Science Education Research in the Sultanate of Oman

Abstract

This chapter sheds light on science education research in Oman. More specifically,
it analyses the representation and diversification of socio-cultural factors by science
education researchers in Oman. To achieve this goal, a survey study was conducted
with 16 science education researchers. They all held PhD degrees and conducted
science education research. The findings indicate that the science education research
in Oman does not factor in very many socio-cultural factors into its models.
The impact of different factors (such as religious beliefs, non-Arabic spoken
languages, age levels, school locations, mixed gender school settings) on science
teaching and learning practices has not been given appropriate attention by science
education researchers. The interactions among these factors within different Omani
geographical regions, which differ in terms of cultural traditions and environmental
diversity, seem to have been omitted. The reasons behind these findings are discussed.
Also, the authors suggest some recommendations to enhance the representation and
diversification of socio-cultural factors within science education research in Oman,
and in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states.

Full text

Science Education in
the Arab Gulf States
Visions, Sociocultural Contexts and
Challenges
Nasser Mansour and Saeed Al-Shamrani (Eds.)
CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SCIENCE EDUCATION

Science Education in the Arab Gulf States

CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SCIENCE EDUCATION:
DISTINGUISHED CONTRIBUTORS
Volume 4
Series Editors
Catherine Milne, New York University, USA
Kate Scantlebury, University of Delaware, USA
Cultural and Historical Perspectives on Science Education: Distinguished
Contributors 

-
           

-


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
-





Science Education in the Arab Gulf States
Visions, Sociocultural Contexts and Challenges
Edited by
Nasser Mansour
Exeter University, UK

Saeed Al-Shamrani
The Excellence Research Center of Science and Mathematics Education (ECSME),
King Saud University, Saudi Arabia


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Printed on acid-free paper

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
          
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

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
 
 
 
 
Nasser Mansour and Saeed Al-Shamrani
Part 1: The Current Practices and Challenges in Science Education in
the Arab Gulf States
 

Hiya Almazroa and Saeed Al-Shamrani
 
 
Sulaiman M. Al-Balushi and Abdullah K. Ambusaidi
 
 
Sufian A. Forawi
Part 2: The Reforms and Innovations of Science Education in
the Arab Gulf States
 
 
Asma Al-Mahrouqi
 
 
Khalil Y. Al-Khalili
 
 
Khalid Alhammad
 

 
Alexander W. Wiseman and Emily Anderson



Part 3: The Sociocultural Issues of the Science Education in
the Arab Gulf States
  
Maher Mohammed Alarfaj
 

 
Aneta Hayes, Nasser Mansour and Ros Fisher
 
 
Abdullah Ambusaidi and Sulaiman Al-Balushi
 
 
Ahmad S. Alshammari, Nasser Mansour and Nigel Skinner
 
 
 


INTRODUCTION
    Excellence Research Center of Science and Mathematics
EducationKing Saud University

        

             

            




          
           




          

        
           


   









              



Fahad Suliman Alshaya
ECSME Director

N. Mansour & S. Al-Shamrani (Eds.), Science Education in the Arab Gulf States, 23–47.
© 2015 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
SULAIMAN M. AL-BALUSHI AND ABDULLAH K. AMBUSAIDI
2. SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE
SULTANATE OF OMAN
The Representation and Diversification of
Socio-Cultural Factors and Contexts
ABSTRACT
This chapter sheds light on science education research in Oman. More specifically,
it analyses the representation and diversification of socio-cultural factors by science
education researchers in Oman. To achieve this goal, a survey study was conducted
with 16 science education researchers. They all held PhD degrees and conducted
science education research. The findings indicate that the science education research
in Oman does not factor in very many socio-cultural factors into its models.
The impact of different factors (such as religious beliefs, non-Arabic spoken
languages, age levels, school locations, mixed gender school settings) on science
teaching and learning practices has not been given appropriate attention by science
education researchers. The interactions among these factors within different Omani
geographical regions, which differ in terms of cultural traditions and environmental
diversity, seem to have been omitted. The reasons behind these findings are discussed.
Also, the authors suggest some recommendations to enhance the representation and
diversification of socio-cultural factors within science education research in Oman,
and in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states.
INTRODUCTION
Educational research is the link between theory and practice. It informs the field of
new theoretical trends, examines the applicability of these trends in particular local
contexts, reports the interactions between certain cultural variables and different
teaching methodologies, and disseminates good practice among practitioners in a
certain field. On the other hand, research feeds the theory with required verification
data and observations, helps to rectify the theory, builds up new theories and
resolves theoretical conflicts. This theory-practice interactive linkage function of
research motivates stakeholders in developed and developing countries to assign a
considerable annual budget to research. Research is driven by the community and its
concerns and thus it should not be value-free. It should bind to the socio-cultural issues
and investigate the socio-cultural variables such as religion, language, economic

