is a primary goal of inclusion, then additonal, focused intervention efforts may be required to establish socially inclusive programs for young children with and without disabilities.
We describe a multistep method for (a) identifying effective teacher-developed instructional procedures based on assessments of achievement gain and classroom engagement and (b) translating them for wide-scale use by other teachers. The method employed a combination of both objective and naturalistic assessments leading to reliable procedural protocols for use in the training of other teachers and evaluation of their implementation of these same procedures. The implications of this particular product-process approach to the identification of effective teacher-developed practices and to instructional improvement are discussed.
For many large-scale behavioral interventions, random assignment to intervention condition occurs at the group level. Data analytic models that ignore potential non-independence of observations provide inefficient parameter estimates and often produce biased test statistics. For studies in which individuals are randomized by groups to treatment condition, multilevel models (MLMs) provide a flexible approach to statistically evaluating program effects. This article presents an explanation of the need for MLM's for such nested designs and uses data from the Safer Choices study to illustrate the application of MLMs for both continuous and dichotomous outcomes. When designing studies, researchers who are considering group-randomized interventions should also consider the features of the multilevel analytic models they might employ.
Pedagogical practices based on Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences (MI) are often cited as potentially facilitative of inclusion of students with developmental disabilities (Armstrong, 1994; Eichinger & Downing, 1996; Falvey, Givner, & Kimm, 1996). However, no research to date has examined this relationship. The purpose of this study was to examine the engaged behavior and social interactions of 10 students with developmental disabilities in two types of inclusive classroomsthose that ascribed to MI pedagogy, instruction, and assessment, and those that used no specific educational theory or approach to instruction. The study was intended to be exploratory in nature to generate hypotheses for future investigations. Data were collected using MS-CISSAR (Greenwood, Carta, Kamps, & Delquadri, 1997), a software program for gathering and analyzing observational data in classrooms. Results suggested that the experiences of the participants in both typical and MI-inclusive classrooms were more alike than different. Participants in both types of classrooms were engaged primarily in whole-class, independent seatwork, and traditional classroom activities, and were engaged less frequently in small groups or multiple response activities. However, participants were observed more frequently to be engaged in multiple response activities in MI classrooms, and in both noninstructional time and individual seatwork activities that were different from those of peers in typical classrooms. The participants in MI classrooms spent more time interacting with their typical peers, whereas those in typical classrooms spent more time interacting with adults during 1:1 activities that were different from those of their peers. The results are discussed in terms of their educational and research implications, limitations, and suggestions for further research.
Educators have expressed a considerable need for guidelines to assist them in evaluating the effectiveness of their inclusion programs. This article provides strategies and resources that educators can use to assess the impact of their inclusion programs on the academic performance and social and behavioral development of their students with and without disabilities. The guidelines presented also are designed to help educators document strengths in their inclusion programs and pinpoint aspects of their programs in need of revision.
We review some of the work of the past ten years that applied the multilevel logit model. We attempt to provide a brief description of the hypothesis tested, the hierarchical data structure analyzed, and the multilevel data source for each piece of work we have reviewed. We have also reviewed the technical literature and worked out two examples on multilevel models for binary outcomes. The review and examples serve two purposes: First, they are designed to assist in all aspects of working with multilevel models for binary outcomes, including model conceptualization, model description for a research report, understanding of the structure of required multilevel data, estimation of the model via a generally available statistical package, and interpretation of the results. Second, our examples contribute to the evaluation of the approximation procedures for binary multilevel models that have been implemented for general public use.
This article presents results from an observational study comparing instructional context, teacher behavior, and engaged behavior for 15 students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms and 15 students with severe disabilities in self-contained classrooms. The observational data system was the Code for Instruction and Student Academic Response-Mainstream Version. The major significant differences were that students in general education classrooms received a greater proportion of their instruction through academic rather than functional activities and received more one-to-one instruction and teacher attention than did students in self-contained classrooms. No significant differences were found between the settings for student response. The most interesting finding may be that so few differences were found between general education and self-contained classrooms.
Investigated the extent to which 3 2nd graders with multiple severe disabilities acquired basic communication and motor skills within cooperative learning activities conducted in their general education classrooms. With gradually fading assistance from the instructor, the nondisabled members of the learning groups provided cues, prompts, and consequences to promote the disabled members' learning. The Ss independently demonstrated targeted basic skills within cooperative academic activities, and generalized those skills during follow-up sessions to activities with members of a newly formed cooperative learning group. Tests of achievement of targeted academic objectives by the nondisabled members in their learning groups indicated that they performed as well as members of a control group within the classroom that did not include a child with severe disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Increasingly, behavior analysts are attempting to develop interventions based on precision assessments of the situational factors surrounding a behavior of interest, those requiring reduction (as in functional analysis) or those requiring acceleration (as in ecobehavioral analysis). Using ecobehavioral assessments of naturalistic classroom instruction, we sought to identify a set of potentially effective procedures and to test their function. Using as selection criteria students'' gains in academic achievement, and their observed academic behavior, we identified potentially effective versus ineffective instructional procedures used to teach language arts skills to students with learning disabilities (Study I). Subsequently, we sought to test and replicate the functionality of the identified procedures within a series of single-subject experiments. Results from a resource room application (Study II) indicated that the targeted effective procedure surpassed the targeted ineffective procedure in terms of both content mastery and the quality of students'' written language samples. Results from a regular classroom application (Study III) indicated that the targeted effective procedure was also more effective than the conventional instructional procedure employed naturally by the regular education teacher. The implications of these findings are discussed.
