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Factors Influencing Zoo Visitors' Conservation Attitudes and Behavior
Abstract
The author predicted that Zoo Atlanta visitors who had interactive experience with the zoo's elephant demonstration and bio-fact program would be more likely to actively support elephant conservation than those who simply viewed the animals in their exhibit and read graphics. The survey instruments used in this research consisted of 25 closed-ended questions, petitions, and conservation-action solicitation cards. A random sample of 471 zoo visitors was selected, and 350 individuals completed the survey, signed petitions, and took solicitation cards. The overall return rate of the solicitation cards was 18.3%; the return rate was higher for visitors who had higher levels of interaction with the elephant exhibit. The return rates by experience were highest—29.7%, high—20.3%, undetermined—14.8%, low—14.3%, and lowest—11.6%. For the five categories of experience, the distribution of return rates was not random, χ2(4,N = 64) = 9.88, p < .04.
... Educational programs that use live animals as teaching tools provide an experience incomparable to that of observing the same animals on video or in print. When used in nonformal educational settings, captive live animals can provide memorable, safe encounters with wildlife, increase relevance of conservation issues, increase program attendance, and allow educators to link environmental messages to specific species (Kloor, 2002;Swanagan, 2000;Zipko, 1993). Likewise, when used in formal (classroom) settings, live animals can be used to teach students about animal care, help eliminate misconceptions, and make science lessons more relevant by providing real-life examples of animals being studied (Greene & Greene, 2005;Page & Coppedge, 2004). ...
... However, those studies that do exist suggest that individuals who participate in programs using live animals are more likely to positively change their environmental behavior. For example, Swanagan (2000) reported that elephants used in live demonstrations significantly enhanced the likelihood that Zoo Atlanta visitors actively experiencing the presentation would support elephant conservation efforts by donating funds. Adelman, Dierking, Haley-Goldman, Coulson, and Adams (2001) found that when zoo visitors were prompted to think about the value of wildlife and made to feel empowered to help wildlife and the environment that they reported engaging in more environmentally responsible actions than prior to their zoo visit. ...
... Animals have helped zoo and other non-formal educators influence public attitudes about conservation and stewardship (Davison, McMahon, Skinner, Horton, & Parks, 1993;Swanagan, 2000;Yerke & Burns, 1991). However, what are the characteristics of such animals that help educators achieve the broader mission of zoos and environmental education of moving participants from awareness to action (Cronin-Jones, 2005;Henderson, 1984;Hudson, 2001)? ...
Most research on the use of animals in zoo interpretation focuses on visitor knowledge and attitude change, with little emphasis on the characteristics of the animals used as interpretive tools. A synthesis of research was conducted to: (a) identify the characteristics of animals used as teaching tools in zoo interpretation and (b) determine the usefulness of such information to zoo and other non-formal interpreters. Most research on the use of animals in zoo interpretation involved large, active, exotic animals. Few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of native, locally relevant species as interpretive tools. When used in zoo interpretation, native species have the potential to help educators address locally relevant conservation issues. However, more research is needed on the use of locally relevant species in interpretation. Information on the effectiveness of native, readily available species would be useful to interpreters lacking the resources of larger zoos and using injured or imprinted local wildlife in education.
... However, limited research in this area has occurred. For example, a seminal study that investigated behavior change after a zoo visit, manifested by visitors' willingness to return conservation solicitation cards, found that visitors who participated in an interactive experience with an elephant show and bio-fact program were more likely to take conservation-related action (Swanagan, 2000). In addition, Smith et al. (2008) found that after adult visitors attended a birds of prey presentation at Healesville Sanctuary, Australia, 54% of respondents stated that they intended to commence or increase their commitment to the conservation actions described during the presentation; six months later some visitors had followed through with the intended conservation action. ...
... Recently, Mann et al., (2018) discovered that over a year after a visit to an aquarium approximately 50% of adult visitors, who made a promise to penguins to become more environmentally responsible, were still carrying out their intended actions, such as not littering. Pro-conservation related behavior change after a zoo visit may be related to personal connections to animals and conservation ideas developed during the zoo visit (Skibins & Powell, 2013;Swanagan, 2000). ...
... However, it has proven difficult not only to show a direct link between a zoo visit and a changed behavior, but also to measure the change in behavior (Dierking et al., 2004;Smith et al., 2008). Nevertheless, some studies have successfully linked zoological education to pro-conservation behavior change (Mann et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2008;Swanagan, 2000). Encouraging results from this research indicate that behavior scores, especially for children who experienced the EI at Fota, were positively affected by the experience. ...
Children comprise many of the visitors to zoos every year, yet few studies have explored the impact of a zoo visit on children’s learning. This study employed a repeated measure design using data gathered from 500 questionnaires to investigate students’ knowledge, attitude, and behavior before and after visiting a zoo or aquarium in Ireland. A treatment group participated in a purposefully developed educational intervention, which included a hands-on activity, intended to enhance learning. Results indicate that learning does occur after a zoo or aquarium visit. However, students visiting the zoo and those who participated in the educational intervention showed the greatest increases in learning. A zoo visit has educational benefits for children, but to maximize this benefit an educational intervention should be offered.
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... Aside from fueling connection to nature, environmental education opportunities can also increase knowledge gained about the environment, which can influence environmental attitudes (Ballantyne et al., 2007;Clayton, 2017;Hacker & Miller, 2016;Swanagan, 2000). Environmental attitudes are a key component of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), along with perceived behavioral control and social norms (Ajzen, 1991). ...
... The extent to which support from immediate social circles (i.e., family and friends) may influence the perception of social norms related to PEB adoption is not well understood. However, there is evidence that other entities influencing social norms (i.e., social media and television) can influence values, attitudes, and PEB adoption (Awang et al., 2019;Hacker & Miller, 2016;Ho et al., 2018;Kaur & Chahal, 2018;Lee, 2011;Li et al., 2019;Sogari et al., 2017;Swanagan, 2000). For example, environmental information shared on social media can influence the PEB adoption of individuals following social media accounts that promote such behaviors (Ho et al., 2018;Kaur & Chahal, 2018;Lee, 2011;Sogari et al., 2017). ...
Aims: Understanding the factors that influence individuals to adopt pro-environmental behaviors is vital to increasing the actions a community takes to sustain the environment. While many individual characteristics, such as connection to nature and environmental values, can drive a person to adopt pro-environmental behaviors (Ajzen, 1991; Schultz, 2002; Whitburn et al., 2019), little is known about how social circles may influence such behavioral change. Social circles, especially related to family members, have been known to influence changes in other behaviors, such as adopting a healthy diet and exercising. Thus, social circles may similarly influence pro-environmental behavior adoption.
Methods: In this qualitative study, we interviewed eight people who were volunteers with environmental restoration organizations. We asked interviewees about those who influenced them to participate in pro-environmental behaviors, whom they influenced to adopt pro-environmental behaviors, and how they communicate with others about the environment.
Results: We found that connections with family and friends were influential in driving adoption of pro-environmental behaviors. Family, in particular, was found to have a reciprocal environmental influence as parents may influence children and vice versa. In addition, we found that environmental education may be more influential towards pro-environmental behavior adoption if events involve trusted, local experts as well as tangible examples of environmental issues and solutions.
Discussion: Families and friends can encourage those close to them to adopt proenvironmental behaviors and such social support may be reciprocal throughout one’s life. It may be possible to extend the reach of environmental education efforts if educators focus on these connections and empower attendees to share what they’ve learned at an event with family and friends.
... In situ action refers to multiple activities, such as hands-on, conservation-oriented activities (e.g., touch experiences or interactive experiences mediated by educators (Ogle, 2016;Schönfelder & Bogner, 2017), monetary donations to a conservation partner (e.g., Ojalammi & Nygren, 2018), or presentations about a species (e.g., Miller et al., 2011;Miller et al., 2013;Swanagan, 2000). 2. Sensory experiences involve these in situ actions, but also entail observing animals that display species-typical behavior and social interactions with conspecifics or heterospecifics (e.g., Hacker & Miller, 2016). ...
... Likewise, investigating the long-term effect of interactions with dolphins on environmental views and conservation activities would be of interest especially if presence or absence of a conservation message was manipulated for trainer-led presentations. Previous research on conservation messaging has found that direct messages and hands-on experiences promote more changes in attitudes and behaviors (Mellish et al., 2016;Swanagan, 2000;Tisdell & Wilson, 2001. Although free-response questions are helpful in eliciting an individual's current attitude, forced-choice responses may also provide opportunities to measure the amount of presented information retained. ...
Human-wildlife interactions have been shown to positively impact tourist beliefs and actions in relation to wildlife and the environment. The purpose of this study was to explore guest beliefs and perceptions about dolphins and dolphin programs before and after participating in human-dolphin interactions ( HDI ). We surveyed 142 guests participating in a self-selected HDI located in a natural lagoon facility at The Roatán Institute for Marine Sciences in Sandy Bay Roatán, Honduras. Of the 142 survey respondents, 130 completed the survey fully, and 28 of those 130 also completed a two-week follow-up survey. The results indicated that the guests maintained pre-existing positive attitudes towards dolphins, learned new information, and reported feeling connected with nature following their HDI experiences. The HDI experience format resulted in few differences in participant responses, suggesting that interactive programs maintained existing attitudes while subtly shaping beliefs about human-animal interactions.
... At the same time, this behavior can diminish the display's attractiveness for visitors who attend zoos looking for active and interactive animals (94,95). From the educational point of view, exhibitions and immersive spaces allow visitors to see animals in their corresponding environment, thus offering a contextualized learning opportunity (46,90,96,97). However, this educational potential drops when animals are hidden, because in that case visitors do not stop to observe the exhibition or read the educational signs (88,98). ...
... Two main reasons likely explain this knowledge gap: the complexity of developing mid-or long-term studies in this matter and the impossibility of observing visitors' daily behavior to evaluate pro-environmental shifts. Swanagan (96) tried to overcome these hindrances by inviting visitors to sign a petition supporting an environmental cause. Such action does not mean a high degree of commitment but does help to validate to some degree the willingness to act. ...