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
24
status, lifestyle, gender, ethnicity, inequality, politics, values, habits, memories
and history. Understanding how learning takes place and how meaning is made
should be considered within the socio-cultural circumstances (Wickman & Östman,
2002). Our understanding of students’ and teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, skills and
values becomes more mature when studied within the socio-cultural context. For
instance, some students prefer the ideas they get from their surroundings, such as
their religious beliefs, over the scientific ideas they study in their textbooks (Taber,
Billingsley, Riga & Newdick, 2011). Other students justify that they are motivated
to learn science to strengthen their religious beliefs. Also, students’ beliefs about
science differ based on their gender (Greenfield, 1996).
These findings show that students’ learning is a result of the interaction between
the individuals and the world around them (Cowie, 2005; Traianou, 2006; Wickman
& Östman, 2002) and, thus, it is considerably influenced by the ideas they gain
outside the school. As a result, socio-cultural influences lead some students to
have multiple framework stances. Students choose a particular stance according to
a particular context (Taber et al., 2011). In addition, research shows that there is
a significant positive relationship between students’ attitudes towards science and
their socio-cultural background (Kesamang & Taiwo, 2002).
The diversity of students and teachers in terms of the socio-cultural variables
has attracted the attention of science educators. In this regard, science education
research has focused on 1) the linguistically and culturally diverse students, and 2)
on multicultural approaches to science (Carter, 2008). In this chapter we are more
concerned about the former, which insists on the right of every student to have
access to scientific knowledge in order to be capable of functioning proficiently
in the society. This entails developing the curriculum and designing the learning
environment in a way that ensures this right (Carter, 2008; Lee, 2001). However, the
attempt to investigate socio-cultural variables as a means to answer the question of’
why we act as we do’ is a complex task. Lemke (2001, 297) explains that:
A sociocultural perspective on science education is sceptical and critical. Its
most basic belief is that we do not know why we act as we do; we only know a
few local reasons on a certain timescale and within a limited range of contexts.
We do not know all the other reasons that arise from the functioning of our
actions in far larger and more distant contexts and on longer timescales. As a
research perspective this view seeks to elucidate the problems that arise from
our limited view of the larger systems we inhabit, and to identify just how our
actions do also function on many larger scales.
Research is a contextualized enterprise and involves its users in its development
(Sursock, 2010). However, in the Arab world, of which the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) is a part, research in the social sciences is not valued as a significant trigger
for social and economic development (Mazawi, 2010). In the GCC, the emergence
of a research culture committed to the welfare of countries and their people is a
new enterprise. In recent years the GCC governments have spent more money on