An ecobehavioral assessment of a special education classroom was conducted using a multiple category observation system and a bivariate correlational analysis. Six severely and profoundly mentally retarded students between the ages of 11 and 20 and their teachers were observed for 30 one-hour sessions during normal classroom activities. Correlational analysis revealed relationships both between and within students' behavioral repertoires and suggested several effects of teacher attention on desirable and undesirable student behavior. One student showed a large number of correlations between her behavior and adult attentional categories, whereas other students showed greater student-to-student behavioral covariation and relatively few relationships with adult behavior. The assessment was both consistent with and more specific than teacher judgments of student interaction within the classroom.
In this study, we investigated the learning of five discrete vocabulary facts or story comprehension questions of 15 general education elementary students when taught in teacher directed small groups which included a student with intellectual disabilities. Within the context of an adapted alternating treatments design, a general education teacher taught the facts to three general education students. One group included a fourth student who had intellectual disabilities. The other group included a fourth general education student instead of the student with disabilities. A pre- and post-test on the facts was given to each general education student before and after the lesson. Percent increase from pre- to post-test was graphed for each student. The results demonstrated that the gain scores on the pre-post tests for the general education students were similar for both conditions. Results are discussed in relationship to providing effective instruction for all students in general education classrooms which include students with intellectual disabilities.
Variability of attention-to-task and its relation to instructional contexts for children with learning disabilities was investigated. Twenty-four mainstreamed children were observed in both the regular class and the resource room. Student behaviors relating to academic engagement and the situational contexts in which they occurred were coded. Significant differences in rate of engagement were found for classroom setting, type of instruction, and level of peer involvement, indicating that degree of attending is not stable but a function of the context in which it occurs. Implications for the assessment of attentional problems and instructional practices, especially as related to the resource room program, are discussed.
We describe multilevel modeling of cognitive function in subjects with schizophrenia, their healthy first degree relatives and controls. The purpose of the study was to compare mean cognitive performance between the three groups after adjusting for various covariates, as well as to investigate differences in the variances. Multilevel models were required because subjects were nested within families and some of the measures were repeated several times on the same subject. The following four methodological issues that arose during the analysis of the data are discussed. First, when the random effects distribution was not normal, non-parametric maximum likelihood (NPML) was employed, leading to a different conclusion than the conventional multilevel model regarding one of the main study hypotheses. Second, the between-subject (within-family) variance was allowed to differ between the three groups. This corresponded to the variance at level 1 or level 2 depending on whether repeated measures were analyzed. Third, a positively skewed response was analyzed using a number of different generalized linear mixed models. Finally, penalized quasilikelihood (PQL) estimates for a binomial response were compared with estimates obtained using Gaussian quadrature. A small simulation study was carried out to assess the accuracy of the latter.
The 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act require that individualized education programs of students with disabilities include information about students engagement in and access to the general curriculum. The US Department of Education clearly intended this as a means to heighten expectations for students with disabilities and to align special education with school reform efforts. There are, however, a number of questions about how these mandates apply to the education of students with mental retardation. This article overviews access requirements, examines the intent and meaning of the language, and proposes a decision-making model to enable IEP teams to reach curriculum decisions that provide such access for students with mental retardation.
The IDEA requires participation and progress in the general curriculum by all students. However, there is limited knowledge about the degree to which students with mental retardation have such access. This study examined the degree to which middle school students with mental retardation have access to the general curriculum and the impact of the classroom setting and the student's level of ability on such access. Findings indicated that students with mental retardation were most likely to participate with the general curriculum in the general education classroom and were less likely to engage in activities linked to a standard if they had more severe disabilities. Many students were engaged in activities in the general curriculum, but there was room for improvement in providing curricular modifications to promote access.
This longitudinal study investigated the effects of time spent in academic instruction and time engaged on elementary students' academic achievement gains. Three groups were compared over grades as follows: (a) an at-risk experimental group of low-socioeconomic status (SES) students for whom teachers implemented classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) beginning with the second semester of first grade continuing through Grade 3; (b) an equivalent at-risk control group; and (c) a non-risk comparison group of students of average- to high-SES. In both the control and comparison groups, teachers employed conventional instructional practices over Grades 1 through 3. Results indicated significant group differences in the time spent in academic instruction, engagement, and gains on the subtests of the Metropolitan Achievement Test that favored the experimental and comparison groups over the control group. Implications include the effectiveness of CWPT for at-risk students and the continuing vulnerability of at-risk students whose daily instructional programs provide less instructional time and foster lower levels of active academic engagement.
What are multilevel models and why should I use them?
- J Rasbash