Zoos and aquariums have evolved significantly. From their origins as enclosures for the mere entertainment of the public, these institutions have undertaken new functions responding to the biodiversity crisis and social demands. Modern zoos and aquariums have the opportunity to educate people, contribute to species conservation, and produce animal-related research. However, there is increasing criticism toward the outcomes of their actions and the holding of species in their facilities. This review offers an integrated analysis of the state of knowledge about the role that zoos and aquariums play today. It describes their performance regarding their conservation, education, and research functions, highlighting general patterns and offering future perspectives. It identifies some challenges common to all these institutions, concluding that the way they keep up with the ever-growing social and environmental expectations will be decisive hereafter.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, Volume 11 is February 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... The effect has been seen from pre-visit and post-visit measures of entire visits (e.g., Adelman et al., 2000;Clayton et al., 2017;Falk et al., 2007;Spring, 2018;Luebke, 2018) and in studies of specific exhibits or programs (e.g., Dierking et al., 2002;Hayward & Rothenberg, 2004). Certain types of experiences found to enhance this effect include animal programs (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Meluch & Routman, 2004;Povey & Rios, 2003;Swanagan, 2000), eye-to-eye viewing or up close encounters (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Hayward & Rothenberg, 2004;Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000), observing animals caring for young, playing, or engaging in other active natural behaviors (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Luebke, 2018), and interaction with staff (Ferguson & Vernon, 2014;Swanagan, 2000;Weiler & Smith, 2009 protect it (Chawla, 1998;Kals et al., 1999). A study of the social aspects of a zoo visit found that many parents value zoos for this very reason: As places to impart values about wildlife and caring for other living things (Fraser & Sickler, 2008). ...
... The effect has been seen from pre-visit and post-visit measures of entire visits (e.g., Adelman et al., 2000;Clayton et al., 2017;Falk et al., 2007;Spring, 2018;Luebke, 2018) and in studies of specific exhibits or programs (e.g., Dierking et al., 2002;Hayward & Rothenberg, 2004). Certain types of experiences found to enhance this effect include animal programs (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Meluch & Routman, 2004;Povey & Rios, 2003;Swanagan, 2000), eye-to-eye viewing or up close encounters (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Hayward & Rothenberg, 2004;Schänzel & McIntosh, 2000), observing animals caring for young, playing, or engaging in other active natural behaviors (Hacker & Miller, 2016;Luebke, 2018), and interaction with staff (Ferguson & Vernon, 2014;Swanagan, 2000;Weiler & Smith, 2009 protect it (Chawla, 1998;Kals et al., 1999). A study of the social aspects of a zoo visit found that many parents value zoos for this very reason: As places to impart values about wildlife and caring for other living things (Fraser & Sickler, 2008). ...
Conservation first appeared as a role for zoos and aquariums in the late 20th century, and over the past few decades has evolved to be central to the mission of modern, accredited zoos and aquariums (henceforth zoos). More recently, promoting proenvironmental behavior is increasingly recognized as an essential means for zoos to achieve their shared conservation mission. To support continued progress throughout the field, there is a need for greater clarity and confidence regarding successful approaches for promoting proenvironmental behavior. A growing body of research into the conservation-related outcomes of zoo experiences, along with findings from behavioral and social sciences, provides a basis for understanding how the relationship zoos have with their audiences can translate into measurable conservation results. By shifting the balance between motivation to act and barriers to actions so that motivation is the greater force, zoos can tip the behavior balance to successfully promote action on behalf of nature and wildlife. Zoo audiences are, on average, more intrinsically motivated to take action on behalf of wildlife than the public at large. By introducing extrinsic motivators and reducing barriers, zoos can set up the circumstances that move motivated individuals to take conservation action. Even individuals who lack intrinsic motivation can be moved to action through sufficiently attractive extrinsic benefits and low barriers. In this paper we present a framework that synthesizes this study and theory on environmental behavior change and offers actionable approaches for zoo and aquarium practitioners.
... Williams подчеркивают важность использования широкого диапазона методов продвижения экосберегающего проверялась гипотеза о влиянии опыта, полученного в зоопарке, на проэкологическую активность [472]. Предполагалось, что посетители зоопарка, получившие возможность наблюдать за слоном и потрогать бивень, проявят более высокую активность в поддержке моратория на торговлю изделиями из слоновой кости, чем те посетители, кто просто наблюдал за слоном, осязал изделия из слоновой кости и/или ознакомился с информационными материалами на тематическом стенде. ...
... Вместе с тем, некоторые исследователи обращают внимание на возможные негативные (в ракурсе проблемы экосохранения) эффекты посещения зоопарков. Согласно Kellert (1979), в среднем посетители зоопарков намного хуже информированы о животных, чем люди, действительно интересующиеся животными, также Dunlap & Kellert (1989) отмечали поверхностный характер знаний, получаемых посетителями зоопарка (по: [472]). Однако основная проблема зоопарков в том, что наблюдение за животными, содержащимися в неволе, может способствовать укреплению антропоцентрической позиции превосходства над другими видами [408; 490]. ...
The monograph highlights the psychological aspects of anthropogenic environmental change. The analysis of the value and worldview aspects of the anthropogenic ecological crisis is carried out. For the first time in Russian-language scientific literature, an extensive review of psychological studies of the problem of global environmental change, conducted by foreign psychologists over the past 40 years, is given. The main theoretical approaches developed by leading experts in the field of conservation psychology are considered. The results of the author's empirical research focused on the problem of meaning regulation of environmentally relevant behavior are presented. The monograph also discusses the psychological aspects of social interventions in the direction of the formation of environmentally responsible behavior, and examines the problems of social and environmental marketing and environmental education.
В монографии освещаются психологические аспекты антропогенных экологических изменений. Проводится анализ ценностных и мировоззренческих аспектов антропогенного экологического кризиса. Впервые в отечественной научной литературе проводится обширный обзор психологических исследований по проблеме глобальных изменений, выполненных зарубежными психологами за последние 40 лет; рассматриваются основные теоретические подходы, разработанные ведущими специалистами в области психологии экосохранения. Приводятся результаты авторских эмпирических исследований, сосредоточенных вокруг проблемы смысловой регуляции экологически релевантного поведения. Также в монографии обсуждаются психологические аспекты социальных интервенций в направлении формирования экологически ответственного поведения, рассматриваются проблемы социально-экологического маркетинга и экологического просвещения.
... Interviewing, such as described by Tofield et al. (2003), can be logistically difficult, time consuming and costly, and challenging with children (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2007). Alternative methods of assessing visitor learning and experiences in the zoo include observing visitor behaviour and attentiveness, monitoring exhibit stay time and engagement with educational material or animal training programmes, measuring noise level or querying intended actions after an educational experience (Swanagan 2000;Anderson et al. 2003;Smith, Broad, and Weiler 2008;Moss, Esson, and Bazley 2010;Sherwen et al. 2014). The more innovative methods for assessing education include conversation content analysis where visitors' conversations are listened to as they view animals or exhibits (Tunnicliffe, Lucas, and Osborne 1997;Clayton, Fraser, and Saunders 2009) and annotated drawings of animal habitats (Jensen 2014). ...
... Moss, Jensen, and Gusset (2015) stated that an increased understanding of animals or conservation issues does not necessarily translate to new conservation behaviour or actions, which was confirmed in a later study (Moss, Jensen, and Gusset 2017b). For example, zoos might inspire visitors to make a donation, keep a conservation-themed promise to an animal, pick up road kill, buy sustainably sourced products or as in the case of the current study behave in a respectful way while observing animals (Swanagan 2000;Smith, Broad, and Weiler 2008;Mann, Ballantyne, and Packer 2018), but visitors may not follow through with these intended actions. Although few studies have been able to observe conservation related behaviour on-site (Smith, Broad, and Weiler 2008), the current research was able to assess if participation in an EI lead to positive observable on-site behaviour change. ...
Although zoos have an increasingly important role to play in educating the public about conservation and inspiring pro-conservation behaviour, they are not firmly established as leaders of conservation education. A multitude of logistical challenges and methodological limitations in zoological education research are contributory factors to this. However, certain research weaknesses can be minimized by collecting data from more than one source. The current research evaluated children’s learning in a zoo and an aquarium using three different methodologies in one study: match pairs surveys, behavioural observation and conversational content analysis. The findings indicate that learning occurred in both the zoo and aquarium for most participants but was more profound for children who participated in an educational intervention. Importantly, the results of each methodology substantiate each other to definitively validate results and demonstrate the positive impact of a zoo or aquarium visit on children’s learning. To produce more meaningful, reliable and valid research, zoological education studies should integrate mixed-methods and data triangulation into future research.
... website offerings on zoological gardens' homepages). According to studies that surveyed visitor satisfaction via questionnaires relating to different live animal demonstrations, this approach creates a positive emotional experience (Swanagan, 2000;Anderson et al., 2003;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Luebke et al., 2016). Further evaluation of the questionnaires showed that these interactive experiences also led to educational or conservation advocacy benefits for visitors (Sherwood et al., 1989;Kidd et al., 1995;Swanagan, 2000;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Close & Newbolt, 2017;Martens et al., 2019). ...
... According to studies that surveyed visitor satisfaction via questionnaires relating to different live animal demonstrations, this approach creates a positive emotional experience (Swanagan, 2000;Anderson et al., 2003;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Luebke et al., 2016). Further evaluation of the questionnaires showed that these interactive experiences also led to educational or conservation advocacy benefits for visitors (Sherwood et al., 1989;Kidd et al., 1995;Swanagan, 2000;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Close & Newbolt, 2017;Martens et al., 2019). ...
Zoological gardens are considered important institutions for human-animal interactions. Facilitating human-animal contacts and the simultaneous protection of the animals from possible distress by visitors represent an important task of zoological gardens. We investigated the effects of a new roughage feeding setup for zoo-kept domestic herbivores on both, animals and visitors. In the setup, visitors are provided with roughages to put into feeding troughs for the animals. Data collection via video monitoring of domestic cattle (Bos primigenius taurus, B. p. indicus) enclosures and associated visitors’ areas took place over a 30-day period for two consecutive years at three different zoological gardens. In one zoo the setup was in place in both years, and in the two others it was introduced in the second year prior to data recording. At the two zoos where the feeding regime was introduced, the average daily number of visitors and the overall time they spent together with animals (but not the average time per visitor) increased, as did the number of times that an animal approached a visitor. While there was no differencebetween the years in overall feeding time, feeding was more evenly distributed across the day after the introduction of visitor feeding, with a higher number of feeding bouts per animal. The setup offers possibilities for enhancing welfare of certain animals and simultaneously offering an individual visitor feeding experience.
... However, zoos also often offer opportunities for close encounters with individual ambassador animals. These encounters are intended to create deeper conservation connections and are often a valuable additional revenue stream, (Ballantyne, Packer, Hughes & Gill, 2018;D'Cruze et al., 2019;Spooner, Farnworth, Ward & Whitehouse-Tedd, 2021;Swanagan, 2010;Whitehouse-Tedd, Spooner, Scott, & Lozano-Martinez, 2018). Unlike photoprop animals, zoo animals are captive bred and presented by a trained handler in a setting intended to protect species (Whitehouse-Tedd et al., 2018). ...