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
25
research than ever before. There is an understanding by the GCC governments of
the importance of research in the development of their countries. However, when
compared to developed countries, the GCC is still lagging behind in this regard. For
instance, while the average number of researchers per million inhabitants in the GCC
is 251.7 (UNESCO, 2010), it is 2,639 in Europe, 4,181 in the UK, 4,663 in the USA
and 5,573 in Japan (UNESCO, 2011). In addition, the average percentage of GDP
spent on research remains less than 0.5 percent for most GCC states except for Qatar,
which plans to spend 2.8%, and Saudi Arabia which is estimated to spend 0.5%. This
percentage is around 2.0% in developed countries (UNESCO, 2010; Wilson, 2010).
Mazawi (2010) believes that research published by Arab researchers, including
researchers from the GCC overly relies on structural-functional quantitative
research methodologies, which oversimplify the complexity of social phenomena
into statistical quantities. There is a lack of qualitative research methodologies,
such as critical ethnographic and phenomenographic studies. This deficiency
is empowered by the tendency of Arabic and GCC social science periodicals to
publish quantitative research. This positivistic approach does not enable the
voices of culturally diverse groups to be clearly heard. Mazawi believes that many
Arab researchers still do not choose to use the qualitative participatory approach,
for different reasons such as a lack of experience and an inability to apply the
qualitative paradigm. Why should a country, for instance, a developing country,
spend a considerable amount of money on research when it can adopt the research
findings done in more developed countries by well-established research institutions?
One of the reasons is that no two cultures are identical. Each culture has its own
needs, problems and socio-cultural variables that play a significant role in shaping
its identity, and therefore what works in one country does not necessarily work in
another. The interplay between socio-cultural variables, such as religion, language,
economic status, lifestyle, gender, ethnicity, inequality, politics, values, habits,
memories and history, determines what is meaningful and fruitful in one culture,
and what is not in another culture. Internationally, there has been considerable
attention in science education to the influence of multiculturalism and cultural and
linguistic diversity on the learning of science (Atwater, 1996; Bryan & Atwater,
2002; Carter, 2008). If we believe that knowledge constructions, such as science
conceptions, are socially and culturally influenced, developed and transmitted,
then science education researchers should help science teachers understand how
different groups of learners are influenced by these processes. Science education
research should provide science teachers with proper diagnostic assessment tools
in order to uncover what diverse conceptual, cultural and linguistic frameworks
students bring with them to the science classroom. In addition, taking these socio-
cultural factors into consideration (for instance, when planning and conducting
science education research) helps to ensure that the field of science education has
the proper mechanisms to provide “equitable opportunities for all students to learn
quality science” (Atwater, 1996, p. 822). This chapter examines the diversification
and representation of some of these socio-cultural variables in science education

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
26
research in Oman. However, the Omani context and the nature of science education
research in Oman will be discussed first.
RESEARCH IN OMAN
Research in Oman is a relatively new enterprise. The research culture has been
growing at a relatively slow pace (UNESCO, 2010). Oman is lagging behind in
this regard. For instance, the number of researchers in Oman is low. In 2006, there
were 230 researchers per million inhabitants. This number was lower than in some
other GCC countries: Qatar (350), Bahrain (250) and Kuwait (260) (UNESCO,
2010). The Global Competitiveness Report (World Economic Forum, 2012) ranked
Oman 86th in the local availability of specialized research and training services,
74th in the quality of scientific research institutions, and 54th in university-industry
collaboration in research and development. Table 1 compares the GCC countries in
these aspects. Oman lags behind Qatar, UAE and Saudi Arabia (KSA).
Table 1. World Economic Forum’s ranking of the GCC states
according to research institutions and services
Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar KSA UAE
rank value rank value rank value rank value rank value rank value
Local availability of specialized research and training services
[1 = not available; 7 = widely available]
41 4.6 97 3.7 86 3.9 25 5.0 35 4.7 21 5.2
Quality of scientific research institutions
[1 = very poor; 7 = the best in their field internationally]
107 3.1 103 3.2 74 3.5 5 5.8 37 4.5 35 4.6
University-industry collaboration in research and development
[1 = do not collaborate at all; 7 = collaborate extensively]
115 3.0 120 3.0 54 3.8 9 5.4 31 4.5 26 4.6
Source: World Economic Forum (2012)
In Oman, the importance of research is stressed in its educational system at
different levels (MoE, 2003). The Ministry of Education introduced a research
principles subject in grade 11 and a graduation project in grade 12. The Oman
Academic Accreditation Authority (OAAA) specifies research as one of its
accrediting standards for all higher education institutions (OAAA, 2010). In 2008,
the Higher Education Council decided that all public and private higher education
institutions should adopt a general foundation programme which was designed
for new intakes. This programme focuses on English, mathematics, information