... Zoo-selfie images also elicited one of the strongest connections to the animal. Feelings of connection are important as they are associated with an increased desire to protect a species (Ballantyne et al., 2018;Clayton et al., 2017;Swanagan, 2010). This connection between the respondent and the Zoo-Selfie image may help explain why WTD was higher in these image conditions. ...
Images containing both animals and humans (two-shot images) are popular across social media and zoo advertising. However, these images, even when taken in ethical and conservation settings, have the potential for misinterpretation and may inadvertently promote the illegal wildlife trade, exotic pet trade or photo-prop industries. We examined whether zoo visitors' (n = 531) attitudes and stated Willingness to Donate (WTD) altered depending on whether they viewed a two-shot image set in a photo-prop setting (typically associated with negative welfare) or in a zoo or wild setting. All images, including photo-prop, were generally viewed positively regardless of context. Zoo-based images received a greater number of comments relating to concern for the animal's environment or welfare compared to other images, although numbers were still relatively low. This indicates a lack of awareness about the photo-prop industry and misconceptions about modern welfare practices in zoos, thus reflecting a need for improved education in these areas. Two-shot images in zoo settings elicited significantly higher stated WTD than images in wild or photo-prop settings or when an animal was pictured alone. Suggesting zoo-based images may be more effective for conservation campaigns than traditional images of an animal in its environment. Furthermore, images featuring a uniformed keeper plus an animal do not appear to increasing desire for pet ownership, indicating that they can be used in zoo advertising with minimal negative consequences.
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS
• Carefully selected two-shot images may benefit conservation campaigns.
• Keeper-animal images elicited excitement without increasing pet-ownership desire.
• Photo-prop images were not associated with poor welfare indicating a need for education.
... For example, higher levels of enjoyment of events at an aquarium were associated with visitors' enhanced recall of information about species conservation (Adelman et al., 2000). In support of the hypothesized link between emotional experience and conservation attitudes and behavior, Swanagan (2000) reported that zoo visitors were more likely to donate to elephant conservation if the experience of watching the elephants was perceived as emotionally engaging. ...
... However, because all measures were collected post visit and there was no control condition, it remains unclear whether perceived emotional connection serves to enhance conservation mindedness or vice versa. Overall, previous evidence suggests that a zoo visit can increase awareness of conservation issues (Hayward & Rothenberg, 2004) and that emotional responses to animals also influence conservation learning and attitudes (Luebke et al., 2016;Myers et al., 2004;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Swanagan, 2000). ...
Understanding how visitor engagement with interpretation impacts on their attitudes to conservation is necessary to develop effective zoo-based conservation education. We examined whether facilitating an emotional connection between a visitor and an individual chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) was more successful at enhancing attitudes than standard zoo interpretation. Attitudes were assessed post visit using a 12-item questionnaire on predisposition toward nature, attitudes to chimpanzees, and conservation. Visitors at two chimpanzee exhibits were allocated to an emotion enhancement condition (n = 227) or a control condition (n = 203). At one exhibit, visitors were also allocated to an interactive task (location) without emotional enhancement (n = 69). Participants were also recruited to an online control condition (n = 216). Principal component analyses identified two components labeled as Naturalistic, which refers to interest and affection for wildlife and nature, and Humanistic, which refers to interest and affection for individual animals or species with anthropomorphic characteristics. At one exhibit, both Naturalistic and Humanistic attitudes were significantly more positive following the emotion enhancement condition than for the control condition. At the other exhibit, Naturalistic and Humanistic components did not differ between conditions, and there was no overall difference between online and on-site conditions. While emotional enhancement may be effective in promoting pro-conservation attitudes, this is dependent on contextual factors (e.g., exhibit design and interpretation). Attitudes were also influenced by stable visitor characteristics (pet ownership and zoo membership) and are therefore likely to prove difficult to change, at least during a single zoo visit. Visitor and animal characteristics, and the interpretation of the exhibit all shape the visitor experience; understanding these interactions is important in facilitating effective zoo conservation education.
... These programs are important not only from a revenue-generating perspective, but also because they play a role in engaging and educating zoo visitors. Up-close encounters with zoo animals displaying natural behaviors are more interesting to zoo guests than animals that are inactive or hidden (Bitgood et al., 1988;Altman, 1998;Margulis et al., 2003), but these kinds of experiences also augment the educational and emotional experiences of guests (Swanagan, 2000;Woods, 2002;Anderson et al., 2003;Powell & Bullock, 2014). For these reasons, human-animal interactions have the potential to greatly enhance the conservation education messaging of zoos (Kreger & Mench, 1996). ...
... These programs have the potential to greatly enhance the conservation education messaging of zoos (Kreger & Mench, 1996). Up-close encounters with zoo animals displaying natural behaviors are more interesting to zoo guests than animals that are inactive or hidden (Bitgood et al., 1988;Altman, 1998;Margulis et al., 2003), and consequently augment the educational and emotional experiences of guests (Swanagan, 2000;Woods, 2002;Anderson et al., 2003;Powell & Bullock, 2014;Luebke et al., 2016). ...
Giraffes are popular and widespread in zoos; however, many giraffes display stereotypic behaviors in these settings, suggesting that they have, at some point, experienced prolonged periods of poor welfare. The diversity of giraffe care practices across zoos, as well as potential associations with changes in welfare, have yet to be systematically evaluated. In Section 2 of this thesis, I propose an epidemiological framework for a large-scale study of giraffe welfare. The array of behavioral and physical health indicators known or hypothesized to be associated with giraffe welfare are reviewed, as well as the housing, husbandry and management factors known or hypothesized to influence these outcomes. Potential or established associations among welfare indicators and care practices are then highlighted. In Section 3, I present a zoo-level study of the behavioral effects of one of the specific management practices discussed in the preceding review, the guest feeding program (GFP), on the behavioral time budgets of a herd of five giraffes at a single zoo. Guest participation (Guests Per Hour; GPH) on the days of behavioral observation was determined by analyzing GFP revenue for those days. I used multivariate mixed models to test for hypothesized associations between behavior rate risks and the number of visitors patronizing the GFP, as well as the Hour of observation and Day of the week. The rate risk of Feed Station Engagement increased by 6.8% for every additional 10 GPH participated in the GFP. When giraffes were not engaged in the GFP, that same GPH increase predicted a 12.7% increase in Oral Stereotypy. This increase could be because: (1) encounters with zoo visitors are stressful; (2) engaging with a busy GFP interferes with the appetitive phase of feeding; and/or (3) oral stereotypies increase after meals because they support rumination and digestion. Oral Stereotypy rate risk also increased over 200% on weekdays compared to weekends, which suggests that these giraffes experienced a lack of engaging stimuli because of the infrequency of varied feeding opportunities when GPH was low across the entire day. Other behaviors in the time budget (Inactivity, Ruminating, Attentive and Feeding) did not change as a function of GPH. These findings suggest that behavioral performance of these giraffes is influenced by the operation of the GFP, and that zoos operating GFPs should develop and implement behavior monitoring programs to assess the effects of these programs.
... Zoos are thought to play a role in the conservation of the species, however it is hard to select the indicators for the same. However, financial contribution and influence in policy making are two behaviours that can indicate to some extent (Swanagan, 2000). ...
Human induced wildlife loss is driving many species on the brink of extinction and conservation of those species in their native habitat is not sufficient in many cases, which provides the rationale for initiation and execution of ex-situ measures. Zoological gardens (in short zoo), are an important form of ex-situ conservation which can play a diverse role in complementing in-situ measures of conservation, research, conservation financing, captive breeding and conservation education. Among these roles, conservation education is one front where zoos can play a pivotal role which is poorly explored in Nepal. Thus, in this article we have attempted to assess the role of Central Zoo in conservation. For this purpose, the responses of the respondents were collected by using the standard questionnaire. Data were managed in Microsoft Excel and the percentage of the respondents for each response category was calculated. Association between the variables was explored by using Chi-square test. Respondents perceived that the information boards are sufficient but they need to be complemented by dedicated staff for visitors who read and write. Furthermore, respondents perceive that their conservation mindedness such as willingness to volunteer in nature based organisation and activities, willingness to make donations and support the wildlife friendly policies were significantly enhanced after their visit to the zoo. These behaviours were found to be significantly associated with the frequency of the visit as frequent visitors were found to have more positive attitudes towards wildlife and environment. Most of the visitors claimed that they were satisfied with the visit and are willing to visit again. However, they have suggested care on aspects of animal welfare and conservation education. The findings of this study are useful for the zoo management to improve the visitors’ experience while visiting their facility.
... And while the validity of this study has been challenged [62], and responded DOI: http://dx.doi.org /10.5772/intechopen.114119 to [63], similar studies have described small but positive impacts of zoos on conservation attitudes and behaviors, often based on feelings of connectedness with the animals rather than time spent reading exhibit signs [64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74]. The bulk of these studies though are based on survey results rather than post zoo data about actual increases in conservation behavior or spending, so more investigation needs to be done. ...
Ethical concerns surrounding the existence of zoos have recently come to the fore. Some argue for the complete phasing-out of zoos, citing concerns about the limitations they impose on animal liberty and dignity, coupled with perceived minimal benefits to both humans and animals. However, these arguments tend to downplay the potential value that zoos offer in terms of human enjoyment, educational opportunities, research initiatives, and conservation efforts. Moreover, they overlook other significant benefits zoos provide such as the positive impact of human-animal interactions and opportunities to appreciate nature’s beauty. Finally, zoo critics often emphasize the negative effects of zoos on animals while neglecting the substantial efforts made by zoos toward animal welfare research and implementation. By accurately recognizing the multifaceted values that zoos can provide and ensuring the highest standards of animal care, a strong case can be made for their continued existence and importance.
... The impact of these demonstrations on visitors was such that they spent more time in front of an exhibition [68] and that they enjoyed it more [69]. In addition, they were more aware of the conservation efforts in zoos and aquariums [69], and they were more willing to donate to conservation projects [70]. The sight of a killer whale being assessed via an underwater window is surely of great interest to visitors, and it is expected to trigger their interest in the behavior and cognition of animals. ...
Simple Summary
“How do animals perceive the world, and what are they thinking about?” To approach these questions, a method where animals face a touch screen and work on various visual tasks was used. There have not been many studies conducted on cetaceans (e.g., dolphins and whales) because the presence of water makes it difficult to use the electronic devices needed to study them. In this study, we aimed to train one captive killer whale to perform visual tasks using a monitor through an underwater window as if a touch panel were used. We started the training using real objects, which were then converted to photographs. Finally, we confirmed that the killer whale became able to perform the task even in monitor presentation. The successful use of this method suggests the possibility of conducting more detailed research on killer whale cognitive abilities, and further comparisons between terrestrial animals could be conducted in the future. This method is also expected to contribute to animal welfare, and it could also be used to propose new exhibitions to introduce the cognitive abilities of animals in zoos and aquariums.
Abstract
Matching-to-sample tasks have been a useful method in visual cognitive studies on non-human animals. The use of touch panels in matching-to-sample tasks has contributed to cognitive studies on terrestrial animals; however, there has been a difficulty in using these devices underwater, which is one of the factors that has slowed the progress of visual studies on underwater animals. Cetaceans (e.g., dolphins and whales) are highly adapted to underwater environments, and further studies on their cognitive abilities are needed to advance our understanding of the interactions between environmental factors and the evolution of cognitive abilities. In this study, we aimed to develop a new experimental method in which a captive killer whale performed a matching-to-sample task using a monitor shown through an underwater window as if a touch panel were used. In order to confirm the usefulness of this method, one simple experiment on mirror image discrimination was conducted, and the pairs with mirror images were shown to be more difficult to identify than the pairs with other normal images. The advantages of using this method include (1) simplicity in the devices and stimuli used in the experiments, (2) appropriate and rigorous experimental control, (3) the possibility of increasing the number of individuals to be tested and interspecies comparisons, and (4) contributions to animal welfare. The use of this method solves some of the problems in previous visual cognitive studies on cetaceans, and it suggests the further possibility of future comparative cognitive studies. It is also expected to contribute to animal welfare in terms of cognitive enrichment, and it could help with the proposal of new exhibition methods in zoos and aquariums.
... The evaluation of animal beauty is thus highly subjective and linked to sociodemographic factors such as education, age, gender, experiences with animals, and culture (Davey, 2006). For example, an increased perception of the attractiveness of animals is correlated with conservation support, as shown in various studies of zoo-kept animals (Landová et al., 2018;Swanagan, 2000). Our results agree with these studies, providing additional support for the hypothesis that the degree of attractiveness of nonhuman species is positively correlated with the willingness to protect these species and, thus, with general conservation. ...
The attractiveness of a species influences human perceptions and attitudes toward it, while flagship species play a significant role in shaping public conservation interests. This research investigated how humans perceive the attractiveness of and their willingness to protect vertebrate and invertebrate aquatic representatives. The study focused on endangered and invasive fish and crayfish species presented to the participants through pictures shared via an online questionnaire. Participants rated the attractiveness of the species and indicated their willingness to protect them using a 7-point scale. The analysis was conducted based on 118 responses from men and women whose backgrounds varied in terms of their age, education, and knowledge regarding biological invasions. The findings indicate that the perceived attractiveness of a species was the primary factor influencing the participants’ willingness to protect the species: the more attractive a species was rated, the greater the willingness to protect it. Overall, endangered fish and crayfish species received higher willingness-to-protect scores than invasive species, with crayfish species being perceived as significantly more attractive than fish. Using attractive or flagship aquatic species, such as crayfish, in the conservation efforts of endangered freshwater taxa can enhance public, stakeholder, and policymaker awareness, thereby potentially contributing to the conservation and restoration of freshwater ecosystems and the protection of native biota.
... Hand feeding experiences, which involve guests directly handing food to animals, are relatively widespread and available at nearly a quarter of the WAZA member and associate member facilities examined by D' Cruze et al. (2019). They offer the opportunity for close contact with wild animals, making them highly attractive to visitors (Swanagan 2000;Woods 2002) but potentially more detrimental to animal welfare. Indeed, increased guest density, which would be expected to accompany public feedings, has been found to negatively impact ungulate welfare (Mansour et al. 2000;Rajagopal et al. 2011;Sekar et al. 2008;Shen-Jin et al. 2010). ...
Animal-visitor interactions are widely available in zoos and aquariums, yet the effects of these programmes on the welfare of the animals involved have only recently begun to be studied. The impact of one type of animal-visitor interaction, public hand feeding experiences, on the welfare of the participating Masai giraffe Giraffa tippelskirchi and the plains zebra Equus quagga co-housed with them was investigated, via behavioural observations before the public feeding season began and during the feeding season. A less time-intensive behavioural sampling method was used that allowed on-duty zookeepers to collect all the data. There were no negative behavioural effects of the public feeding experiences on the giraffe or zebra, including no effects of numbers of guests on rates of stereotypic behaviour and no increase in stereotypic behaviour over time. Rates of stereotypic behaviour were similar to those found previously using more time-intensive behavioural sampling methods. There were individual differences in rates of stereotypic behaviour in giraffe and differences in non-stereotypic behaviour between study phases in both species, which warrant further investigation. This study, for the first time, provides data on the behavioural effects of a public feeding programme on non-participating animals in a mixed-species exhibit, and further demonstrates a method of behavioural sampling that can be incorporated into the daily routine of zookeepers.
... Zoos also contribute substantially to public engagement with biodiversity and conservation-related issues. Visitors to zoos have higher levels of biodiversity awareness, with improved knowledge of actions to help protect biodiversity (Ballantyne et al., 2007;Swanagan, 2000), with a global survey showing a 5.3% increase in biodiversity understanding and an 8.3% increase in identification of actions able to help protect biodiversity by the general public having visited zoos (Moss et al., 2014). It is clear that zoos are critically important spaces for the development of sustainable solutions for conservation problems as well as the education of the public on the importance of these issues. ...
The 'Compassionate Conservation' movement is gaining momentum through its promotion of 'ethical' conservation practices based on self-proclaimed principles of 'first-do-no-harm' and 'individuals matter'. We argue that the tenets of 'Compassionate Conservation' are ideological-that is, they are not scientifically proven to improve conservation outcomes, yet are critical of the current methods that do. In this paper we envision a future with 'Compassionate Conservation' and predict how this might affect global biodiversity conservation. Taken
... Additionally, it is important to note that the outdated status of some of these signs highlights the challenges of keeping static signage up to date. The use of electronic graphics for signage could help update content and keep information relevant (Kelling & Kelling, 2014;Swanagan, 2000). ...
Conservation education programs are listed as priority actions for almost every threatened species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. Zoos play an important role in delivering such programs, yet evidence of zoo education in many non-western countries is limited. Here, we evaluate animal identification signage prevalence and quality at zoo exhibits and investigate whether animal welfare, zoo type (accredited, government, and private), admission fee, zoo size, and proximity to urban centers are influencing factors. We used hornbills (Bucerotidae) as a model taxon, surveyed hornbill signage, and conducted welfare assessments of hornbill exhibits. We developed scoring frameworks and applied content analysis to analyze signage quality. Our results show that out of 18 zoos that displayed hornbills, 15 had hornbill signage. However, of the 106 hornbill exhibits in these zoos, 33% had no signage. We also found that signage presence or absence at individual zoos and signage quality is strongly correlated with animal welfare quality. Zoo type is a key factor in predicting signage and welfare quality, with accredited zoos scoring highest for both signage and welfare, followed by government and private zoos. Private zoos charged higher admission than other zoo types, and zoo size and proximity to urban centers did not influence signage or welfare scores. Overall, we conclude that in our study, signage usage and quality are inadequate, highlighting the importance of compliance with robust zoo standards to improve education and welfare within zoos to support global conservation goals.
... Although some studies exist (as reviewed by [9][10][11][12], scientific research on these impacts is still needed due also to the wide range of species involved and the considerable variability of AVIs [1,8]. To date, studies have shown that involving live animals in educational and entertainment activities in zoos, such as AVIs, not only can increase educational opportunities, but can be useful in changing visitor attitudes regarding wildlife, as well as rising conservation mindedness and responsibility for the environment [9][10][11][12][13][14]. Also the effects that zoo visitors can have on the welfare of captive animals have been the focus of recent scientific interest [15][16][17], showing that presence and density of visitors, as well as their behaviour, may have an impact on animal welfare. ...
Animal–Visitor Interactions (AVI) are activities offered by zoos and other tourism facilities, in which visitors come into close contact with animals. These activities can promote conservational and educational content, raise conservation mindedness and responsibility for the environment and animal welfare, but if not properly managed can jeopardize visitors’ and animals’ well-being and conservation efforts. The Animal-Visitor Interaction assessment Protocol (AVIP) has been designed to perform an integrated and multidisciplinary assessment of these activities, encompassing the “One Health, One Welfare” approach. AVIP throughout six different steps allows to assess the effects of AVIs both on animals, visitors, and the staff involved. Results can assist zoos to improve management decisions, ensure a transparent evaluation of their activities and promote conservation education goals. Lemurs walk-in enclosures have become increasingly popular among zoos, nevertheless studies focused on their assessment are still scarce. To validate AVIP to this particular AVI, we applied it to assess a walk-in enclosure hosting five Lemur catta in an Italian zoo. Results of behavioural and physiological analyses suggested no changes in animal welfare level and the Animal Welfare Risk Assessment showed low animal welfare risks. Two Visitor Experience Surveys were used to interview 291 visitors, showing that the assessed AVI could help promote the zoo’s conservation objectives and visitor education. Risk Assessment found low and medium risks to the health and safety of visitors. Results were then combined to perform a final ethical assessment. Some potential ethical concerns were detected, but the outcomes indicated that these conflicts were well managed. In the context of recent findings AVIP demonstrated its potential for application also in assessing AVIs involving primates. Our findings confirmed the usefulness of AVIP in assessing and monitoring AVIs, allowing to gain key information in a single process on multiple welfare-related parameters, educational impact, safety of the main stakeholders involved, and ethical concerns.
... As has often been reported, increasing visitors' biodiversity and conservation knowledge does not necessarily result in the adoption of pro-environmental behaviors, but often it does increase the intention to adopt these sorts of behaviors (Clayton et al., 2017;Collins et al., 2020b;Hacker & Miller, 2016;Howell et al., 2019;Moss et al., 2015Moss et al., , 2017aSkibins & Powell, 2013). Two of the largest barriers that visitors report for these low rates of behavioral change are that they are often uncertain how they should become involved other than donating money (Ojalammi & Nygren, 2018), and that they lack the appropriate education, materials, or relevance to their daily lives to adopt the required behaviors outside of an immediate zoo visit context (Grajal et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2012;Stoinski et al., 2002;Swanagan, 2000). Of the very few studies that have so far measured post-visit pro-conservation behaviors, when materials that were relevant to and easy to use in visitors' daily lives (such as Monterey Bay Aquarium's "Seafood Watch Pocket Guide" for helping to choose more sustainable seafood options) were included, there was a much higher rate of adoption of the intended behavior (51% tried using the card) than for distribution of a card that simply detailed conservation organizations that could be investigated and joined voluntarily (10% reported investigating organizations, but zero participants joined an organization; Yalowitz, 2004). ...