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
27
technology and study skills. One category within the study skills standards is
research skills (OAAA, n.d.).
Three major sources of financial support have contributed greatly to the
development of research in Oman. The first one comes from Sultan Qaboos
University (SQU), the only public university which encompasses nine research
centres: The Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems Center; The
Omani Studies Center; The Center for Environmental Studies and Research; The
Earthquake Monitoring Center; The Communication and Information Research
Center; The Oil and Gas Research Center; The Water Research Center; The Center
of Excellence in Marine Biotechnology (CEMB), and The Humanities Research
Center (HRC). In addition, a new SQU research centre is under construction: the
National Center for Hereditary Blood Diseases and Bone Marrow Transplant.
SQU also encompasses three research chairs: The UNESCO Chair in Marine
Biotechnology; The Shell Chair in Carbonate Geosciences; and The Research
Council Chair in Nanotechnology for Water Desalination (SQU, 2009). In 1999,
SQU established an internal grant system as an annual budget to support research
projects done by its faculties and research centres. More than 859 research
projects were sponsored during the period of 1999–2010, of which there were
43 educational research projects. In 2010, for instance, 74 research projects
were funded to a total amount of R.O. 522,572 (USD 1,306,430). Only three of
the projects were in education. The second major boost for research is the His
Majesty’s Trust Fund (HMTF) strategic research grant, which was established in
2001 to allocate an annual budget of approximately R.O. 500,000 (USD 1,250,000)
to support the strategic research projects done by SQU. This grant has supported
roughly 50 strategic research projects, of which four were in the education sector
(SQU, 2010). The third major source of research funds comes from The Research
Council (TRC), which was established in 2005. It supports researchers working in
all public and private higher education institutions, and in different ministries. In
2009, TRC started the actual research funding and has funded about 42 research
projects since then, with a total budget of R.O. 8 million (USD 20 million). Eleven
research projects have been approved in the educational field, with a total budget of
R.O. 509,179 (USD 1,272,947) (TRC, 2013).
SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN OMAN
Only three science education projects have been funded by the previously mentioned
sources. Two have been funded by the SQU internal research budget and one by the
TRC. This small number is partially a result of the small number of science education
researchers in the country. The total number of science education researchers who are
PhD holders is about 13, of which there are 11 Omani nationals. There is one public
Master’s science education programme, which started in 2000, at SQU. The PhD
programme was supposed to start in autumn 2013. There is also another Master’s
programme offered by Sohar University, which is a private institution. These two

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
28
Master’s programmes have contributed greatly towards providing science education
researchers and enriching the research experience of the faculty in both programmes.
However, in most cases, more active science education researchers are PhD holders
who work at higher education institutions.
Science education researchers have very limited interaction at the international
level, and publish mostly in Arabic journals. This limits the visibility of their research
(Ambusaidi & Al-Shuaili, 2009). However, there have been some improvements in
this regard. Science education researchers in Oman have conducted collaborative
research projects with their international counterparts, and published several
publications with science education researchers in Australia, New Zealand, the UK,
the USA, Lebanon, Egypt and Iraq. Unfortunately, the collaboration with their GCC
counterparts is very limited. Some Omani science education researchers disseminate
the results of their research at international conferences around the globe. Also, some
of them have published in international education and science education journals. In
addition, higher education institutions frequently host international conferences and
symposiums, which allow science education researchers in Oman to interact with their
international counterparts. The most recent ones were the 54th International Council
on Education for Teaching (ICET) World Assembly (14–17 December, 2009), and the
7th International Science, Mathematics & Technology Education (SMTE) Conference
(4–7 November, 2012) in collaboration with Curtin University, Australia.
To the knowledge of the authors, there has been no in-depth review of science
education research in Oman so far. This chapter is an opportunity to review the research
trends associated with science education research in the country. This review will
help to understand what has been researched, and to guide future research projects,
as well as the work of science education researchers. We hope that this review will
be a foundation for a systematic review of the field and its research, in order to assist
Omani science educators and higher education policymakers in designing reforms
in science education. Also, this review will pinpoint the gaps in science education
research, especially with regard to socio-cultural issues, and help to guide the field
to direct some of its attention toward hitherto ignored issues and areas of research.
METHODOLOGY
Purpose and Research Questions
The lack of data regarding the overall understanding of the science research trends
encourages a careful review directed towards science education researchers and
their research projects. There are numerous unanswered questions regarding science
education research in Oman. The current study is an attempt to answer some of these
questions. Its purpose is to produce a detailed analysis of science education research
done in Oman, and unravel its representation and diversification of socio-cultural
factors and contexts. More specifically, the current study addresses the following
research questions:

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
29
1. How is science education research diversified in terms of research topic, subject
matter, type of participants, research design and methodology, dependent
variables, type of data collection instruments, grade level, gender, school type,
geographical region and statistical methods?
2. How are the results of science education research disseminated to the world?
3. What is the current and future impact of science education research on science
education and science teaching practices, from the viewpoint of science education
researchers in Oman?
4. How are socio-cultural factors (religion, gender, language, age, geographical
region and environment) represented in science education research in Oman?
Participants
The participants are 16 researchers who have been carrying out research in science
education in Oman. They are all PhD holders who either work in public or private
universities or for the Ministry of Education. The speciality of nine of them is science
education, and the specialities of seven are educational technology, educational
psychology, statistics and measurements. These non-science education specialists
were included in the study because of the research they have done related to science
education. Fourteen participants are Omani and the rest are Arab expatriates. Only
two of the participants are female.
Research Instrument
A survey was designed to produce detailed analysis of the research done by the
participants. They were asked to answer 16 questions regarding the research they
had done in science education. They talked about their research in general and not
about each paper they published. The questions covered the following aspects:
• Number of publications (in science education)
• Research topic
• Subject matter
• Type of participants
• Research design and methodology
• Dependent variables
• Type of data collection instruments
• Grade level
• Gender
• School type
• Geographical region
• Statistical methods
• Language of publication
• Place of publication

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
30
• The impact of their research on science education and science teaching practices
in Oman
• How they envision the future impact of their research on science education and
science teaching practices in Oman
The instrument was reviewed by two science educators working at a public
university in Oman, who checked the suitability of the instrument to answer the
research questions, and the appropriateness of the phrasing of the questions. Then
the instrument was piloted on the same two educators to ensure its readiness for
distribution.
Data Collection and Analysis
The instrument was administered electronically on Google Docs. Participants received
the link via an email and were asked to participate in the study. Two reminders were
sent to each participant. The return rate was 100%. The data collection took two
weeks. Then, the data were summarized using frequencies and percentages.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This section summarizes the results of the study. The data are presented according
to the research questions.
Research Question 1: How is science education research diversified in terms of
research topic, subject matter, type of participants, research design and methodology,
dependent variables, type of data collection instruments, grade level, gender, school
type, geographical region and statistical methods?
Tables 2–15 illustrate data obtained from science education researchers in Oman.
Number of Publications
The average number of publications per researcher is 16.61. It ranges from one to 43
publications. It is noticeable that most of the publications are written by researchers
working at SQU. This might be owing to the resources available and encouragement
that researchers get at SQU.
Research Topic
Table 2 illustrates frequently investigated research topics by science education
researchers in Oman. Teaching methods come first (75.0%), then thinking skills
(68.8%). It is noticed that important topics have received less attention by science
education researchers in Oman. Three of these topics are emphasized by National
Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996); namely, nature of science, assessment
and lab safety. Only five researchers (31.3%) have done research on the nature

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
31
Table 2. Frequently investigated research topics by science education researchers in Oman
Topic Number of researchers %
1. Teaching methods 12 75.0
2. Thinking skills 11 68.8
3. Learning difficulties 9 56.3
4. Learning theories 9 56.3
5. Science attitudes 8 50.0
6. Textbooks 8 50.0
7. Science teachers’ beliefs 8 50.0
8. Science processes 8 50.0
9. Classroom practice 8 50.0
10. Classroom environment 7 43.8
11. Scientific literacy 6 37.5
12. Reading and readability 6 37.5
13. Science education standards 6 37.5
14. Students’ beliefs 6 37.5
15. Science teacher’s professional duties 6 37.5
16. Science, Technology, Society & Environment (STSE) 6 37.5
17. Motivation to learn 5 31.3
18. Nature of science 5 31.3
19. Mental models 5 31.3
20. Environmental education 5 31.3
21. Health education 5 31.3
22. Alternative conceptions 5 31.3
23. Modern technologies 4 25.0
24. Science laboratory 4 25.0
25. Assessment 4 25.0
26. Exemplary science teacher 4 25.0
27. Science ethics 3 18.8
28. Educational supervision 2 12.5
29. Sustainable development 2 12.5
30. Lab safety 2 12.5
31. Integration between science and other disciplines 2 12.5
32. Socio-cultural factors 1 6.3
33. History of science & scientists 1 6.3
34. Self-regulation 1 6.3