Animal-Visitor Interactions (AVIs) have become commonplace in zoological institutions and facilities globally. However, most AVI research focuses on the effects of visitors on the welfare of animals, with considerably fewer studies examining the visitor experience itself. Furthermore, robust evaluations of the efficacy of zoo education programs and engagements for increasing visitor awareness of conservation issues, and for fostering long-term pro-conservation behavior changes in them, are under-researched. This paper reviews the current literature that pertains to the effects of zoo visitation and AVIs on visitor perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. We briefly note some of the known effects that zoo visitors have on zoo animals, then explore the effects that factors such as enclosure design, animal visibility and behaviors, and AVIs can have on visitors' overall experience whilst attending the zoo. We suggest that future research needs to more closely examine the relationships and interactions between zoo visitors and zoo animals; why some zoo visitors over others repeat visitation; what the differences in beliefs and attitudes may be between "zoo visitors" and "non-zoo visitors" (i.e., other general public); and to make a concerted effort to understand: (1) what visitors do after they leave the zoo, and (2) whether visitors adopt long-term pro-conservation behaviors into their daily lives. We further suggest that future research needs to start investigating indirect measures related to the visitor experience, such as: (a) individual conservation support outside of the zoo; (b) internet activity; (c) changes in sustainable purchasing practices related to knowledge gains; (d) financial investment in sustainable or ethical companies after knowledge gains; (e) and the longitudinal effects of zoo visits.
... The specific effect of more intense visitor interactions on animal behaviour or the impact of the animals on the visitors was rarely considered. One early study on visitor experience in zoos found that visitors who had an interactive experience with elephants were more likely to support elephant conservation than those visitors who had simply viewed the animals [22]. However, recent studies indicate that visitors' connectedness to animals and willingness to support their conservation may depend on visitor demographics [12], the type of animal viewed [9,23] and the targeted conservation behaviour [24]. ...
Inspiring visitors to engage in conservation-related behaviour following a zoo visit is a primary objective for most zoos. Animal–visitor interactive (AVI) experiences are often central to this goal. Yet, these interactive experiences are insufficiently evaluated from both the visitors’ and captive animals’ perspectives. The current study took place at Fota Wildlife Park and involved the construction of an environmental enrichment device during an interactive visitor experience with Sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae). It aimed to simultaneously encourage pro-conservation behaviour in visitors and promote animal welfare. Visitors (n = 51) completed a survey, observed the tigers’ behaviour and made a pledge to help tigers in the wild after completion of the AVI. Tiger behaviour was simultaneously observed by a trained researcher using occurrence or non-occurrence sampling, which found no indication that tiger welfare was compromised during the activity and was likely enhanced by engaging with the enrichment. Additionally, visitors observed a range of tigers’ behaviours. The results indicated that some visitors (8%) had continued with their pledge six weeks after the experience, and most visitors exhibited a high level of knowledge and a positive attitude towards tigers. The use of enrichment during AVIs may be a positive link between the visitor experience and animal welfare. These results can be used to guide AVIs in zoos which aim to connect people with nature and drive pro-conservation behaviour in visitors.
... As has often been reported, increasing visitors' biodiversity and conservation knowledge does not necessarily result in the adoption of pro-environmental behaviors, but often it does increase the intention to adopt these sorts of behaviors (Clayton et al., 2017;Hacker & Miller, 2016;Howell et al., 2019;Moss et al., 2015;2017a;2017b;Skibins & Powell, 2013). Two of the largest barriers that visitors report for these low rates of behavioral change are that they are often uncertain how they should become involved other than donating money (Ojalammi & Nygren, 2018), and that they lack the appropriate education, materials, or relevance to their daily lives to adopt the required behaviors outside of an immediate zoo visit context (Grajal et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2012;Stoinski et al., 2002;Swanagan, 2000). Of the very few studies that have so far measured post-visit pro-conservation behaviors, when materials that were relevant to and easy to use in visitors' daily lives (such as Monterey Bay Aquarium's "Seafood Watch Pocket Guide" for helping to choose more sustainable seafood options) were included, there was a much higher rate of adoption of the intended behavior (51% tried using the card) than for distribution of a card which simply detailed conservation organizations that could be investigated and joined voluntarily (10% reported investigating organizations, but zero participants joined an organization) (Yalowitz, 2004). ...
Animal-Visitor Interactions (AVIs) have become commonplace in zoological institutions and facilities globally. However, most AVI research focuses on the effects of visitors on the welfare of animals, with considerably less studies examining the visitor experience itself. Furthermore, robust evaluations of the efficacy of zoo education programs and engagements for increasing visitor awareness of conservation issues, and for fostering long-term pro-conservation behavior changes in them, are under researched. This paper reviews the current literature that pertains to the effects of zoo visitation and AVIs on visitor perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes. We briefly note some of the known effects that zoo visitors have on zoo animals, and conversely explore the effects that factors such as enclosure design, animal visibility and behaviors, and AVIs can have on visitors' overall experience whilst attending the zoo. We suggest that future research needs to more closely examine the relationships and interactions between zoo visitors and zoo animals; why some zoo visitors maintain repeat visitation over others; what the differences in beliefs and attitudes may be between "zoo visitors" and "non-zoo visitors" (i.e., other general public); and to make a concerted effort to 2 understand: (1) what visitors are doing after they leave the zoo, and (2) whether visitors are adopting long-term pro-conservation behaviors into their daily lives. We further suggest that future research needs to start investigating indirect measures related to the visitor experience, such as: (a) individual conservation support outside of the zoo; (b) internet activity; (c) changes in sustainable purchasing practices related to knowledge gains; (d) financial investment in sustainable or ethical companies after knowledge gains; (e) and the longitudinal effects of zoo visits.
... Nonetheless, researchers have noted that visitors actively enjoy such interactions [36][37][38][39], while others have documented little to no adverse effects on the animals because of public feeding opportunities [40][41][42][43]. In addition, factors related to visitor-elephant interactions, such as observing an interactive elephant program or entering an immersive elephant exhibit area, have been associated with greater visitor enjoyment and/or conservation support [44,45]. However, only two published studies to date have experimentally examined the effects of public feeding interactions compared with a nonpublic feeding control condition on any zoo-housed species, finding increased keeper interactions and no detrimental welfare effects on crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) and few behavioral differences in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus), respectively [46,47]. ...
Simple Summary
Human–animal interactions are an important focus of modern animal welfare research. A subset of this interest includes animal–visitor interactions that occur in zoos. One understudied aspect of animal–visitor interactions involves public feedings, where visitors can directly feed the zoo animals. We examined the effects of public feedings compared with nonpublic feed days on the general activity of three zoo-housed elephants. In addition, we examined the general activity of the elephants in the months prior to public feedings, as well as their general activity on public feed days before, during, and after a public feeding. Public feedings were effective at increasing social activity and decreasing stereotypies for two of the elephants when compared with nonpublic feed days. Additionally, all three elephants showed increased foraging and decreased inactivity following a public feeding. Our results suggest that public feedings can be an effective form of environmental enrichment for zoo-housed elephants.
Abstract
The past few decades have seen increased interest in studies examining the welfare of elephants and animal–visitor interactions. One understudied area for both pursuits is the impact of public feeding interactions. Our study examined the effects of public feedings on the general activity of three zoo-housed elephants. Prior to public feedings, we developed and assessed a 21-behavior ethogram split into six classes of behavior. Comparisons between the elephants demonstrated that only one of the elephants engaged in stereotypies with regularity (>30%), and that the stereotypies occurred in place of most foraging. During public feedings, we compared the general activity of each elephant independently and across both public feeding and nonpublic feeding days, as well as the general activity before, during, and after a public feeding. Public feedings increased social activity and decreased stereotypies when compared with nonpublic feeding days for two of the elephants. In addition, all three elephants showed increased foraging and decreased inactivity in the period after a public feeding session. These results demonstrate that public feedings can be a useful tool for enriching the welfare of zoo-housed elephants and are among the first sets of data to demonstrate positive welfare outcomes associated with public feedings.
... Although ex situ programs do not directly involve communities exposed to HEC, public participation in ex situ education programs is important for raising awareness and providing funds for wild elephant conservation. For example, Hacker and Miller (2016) found that up-close elephant encounters at San Diego Zoo's Safari Park had the greatest effect on guests' conservation intent and Swanagan (2000) found that visitors who had more exposure to elephants in the form of attending elephant shows at Zoo Atlanta were more likely to support conservation (in the form of returning solicitation cards asking for their opinion on the moratorium on ivory, which were later forwarded to the White House). Additionally, many comparative psychologists engage in elephant cognition research at zoos, such as Busch Gardens (Tampa, FL), the Lowry Park Zoo (Tampa, FL), The National Zoo (Washington, D.C), Disney's Animal Kingdom (Orlando, FL), and the Oakland Zoo (Oakland, California), ranging from mirror self-recognition (Plotnik et al., 2006;Plotnik et al., 2010) and problem-solving (Foerder, Galloway, Barthel, Moore, & Reiss, 2011;Highfill, Spencer, Fad, & Arnold, 2016) to studies on personality (Grand, Kuhar, Leighty, Bettinger, & Laudenslager, 2012;Highfill, Fad, Makecha, & Kuczaj, 2013;Horback, Miller, & Kuczaj, 2013) and communication (Günther, O'Connell-Rodwell, & Klemperer, 2004;Soltis, Leighty, Wesolek, & Savage, 2009). ...
Conservation education programs centered on animal cognition seem to be effective in bringing humans closer to non-human species and thereby, influencing their conservation attitudes. Systematic evaluation of the impact of cognition-based education programs on the attitudes of participants has revealed positive feedback and an appreciation towards the species of interest. However, such evaluations are rare for species like elephants, who suffer severe conservation challenges such as high degrees of conflict with the local community. In this paper, we review the need for cognition-based education programs in elephant conservation as well as the need to evaluate these programs to assess their impact on conservation attitudes. In particular, we emphasize the need for such programs in the native ranges of elephants, which are more prone to human-elephant conflict, and argue that exposure to such programs may potentially increase the collaboration of the local community towards conservation efforts.
... Interpretation can also raise support for 117 conservation issues. Swanagan (2000) found that when keeper talks were used at an elephant 118 exhibit significantly more visitors signed a petition against ivory trade than when the exhibit 119 was viewed without a keeper present. 120 There is, however, concern that these same shows can also present species as 121 domesticated and reinforce concepts of humanity's dominance over animals (Acampora, whether using these trick-like hooks helps or hinders retention of educational messages and 131 limited research into the educational benefit of live animal shows more generally. ...