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
32
of science, four researchers (25.0%) have done research on assessment, and two
(12.5%) have done research on lab safety.
Subject Matters
Table 3 illustrates frequently investigated subject areas by science education
researchers in Oman. The results show that most of the researchers prefer doing their
research in general science (81.3%). Among the three major subject areas, chemistry
(68.8) comes first, and physics comes last (56.3%). Less attention is directed towards
astronomy and earth sciences.
Table 3. Frequently investigated subject matters by
science education researchers in Oman
Subject matter Number of researchers %
1. General science 13 81.3
2. Chemistry 11 68.8
3. Biology 10 62.5
4. Physics 9 56.3
5. Science & Technology 7 43.8
6. Astronomy 2 12.5
7. Earth sciences 1 6.3
Research Designs
Table 4 illustrates frequently used research designs by science education researchers
in Oman. Data show that a very few number of science education researchers
use qualitative research methods. There is a clear absence of qualitative research
methodologies, such as ethnographic studies, grounded theory and critical studies.
This reliance on quantitative research methodologies takes away the richness of
data required to understand different science teaching and learning phenomena, and
shrinks the complexity of these phenomena into numerical averages (Mazawi, 2010).
Table 4. Frequently used research designs by science education researchers in Oman
Research design Number of researchers %
1. Experimental/quasi-experimental 15 93.8
2. Analytical 12 75.0
3. Survey 10 62.5
4. Correlational 8 50.0
5. Case study 3 18.8
6. Phenomenographic study 3 18.8

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
33
Research Instruments
Table 5 illustrates frequently used research instruments by science education
researchers in Oman. Questionnaires, achievement tests and psychological
instruments are the most used research tools. The low percentages received by open
and focus group interviews reflect the low tendency of science education researchers
in Oman to conduct qualitative research. This result supports the claim made by
Mazawi (2010) that Arab researchers tend to ignore qualitative research designs and
rely heavily on questionnaire-based research.
Table 5. Frequently used research instruments by science education researchers in Oman
Instruments type Number of researchers %
1. Questionnaires 15 93.8
2. Achievement tests 14 87.5
3. Psychological instruments 14 87.5
4. Thinking skills instruments 11 68.8
5. Visual-Based instruments 9 56.3
6. Classroom observations 7 43.8
7. Diagnostic tests 6 37.5
8. Structured interviews 6 37.5
9. Open interviews 5 31.3
10. Focus group 2 12.5
Dependent Variables
Table 6 illustrates frequently studied dependent variables by science education
researchers in Oman. Science achievement is the most studied dependent variable
(93.8%).
Students’ School Level
Table 7 illustrates the school level of students that participate frequently in research
done by science education researchers in Oman. Students in Cycle II (grades 5–10)
and grades 11 and 12 participate most of the time in science education research in
Oman. Students in Cycle I (grades 1–4) receive less attention from science education
researchers. This might be in part due to the nature of the teacher preparation
programme in the only public university (Sultan Qaboos University), which is
geared towards secondary education. Elementary education programmes used to be
part of Teacher Preparation Colleges run by the Ministry of Higher Education. The
Ministry has converted these colleges to Applied Science Colleges, in response to
the demands of the labour market in the country.

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
34
Student Gender
Table 8 illustrates number of research studies using male or female students by
science education researchers in Oman. The data reflect almost equal opportunities
for both genders to participate in science education research in Oman.
Table 8. Number of research studies done on male or female students
by science education researchers in Oman
Number of studies conducted with
male students only
Number of studies conducted
with female students only
62 59
Table 6. Frequently studied dependent variables by science education
researchers in Oman
Dependent variable Number of researchers %
1. Science achievement 15 93.8
2. Thinking skills 12 75.0
3. Science attitudes 10 62.5
4. Classroom environment 10 62.5
5. Science processes 10 62.5
6. Problem-solving skills 9 56.3
7. Self concept 6 37.5
8. Self-regulated learning 5 31.3
9. Attitudes towards the method used 4 25.0
10. Motivation 4 25.0
11. Scientific literacy level 4 25.0
12. Decision-making 1 6.3
Table 7. The school level of students frequently participate in research
done by science education researchers in Oman
School level Number of researchers %
1. Cycle II (grades 5–10) 15 93.8
2. Post Basic Education (grades 11–12) 14 87.5
3. College level 11 68.8
4. Cycle I (grades 1–4) 6 37.5

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
35
Teachers’ School Level
Table 9 illustrates the school level taught by science teachers participating frequently
in research done by science education researchers in Oman. Cycle I (grades 1–4) and
college teachers are the least likely to participate in science education research in
Oman. Also, science teachers in grades 11 and 12 (81.3%) receive less attention
than their students (87.5%, from Table 7). The low percentage received by college
level teachers (31.3%), who teach science courses at university level, might reflect a
research gap when compared to the percentage received by college students (68.8%,
from Table 7). To understand the problems faced by college students with respect
to the teaching and learning of science, their instructors should be involved more
frequently in science education research.
Table 9. The school level of science teachers participating frequently in
research done by science education researchers in Oman
The school level of science teachers Number of researchers %
1. Cycle II (grades 5–10) 15 93.8
2. Post Basic Education (grades 11–12) 13 81.3
3. Cycle I (grades 1–4) 6 37.5
4. College level 5 31.3
Geographical Region
Table 10 illustrates frequently chosen regions by science education researchers
in Oman, from which to draw their samples. Muscat (93.8%) comes first, then
Batina South (81.3%) and Dhakhelya (81.3%). Muscat is where most of the science
education researchers reside and work. The other two are the neighbouring regions
to Muscat. There is very little attention is given to three other regions; namely, Wosta
(31.3%), Dhufar (25.0%) and Masandam (25.0%).
School Location
Table 11 illustrates frequently chosen school locations by science education
researchers in Oman. Schools located in the cities received the most attention
(93.8%), while those in the mountains received the least (43.8%). This result shows
that schools located in rural areas might not receive enough attention from science
education researchers, so the voices of diverse groups in these schools might not
heard.

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
36
Statistical Methods
Table 12 illustrates frequently used statistical methods by science education
researchers in Oman. The most used methods are frequencies and percentages
(100%), t-test (100%), ANOVA (93.8%) and correlation (87.5%). Factor analysis
(18.8%), regression analysis (18.8%) and MANCOVA (12.5%) are the least used
statistical methods. The same trend is observed in Turkish science education research
(Sozbilir, Kutu & Yasar, 2012).
Research Question 2: How are the results of science education research disseminated
to the world?
Table 13 illustrates the languages most frequently used for publication by science
education researchers in Oman. Most of them (68.8%) use the Arabic and English
languages to disseminate the results of their research. Only five (31.3%) do not
Table 10. Frequently chosen geographical regions by
science education researchers in Oman
Region Number of researchers %
1. Muscat 15 93.8
2. Batina South 13 81.3
3. Dhakhelya 13 81.3
4. Batina North 9 56.3
5. Sharquia North 9 56.3
6. Sharquia South 8 50.00
7. Dhahra 8 50.00
8. Buraymi 6 37.5
9. Wosta 5 31.3
10. Masandem 4 25.0
11. Dhufar 4 25.0
Table 11. Frequently chosen school location by
science education researchers in Oman
School location Number of researchers %
1. City 15 93.8
2. Village 12 75.0
3. Mountain 7 43.8

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
37
publish in English, and there are no researchers who publish only in English.
As for the type of dissemination, Table 14 illustrates frequently used types of
dissemination by science education researchers in Oman. Conference proceedings
(87.5%), GCC Arabic periodicals (75.0%) and other Arabic periodicals (75.0%)
attract most of the researchers. Half of the science education researchers (50.00%)
have published in the only Omani educational periodical, which is hosted by
Sultan Qaboos University: namely, the Journal of Educational and Psychological
Studies. Publishing in English periodicals attracts more than half of the researchers
(62.5%). This leaves much of the research done in science education in Oman
unheard of by the international community. This is a disadvantage that supports the
claim of Ambusaidi and Al-Shuaili (2009), that the tendency of science education
researchers in Oman to publish most of their work in Arabic limits the visibility of
their research.
Table 12. Frequently used statistical methods by science education
researchers in Oman
Statistics Number of researchers %
1. Frequencies & percentages 16 100.00
2. t-test 16 100.00
3. ANOVA 15 93.8
4. Correlation 14 87.5
5. MANOVA 9 56.3
6. Chai square 8 50.00
7. ANCOVA 7 43.8
8. Factorial analysis 3 18.8
9. Regression analysis 3 18.8
10. MANCOVA 2 12.5
Table 13. Languages most frequently used for publication by science
education researchers in Oman
Publication language Number of researchers %
1. Researchers publish in both
Arabic & English
11 68.8
2. Researchers publish in Arabic only 5 31.3
3. Researchers publish in English only 0 00.00