Live animal shows, which combine animal facts with trained behaviours, are commonly used to engage zoo visitors globally. However, such shows have been criticised for portraying a potentially unhelpful image of ‘performing animals’ and have raised issues of animal welfare ethics. Little is known about the educational effectiveness of these shows. Furthermore, the impact of ‘tricks’, used as attention-grabbing hooks, has received limited research attention. We evaluated the impact of a sea lion and a mixed species bird show on audience knowledge of animal facts. Over a quarter of zoo visitors attended some form of live animal show, demonstrating quantitatively that they are a major potential source of knowledge transfer. Show audiences were questioned immediately before (n = 299) or after (n = 265) each performance about relevant show content knowledge. Additionally, a general zoo visitor survey (n = 160) investigated post-visit knowledge recall. Audiences demonstrated significantly higher animal knowledge post-show compared to pre-show. Conservation action awareness showed weak positive change post-show. Audience education levels and weather conditions also had a weak positive effect on correct responses. However, animals performing trick-type behaviours were found to cause confusion regarding natural adaptations. We conclude that live animal shows should prioritise natural behaviours with a focus on conservation action.
... This not only suggests that biofacts are good tools for teaching but may also indicate that looking at animal biofacts are interesting activities for visitors and provoke participants' emotions, even though live animals were not present. Other studies have found positive outcomes from animals' biofacts, such as animal conservation support (Swanagan, 2000), and children's recall of past animal experiences (Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2013), which simulates affective memory. This finding may be meaningful to nature centers that do not have enough space or ideal conditions to maintain live animals in captivity for educational purposes. ...
Environmental education (EE) programs, when combined with human-wildlife interactions (HWI), can trigger emotions, an essential part of attitudes that influence pro-environmental behaviors (PEB). We used participant observation and a post-event evaluation survey to investigate emotional response to HWI among participants from marine educational programs at the University of Georgia Marine Education Center and Aquarium, Savannah, GA. We found that during HWI participants demonstrated positive (e.g., empathy) and negative emotions (e.g., frustration) with animals, including misconceptions and negative perceptions toward snakes and horseshoe crabs. In addition, outdoor exploration, contact with wildlife (direct or indirect), biofacts exhibitions and live animal presentations were the practices that most engaged participants in the programs, indicating that animals (e.g., turtles and crabs) can increase participants' interest in educational activities. By incorporating wildlife in EE practices, educators can engage individuals in activities and stimulate their emotional attachment to animals, which can encourage changes in perceptions, leading to PEBs necessary for environmental conservation.
... This not only suggests that biofacts are good tools for teaching but may also indicate that looking at animal biofacts are interesting activities for visitors and provoke participants' emotions, even though live animals were not present. Other studies have found positive outcomes from animals' biofacts, such as animal conservation support (Swanagan, 2000), and children's recall of past animal experiences (Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2013), which simulates affective memory. This finding may be meaningful to nature centers that do not have enough space or ideal conditions to maintain live animals in captivity for educational purposes. ...
Environmental education (EE) programs, when combined with human-wildlife interactions (HWI), can trigger emotions, an essential part of attitudes that influence pro-environmental behaviors (PEB). We used participant observation and a post-event evaluation survey to investigate emotional response to HWI among participants from marine educational programs at the University of Georgia Marine Education Center and Aquarium, Savannah, GA. We found that during HWI participants demonstrated positive (e.g., empathy) and negative emotions (e.g., frustration) with animals, including misconceptions and negative perceptions toward snakes and horseshoe crabs. In addition, outdoor exploration, contact with wildlife (direct or indirect), biofacts exhibitions and live animal presentations were the practices that most engaged participants in the programs, indicating that animals (e.g., turtles and crabs) can increase participants' interest in educational activities. By incorporating wildlife in EE practices, educators can engage individuals in activities and stimulate their emotional attachment to animals, which can encourage changes in perceptions, leading to PEBs necessary for environmental conservation.
... It should be noted that the caveat to voluntary surveys is that they are not a random sample of a population. It could be presumed that a zoo visitor is a unique subset of the general population (Swanagan 2000). For a voluntary survey, it is also likely survey respondents 15 are people that enjoyed their experience at SHBP and were thereby willing to put the time into a survey. ...
The goal of educating the public about environmental and conservation issues is found in the mission statements of almost every zoo in the world. In order to effectively teach their visitors, zoos must understand how they are communicating with their public. In this study, we attempt to quantify how Sylvan Heights Bird Park (SHBP) communicates with its visitors. SHBP is a small not-for-profit facility that specializes in birds, with a primary focus on waterfowl (Anseriformes). Located in an economically depressed eastern North Carolina county (Halifax), SHBP receives over 46,000 visitors a year. Using a survey, we collected information of visitor perceptions of the role of zoos, their reliance on different sources of information, and their retention of information provided via different modes of communication. SHBP visitors listed exhibit signage (passive communication) as the preferred method of gaining information. Interestingly, however, we found that reliance on signage varied with age and gender and we found no difference in information retention between visitors that experienced only passive communication (signage) versus those that experienced active communication. Just over half (51%) of visitors viewed the primary purpose of a zoo to be entertainment but this view changed with age and gender. Although almost all respondents identified the role of zoos in maintaining biodiversity, we found a disconnect between this view and an understanding of how zoos might contribute to species conservation.
... It should be noted that the caveat to voluntary surveys is that they are not a random sample of a population. It could be presumed that a zoo visitor is a unique subset of the general population (Swanagan 2000). For a voluntary survey, it is also likely survey respondents are people that enjoyed their experience at SHBP and were thereby willing to put the time into a survey. ...
The goal of educating the public about environmental and conservation issues is found in the mission statements of almost every zoo in the world. In order to effectively teach their visitors, zoos must understand how they are communicating with their public. In this study, we attempt to quantify how Sylvan Heights Bird Park (SHBP) communicates with its visitors. SHBP is a small not-for-profit facility that specializes in birds, with a primary focus on waterfowl (Anseriformes). Located in an economically depressed eastern North Carolina county (Halifax), SHBP receives over 46,000 visitors a year. Using a survey, we collected information of visitor perceptions of the role of zoos, their reliance on different sources of information, and their retention of information provided via different modes of communication. SHBP visitors listed exhibit signage (passive communication) as the preferred method of gaining information. Interestingly, however, we found that reliance on signage varied with age and gender and we found no difference in information retention between visitors that experienced only passive communication (signage) versus those that experienced active communication. Just over half (51%) of visitors viewed the primary purpose of a zoo to be entertainment but this view changed with age and gender. Although almost all respondents identified the role of zoos in maintaining biodiversity, we found a disconnect between this view and an understanding of how zoos might contribute to species conservation.
... It should be noted that the caveat to voluntary surveys is that they are not a random sample of a population. It could be presumed that a zoo visitor is a unique subset of the general population (Swanagan 2000). For a voluntary survey, it is also likely survey respondents are people that enjoyed their experience at SHBP and were thereby willing to put the time into a survey. ...
The goal of educating the public about environmental and conservation issues is found in the mission statements of almost every zoo in the world. In order to effectively teach their visitors, zoos must understand how they are communicating with their public. In this study, we attempt to quantify how Sylvan Heights Bird Park (SHBP) communicates with its visitors. SHBP is a small not-for-profit facility that specializes in birds, with a primary focus on waterfowl (Anseriformes). Located in an economically depressed eastern North Carolina county (Halifax), SHBP receives over 46,000 visitors a year. Using a survey, we collected information of visitor perceptions of the role of zoos, their reliance on different sources of information, and their retention of information provided via different modes of communication. SHBP visitors listed exhibit signage (passive communication) as the preferred method of gaining information. Interestingly, however, we found that reliance on signage varied with age and gender and we found no difference in information retention between visitors that experienced only passive communication (signage) versus those that experienced active communication. Just over half (51%) of visitors viewed the primary purpose of a zoo to be entertainment but this view changed with age and gender. Although almost all respondents identified the role of zoos in maintaining biodiversity, we found a disconnect between this view and an understanding of how zoos might contribute to species conservation.
... Historically, zoos were created as displays of imperial majesty-purely for elevating social/cultural status, human awe and entertainment [1,[89][90][91]. Modern zoos are attempting to transform into ethical biodiversity conservation organisations that promote education and positive animal welfare [3,10,11,[92][93][94][95], yet entertainment and leisure are still two commonly reported reasons for attending these destinations by patrons [1,[89][90][91]. Indeed, a zoo visitor survey conducted by the author [96] found that one of the five extracted ethical alignments of visitors was labelled "human interaction and entertainment priority". ...
Simple Summary
This article is an examination of human–animal interactions in zoos from an ethical perspective, their benefits to both human and animal participants, and also their potential risks and ethical dilemmas. Contact with animals can be beneficial for all parties involved, and can indeed lead to pro-conservation and respect for nature behaviours being adopted by humans after so-called “profound experiences” of connecting or interacting with animals. Yet, human–animal interactions may also increase certain individuals’ desires for inappropriate wild-animal ‘pet’ ownership, and can convey a false sense of acceptability of exploiting animals for “cheap titillation”. Three ethical frameworks that may be beneficial for ethically run zoos to incorporate when considering human–animal interactions are: Compassionate Conservation, Conservation Welfare and Duty of Care. Human–animal interactions in zoos may be acceptable in many circumstances, and may be beneficial to both animal and human participants; however, they must be closely monitored through welfare tracking tools. Melding Duty of Care and the two Conservation ethical frameworks would be ideal for assessing the ethical acceptability of such interactions.
Abstract
Human–animal interactions (HAIs) in zoos can be rewarding for both humans and animals, but can also be fraught with ethical and welfare perils. Contact with animals can be beneficial for all parties involved, and can indeed lead to pro-conservation and respect for nature behaviours being adopted by humans after so-called “profound experiences” of connecting or interacting with animals. Yet, human–animal interactions may also increase certain individuals’ desires for inappropriate wild-animal ‘pet’ ownership, and can convey a false sense of acceptability of exploiting animals for “cheap titillation”. Indeed, this has been reflected in a recent research review conducted on animal–visitor interactions in zoos from a number of different countries and global regions. These are unintended consequences that ”modern, ethical zoos” would try to minimise, or avoid completely where possible, though most zoos still offer close-contact experiences with their animals. Three ethical frameworks that may be beneficial for ethically run zoos to incorporate when considering human–animal interactions are: Compassionate Conservation, Conservation Welfare and Duty of Care. These three ethical frameworks are concerned with the welfare state and outcomes for individual animals, not just the population or species. Human–animal interactions in zoos may be acceptable in many circumstances and may be beneficial to both animal and human participants; however, they must be closely monitored through welfare tracking tools. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) has published guidelines for human–animal interactions that are mandatory for member institutions to adhere to, although whether these guidelines are taken as mandatory or suggestions at individual institutions is unknown. Some suggestions for relevant extensions to the guidelines are suggested herein. Melding Duty of Care and the two Conservation ethical frameworks would be ideal for assessing the ethical acceptability of such interactions as they currently occur, and for considering how they should be modified to occur (or not) into the future in zoological settings.
... This work is sustained by the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) which seeks to predict human behavior through their knowledge and attitudes. The study was designed according to a positivist approach, a common perspective in studies carried out in these institutions, and particularly in the study of attitudes and perceptions (Swanagan, 2000;Knight, 2008;DeGregoria et al., 2014;Jensen, 2014;Liordos et al., 2017;Moss et al., 2017), because it allowed us to do an exploratory study that did not require a long attention time from visitors. As other authors have pointed out, there is a lack of depth in the knowledge of the relationships found, which is acknowledged (Drury et al., 2011;Castillo et al., 2020). ...
Perceptions and attitudes of visitors at the Jardín Zoológico Payo Obispo and their influence on the conservation of native wildlife. Acta Zoológica Mexicana (nueva serie), 36, 1-16. ABSTRACT. This study focused on the relationship between the perceptions and attitudes of visitors at the Jardín Zoológico Payo Obispo and their support for the conservation of nine animal species, native of southeastern Mexico. Results from 198 surveys applied from November 2018 to February 2019, show that fear is the most important factor for visitors to decide if they support the protection of opossums and boas, while for ferruginous pygmy-owl and Morelet's crocodile it was the aesthetic consideration ("ugly"). For the remainder species, with the exception of the jicotea turtle, both, the fear, and the aesthetic perceptions directly influence conservation support.
... Live animal shows and interactive experiences have been found to help with behavior change. For instance, Swanagan (2000) found that visitors who watched an elephant show or touched an object like an elephant's tusk, skin, or hair, were more likely to sign a petition in support of elephant conservation when compared to those who did not have an interactive experience. Miller et al. (2013) found short-term increases in behavioral intentions after visitors watched a dolphin show, and short-and long-term increases in behavioral intentions after interactive experiences with dolphins; all visitors reported engaging in more pro-conservation behaviors 3 months after the visit, compared to before the visit. ...
... In turn, this creates the potential for interactions between unfamiliar humans and resident animals. Such inter-species encounters can affect visitors, fostering positive attitudes toward animals and inspiring people to take action on behalf of animals in captivity and the wild (Clayton, Fraser, & Saunders, 2008;Lukas & Ross, 2005;Pearson, Lowry, Dorrian, & Litchfield, 2014;Swanagan, 2000). However, encounters between the public and zoo residents are not simply a unidirectional relationship (e.g., Persson, Sauciuc, & Madsen, 2018), so studying the impact of public viewing on captive animals is vital. ...
At zoos, and some sanctuaries, members of the public can observe the resident animals. Examining the characteristics and consequences of this type of human–animal encounter is important to understand public education and engagement as well as animal behavior and welfare. Zoos typically have a large and consistent visitor presence, and researchers report mixed findings regarding the effects of the visiting public on the behavior of resident primates. In contrast, public visitation at sanctuaries more often occurs sporadically and on a relatively small scale, as compared with zoos, and typically via organized tours or educational events. Owing to these differences, it is necessary to explore the effects of public programs on animals in sanctuary settings in addition to the more comprehensive efforts studying such influences in zoos. Therefore, we observed four groups of sanctuary chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at Chimp Haven (USA) over one year, including opportunistic observations during public programs. These scheduled, but infrequent, educational events offered visitors the possibility to view chimpanzees in outdoor enclosures and sometimes included staff-led small tours and food and enrichment provision to the chimpanzees. Our aim was to determine whether the 50 chimpanzees’ behavior differed when public programs were offered at the sanctuary compared with “baseline” periods. It was found that during these programs chimpanzees spent more time in outdoor enclosures (GLMM: est. = 1.559, SE = 0.309, Z = 5.04, p < 0.001) and increased time feeding (GLMM: est. = 0.754, SE = 0.356, Z = 2.11, p = 0.034) and locomoting (GLMM: est. = 0.887, SE = 0.197, Z = 4.50, p < 0.001) compared with times when public programs were not ongoing. We rarely observed agonistic and abnormal behaviors, potential metrics of welfare, regardless of whether public programs were ongoing. Abnormal behaviors occurred too infrequently for statistical analysis. While the chimpanzees showed some differences in their behavioral repertoire during the public programs, such changes do not suggest that their welfare was compromised as a result of these activities.
... Another major factor is animal activity, which influences visitors' interest and empathy. Mammals that are highly active and interact either with the visitors or with other individuals are attractive, and visitors feel that active animals are happier (Bitgood et al., 1988;Swanagan, 2000). Thus, for instance, exhibits of otters and capuchins have been shown to be attractive to visitors, despite the exhibits' physical unattractiveness (Tofield et al., 2003). ...
... Kaum untersucht ist die Wirksamkeit der sogenannten "betreuten Besucherinformation", obwohl diese derzeit in vielen Zoos, aber auch in Naturkundemuseen und Naturschutzzentren, angewendet wird (NOGGE 1992, SWANAGAN 2000. Dabei informieren sogenannte "Ranger" vor Ort die Besucher über aktuelle Themen oder präsentieren Wissenswertes über Tiere und ihre Lebensräume mit Hilfe sogenannter "Tierpark-Mobile". ...
Neste estudo, utilizamos registros audiovisuais para analisar as conversas de seis famílias para compreender como as famílias se engajam com os animais em exibição na Fundação Zoológico de São Paulo. Ao compartilhar informações sobre os animais a partir de experiências anteriores e informações expostas nos painéis, as famílias puderam identificar e interpretar o comportamento exibido pelas espécies. As crianças atuaram como protagonistas conduzindo conversas, escolhendo percurso, lendo e interpretando as informações expostas nos painéis. Os adultos atuaram como facilitadores auxiliando na compreensão de termos científicos. Portanto, os resultados evidenciam que ao conectarem cognitiva e emocionalmente com os animais, as famílias vivenciaram uma experiência social positiva e passível de adquirir novos significados.
Zoos and aquariums are culturally and historically important places where families enjoy their leisure time and scientists study exotic animals. Many contain buildings of great architectural merit. Some people consider zoos little more than animal prisons, while others believe they play an important role in conservation and education. Zoos have been the subject of a vast number of academic studies, whose results are scattered throughout the literature. This interdisciplinary volume brings together research on animal behaviour, visitor studies, zoo history, human-animal relationships, veterinary medicine, welfare, education, enclosure design, reproduction, legislation, and zoo management conducted at around 200 institutions located throughout the world. The book is neither 'pro-' nor 'anti-' zoo and attempts to strike a balance between praising zoos for the good work they have done in the conservation of some species, while recognising that they face many challenges in making themselves relevant in the modern world.
The first recorded elephant in England arrived in 1255; a gift to King Henry III from King Louis IX of France. Elephants have been kept in zoos in the United States for over 200 years and, throughout the world, they are extremely popular with zoo visitors. Since the 1980s there have been captive breeding programmes for elephants in zoos but these have not been successful in creating self-sustaining zoo populations. Many people now believe that the welfare compromises endured by captive elephants outweigh any actual or potential benefits for elephant conservation that accrue from their being kept in zoos. Although there have been recent improvements in the longevity of elephants living in zoos, many zoos have given up keeping elephants and some have sent their animals to elephant sanctuaries. This case study considers the relative merits of the claims that elephants living in zoos have conservation and scientific functions and the counter-claims that, not only do they have no legitimate function, but they suffer significant welfare harms.
Technology has routinely been used in zoos to enhance the visitor experience, for public education and for conservation awareness. However, studies into technology-aided exhibits in zoos have thus far been limited to zoos in western society. This article reports on an Indonesian zoo deploying new technology in its exhibits and how visitors interacted with these exhibits. A case study guided both an investigation of the visitors' technology usage of zoo exhibits and zoo implementation of technological processes. Interviews with visitors, zoo staff, and managers were conducted and analyzed and these were supplemented with on-site observations. The results indicated that the majority of zoo visitors did not use the technological applications provided by the zoo. In addition, there was found to be a significant lack of staff engagement in the consultation, design, implementation, and maintenance of the technology. Correlations were found between visitors' level of technology usage, their reading of signage, their day-to-day technology usage, and their conservation knowledge. The findings suggest that an understanding of visitor' behavior, active staff engagement in the development and implementation of new technology, in addition to emotion-inducing interpretation, and purposefully guided interactions, could increase the use of technology at a zoo and thus enhance positive visitor engagement, ultimately resulting in heightened educational as well as conservational outcomes.
Дисертацію присвячено теоретико-методологічному та емпіричному обґрунтуванню синергетичної концепції смислової регуляції екологічно релевантної поведінки. Емпірично вивчена роль екологічної позиції особистості як керуючого параметра системи смислової регуляції екологічно релевантної поведінки, що заданий співвідношенням біосферних та грошово-утилітаристських смислів. Смислове підґрунтя екозберігаючої поведінки становить екологічна стурбованість – властива біосферній екологічній позиції система смислових утворень, яка інтегрує афективний, когнітивний і екзистенціальний компоненти ставлення до екологічного оточення та визначає особистісну орієнтацію на екозбереження. Емпірично вивчені трансформації смислів екологічно релевантних дій залежно від екологічної ризик-рефлексії та зміни у осмисленні екологічної проблематики під впливом економічної кризи.
The dissertation is devoted to the theoretical and empirical substantiation of the concept of meaning regulation of ecologically relevant behavior. The role of the ecological position of person as an operating parameter of the system of meaning regulation of ecologically relevant behavior that opened through parity of biospheric and economic orientation is investigated. The meaning basis of pro-ecological behavior is ecological concern – a system of meaning structures that is peculiar to biospheric ecological position and integrates affective, cognitive, and existential components of the relation to an environment, influencing subject orientation to conservation. Transformations of the meaning of ecologically relevant actions caused by ecological risk-refleсion and changes in the meaning of ecological issues under the influence of economic crisis are empirically investigated.
Диссертация посвящена теоретико-методологическому и эмпирическому обоснованию концепции смысловой регуляции экологически релевантного поведения.
На основе анализа социогенеза экологического дискурса разработана структурно-динамическая модель психологической регуляции процессов жизнеобеспечения в современном обществе. Экоразрушительная активность людей поддерживается доминирующей социальной парадигмой (ДСП), ключевыми параметрами которой являются антропоцентризм и вера в прогресс как непрерывный рост материального потребления. Осознание антропогенных глобальных угроз связано с формированием и развитием новой экологической парадигмы (НЭП). Оценка экологических изменений с позиций ДСП определяет более интенсивное экопотребление, в то время как осмысление с позиций НЭП ориентирует на экосохранение. Основное различие между ДСП и НЭП проявляется как оппозиция «финансово-экономическая ориентация – экологическая ориентация».
Реализован синергетический подход к анализу смысловой регуляции субъектной активности. Вводится понятие экологической позиции личности как управляющего параметра системы смысловой регуляции экологически релевантного поведения, определяемой соотношением биосферной и денежно-утилитаристской ориентации и проявляющейся через смысловые образования разных уровней: личностные ценности, смысловые диспозиции, смысловые конструкты и установки. На эмпирическом материале c привлечением методов моделирования структурными уравнениями выявлены паттерны осмысления проблемы глобальных экологических изменений, характерные для субъектов с разными типами экологической позиции.
Осмысление экологически релевантных действий опосредовано категориальной структурой, функционирующей как динамическая система смысловых конструктов. Содержание таких смысловых конструктов раскрывается через соотношение категориальных установок, упорядочивающих представления субъекта о возможных мотивах экологически релевантных действиях человека. На основе игрового моделирования изучены трансформации смыслов экологически релевантных действий, обусловленных экологической риск-рефлексией и проявляющихся в усилении экологического содержания смыслового конструкта беспокойства о будущем и переоценке действующих социальных норм.
Смысловую основу экосберегающего поведения составляет экологическая озабоченность – система сложно скоординированных смысловых и ценностных диспозиций, релевантная экологическим угрозам и определяющая личностную ориентацию на экосохранение. Такая динамическая смысловая система, характеризующая биосферную экологическую позицию, интегрирует аффективный, когнитивный и экзистенциальный компоненты отношения к экологическому окружению.
Осмысление глобальных экологических изменений связано с ценностными приоритетами субъекта. Биосферная ориентация обеспечивает непосредственный эмоциональный отклик на экоразрушительные процессы, спровоцированные активностью людей. При приоритете ценностей самовозвышения внимание субъекта направляется на текущие выгоды экоразрушительных способов действия, а их экоразрушительные последствия отрицаются. Ориентация на социальную гармонию обостряет внимание к потенциальным угрозам человеческому сообществу, однако эта ориентация может сочетаться с установками на неограниченный материальный прогресс и рост человеческой популяции.
Выявлены неоднозначные сдвиги в осмыслении проблемы глобальных экологических изменений под влиянием макроэкономической ситуации: в условиях экономического кризиса усиливается субъективная значимость экологической безопасности при снижении субъективной значимости экологических проблем в целом, антропогенное влияние на экологическое окружение становится более отрефлексированным, но менее актуальным для субъекта. При обострении экономической ситуации актуализуются иррациональные смыслы экологических проблем как заслуженного возмездия со стороны природы.
Важную роль в социальном продвижении проэкологического поведения играют социально-экологические сообщения, особенности осмысления которых обусловливают формирование готовности к экосберегающему поведению. В сообщениях о социально-экологических мероприятиях и программах следует делать акцент на актуальности конкретной экологической проблемы и доступных для осуществления в реальной жизни способах ее решения.
A vital role in mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) involves conservation education programs in local communities. It is therefore important to assess the types of information that make conservation education programs effective. Given the public’s fascination with animal minds, the elephant being a cognitively complex species, and the high occurrence of HEC surrounding Asian elephants, the current research assessed whether using information on elephant cognition in a conservation education program increased positive attitudes toward elephants/elephant conservation in Bannerghatta National Park (BNP). BNP, located in Karnataka, India, is an area reporting high HEC. Results indicated no significant difference in adult male villagers’ attitudes toward elephants/elephant conservation when exposed to one of two educational programs, one of which included information on elephant cognition. However, a significant difference in attitudes between the two programs and a control group was discovered, suggesting the importance of an educational intervention in the communities surrounding BNP.
Combining anecdotes with scientific data, this book is a journalistic inquiry into what is currently known about zoos and aquariums as sociocultural intersections of mission, public perception, and on-site meaning making. The authors draw on conservation psychology and other social science research to explore how zoos might develop and deliver more effective learning experiences to promote and nurture conservation values and collective action. While people use zoos with specific priorities and motivations in mind, these are social settings. Indeed, it is because they represent an important, vast, and trusted social enterprise that zoos have such powerful opportunities to change how diverse public audiences view, value, identify, and engage with animals and the broader biophysical environment.
Combining anecdotes with scientific data, this book is a journalistic inquiry into what is currently known about zoos and aquariums as sociocultural intersections of mission, public perception, and on-site meaning making. The authors draw on conservation psychology and other social science research to explore how zoos might develop and deliver more effective learning experiences to promote and nurture conservation values and collective action. While people use zoos with specific priorities and motivations in mind, these are social settings. Indeed, it is because they represent an important, vast, and trusted social enterprise that zoos have such powerful opportunities to change how diverse public audiences view, value, identify, and engage with animals and the broader biophysical environment.
Guest-animal feeding programs (GFPs) in zoological institutions aim to foster human-animal connections. The growing establishment of animal welfare science emphasizes the assessment of GFPs as permanent environmental inputs to habitats that require analysis of behavioral output. This study assessed the role of space allocation on giraffe participation and interactions in GFPs in two Florida zoos.
Analysis of social structure indicates that centrality and influence from affiliative network on exhibit shape sharing interactions at GFPs under varying management protocols and designs. Findings suggest that interactions and significant ties among conspecifics are context and potentially temporally dependent. We propose the use of multiple guest engagement stations to maximize space and facilitate feeding opportunities for central and peripheral members. This proposed shift would provide variable feeding opportunities that represent group composition following ecological theory while maximizing points of guest engagement.
Results indicate that increasing space allocation for GFPs increased feeding bout length for individuals, percent of time sharing among conspecifics, and reduced average rate of displacement/minute. Cross-institutional comparisons indicate that guest programs with more space allocation have lower rates of conspecific displacement.
Observation of Sea World – Gold Coast, Australia’s 2015 and 2018 onsite signage and live animal shows provides indication of a significant shift in legitimating rhetoric. The keeping of animals in captivity has become an increasingly contentious issue requiring zoos and marine parks to reposition themselves to remain viable as tourism enterprises to be sustained into the future. Recent protests by animal rights activists in Australia exemplifies the ideological challenges to the keeping of marine animals in captivity. To survive and thrive all organisations including marine parks must present an ideologically sustainable position which is consistent through their messaging and practices. Participant observation and discourse analysis are applied in this study to reveal the messaging employed by Sea World – Gold Coast, Australia in two separate years, and by doing so to identify the changes in legitimation framing over the period. Examples of onsite signage and live animal shows at the theme park, demonstrate that the legitimating discourses have shifted from its role in educating the public about marine animals and conservation in 2015, to highlighting its role as authorised, expert facility understood as a place of refuge to care for individual animals in 2018.
Eleven semantic differential scales were developed to assess the effects of contextual setting on peoples' perceptions of animals. The scales were given to subjects viewing slides of eight species of animals in either the wild, naturalistic zoo, or caged zoo environments. A control group, which saw no slides, also rated the animals. The ratings on the semantic differential scales were the dependent measure, while the four contexts and eight animals were the independent variables. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) the zoo group animals would be rated significantly different from, and less favorably, than all other conditions-wild, naturalistic zoo, and control; (2) the naturalistic zoo group would be rated significantly different from, and less favorably, than the wild animal group across all species; and (3) there would be differences in the ratings of the animals within conditions. Data were analyzed using canonical discriminant analysis. Results generally supported all three hypotheses. Zoo animals were seen as restricted, tame, and passive while wild animals were characterized as free, wild, and active. Results are discussed with reference to exhibit evaluations and the influence of exhibits on visitors' attitudes and perceptions.
The purpose of this paper is to encourage the application of theories of human behavior to zoo design so that zoo visitors are environmentally predisposed to learn from and enjoy what they experience. The ultimate goal is to increase public awareness and appreciation of the importance of habitat and its protection to wildlife conservation and to present zoo animals in such a way that their reason for being and rights to existence are intuitively self-evident to viewers. Many of the concepts and guidelines presented appear to be suitable subjects of behavioral research, whose findings would assist designers and other zoo professionals in continued improvement of the zoo visitor's experience.
A six-month postoccupancy evaluation was conducted in order to assess the effectiveness of interpretive elements of the African Rock Kopje exhibit at the San Diego Zoo. Visitor observations were conducted and visitor surveys administered to test the cognitive and affective objectives associated with the exhibit. Data analysis indicated that an average of approximately 500 visitors per hour visited the kopje exhibit. For a subsample of 70 visitors, tracking data indicated the average length of stay in the exhibit was approximately 6.8 minutes. Overall, the visitors reported enjoying the exhibit. They were unable to answer cognitive questions about the exhibit if they had not read the interpretive signs. In total, 91% of the visitors looked at or read at least one panel, and 30% read 3 or more signs-more than previous studies have shown to be typical. A noteworthy 79% touched or used at least one interactive exhibit element. The interactive elements significantly helped cognitive recall when compared to information presented without interaction. There was a strong correlation between the length of time spent in the exhibit, the number of panels read, and the number of elements explored. However, an individual's level of education showed only a small correlation with the number of signs read. On the average, younger visitors were more likely to use the interpretive elements than to read panels, while older visitors were more likely to read the panels than to use the interactive elements.
The chapter presents the two very different basic processes that link attitudes and behavior, along with variants that amount to a mixture of the essentials of each process. Conditions that promote one process or the other also are discussed in the chapter. This discussion of mixed models illustrates the complexity of the role of spontaneous and deliberative processing to understand the manner in which attitudes influence behavior. The basic difference between the two types of models of the attitude-behavior process centers on the extent to which deciding on a particular course of action involves conscious deliberation about a spontaneous reaction to one's perception of the immediate situation. An individual may analyze the costs and benefits of a particular behavior and, in so doing, deliberately reflect on the attitudes relevant to the behavioral decision. These attitudes may serve as one of possibly many dimensions that are considered in arriving at a behavior plan, which may then be enacted.
Contrasts traditional thinking in the field of environmental education (EE) with research findings. The evolution of the behavioral model is traced, focusing on 3 categories of variables that contribute to behavior, including entry-level, ownership, and empowerment. Goals and objectives for instruction in EE are reviewed. The critical components of a total educational program for EE are discussed, and 2 curricular strategies, issue investigation and action model and the extended case study model, are described. The effectiveness of EE around the world is addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Bylaws and accreditation standards. AZA Directory Understanding your visitors: Ten factors that influence their behavior
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A door is reopened to the ivory trade The effectiveness of guidance devices on visitor learning. Curator
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