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
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Research Question 3: What is the current and future impact of science education
research on science education and science teaching practices, from the viewpoint of
science education researchers in Oman?
Table 15 summarizes the viewpoints of the science education researchers, regarding
the current and future impact of their research on science education and science
teaching practices in Oman. Some researchers (43.8%) value the impact of their
research in terms of providing their fellow researchers and postgraduate students with
new valid and reliable data collection instruments that suit the local context. They
also believe that the results of their research serve as a starting point for subsequent
research done by other science education researchers in the Sultanate. A group of
science education researchers in Oman (43.8%) highlight that their research has
helped to improve in-service and pre-service teacher training practices in the field.
Six science education researchers (37.5%) feel that the research they have conducted
has helped in constructing a clearer and more comprehensive picture of the variables
that play a vital role in shaping science education practices in Oman. Also, four
researchers (25.0%) believe that the instructional methods they have explored in
their research have been used as topics for training pre-service and in-service science
teachers. They underline that they have introduced new teaching methodologies that
have not previously been known or practised by science teachers. Four researchers
(25.0%) also believe that they have enriched the Arabic and English science education
literature with an understanding of the Omani context. Other points mentioned by
one or two researchers include developing the research culture in the country, and
improving science textbooks. Interestingly, two researchers comment that they do
not think that their research has improved the practice of science education. They
feel that the field does not encourage such positive impacts, and that it needs a lot
of work in many respects. Due to low percentages, some of these results can not
be generalized. There is a need for further research using more thorough research
methods such interviews and focus groups to explore the issues related to the impact
of science education research in Oman.
Table 14. Frequently used types of dissemination by
science education researchers in Oman
Periodical Number of researchers %
1. Conference proceedings 14 87.5
2. GCC Arabic periodicals 12 75.0
3. Other Arabic periodicals 12 75.0
4. English periodicals 10 62.5
5. An Omani periodical 8 50.00

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
39
Table 16 summarizes the viewpoints of the science education researchers
regarding the current and future impact of their research on science education and
science teaching practices in Oman. Half of the researchers (50.0%) believe that
the field should take their research recommendations into consideration. Seven
of them (43.8%) focus on directing their research at improving students’ thinking
skills and attitudes towards science, as cornerstones for elevating their achievement
and performance. Five researchers (31.3%) believe that science education research
should be tailored towards improving pre- and in-service training, as a key strategy
to improving science teaching practices in the country. Three researchers (18.8%)
consider enhancing science literacy as an ultimate product for their research. Also,
three researchers (18.8%) call for more funds for science education research, and ask
for the involvement of more teachers in conducting these research projects. Some
other points are suggested by one or two researchers, and cover assessment, science
curriculum, mental models and technology-based school science laboratories.
Interestingly, two researchers recommend that science education research should
be expanded to include parents, students with learning difficulties, and other
stakeholders. Again, due to low percentages, there is a limitation regarding the
generalizability of these results.
Table 15. The impact of the research done by science education researchers
on science education and science teaching practices in Oman
Type of impact Number of researchers %
1. Design new assessment and data
collection tools and serve as a
foundation for new research studies
by researchers and postgraduate
students.
7 43.8
2. Improve the pre- and in-service
training.
7 43.8
3. Improve science teaching practices
and understand their interconnecting
variables within the Omani context.
6 37.5
4. Introduce new teaching strategies in
the field.
4 25.0
5. Enrich the educational literature,
written in both Arabic and English,
with an understanding of the Omani
science education context.
4 25.0

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
40
Table 16. The future impact of the research done by science education
researchers on science education and science teaching practices in Oman
Type of future impact Number of researchers %
1. The field should study the results
and the recommendations of the
studies and implement some of them.
8 50.0
2. Improve the teaching inside the
classrooms, in order to improve
students’ thinking skills and their
attitudes towards science.
7 43.8
3. Improve the professional
development of in-service and
pre-service science teachers.
5 31.3
4. Enhance scientific literacy. 3 18.8
5. Increase the funded research projects
in science education and involve
more teachers in these projects.
3 18.8
Research Question 4: How are sociocultural factors (religion, gender, language,
age, region and environment) represented in science education research in Oman?
This section is organized by sociocultural factors (religion, gender, language,
age, region and environment). Related data presented under the previous research
questions are used to answer this research question.
Religion
Islam is the dominant religion in Oman, where 98% are Muslims and the remaining
2% are Christians, Buddhists and Hindus. Besides being a religion of theological
and ethical beliefs, Islam is also a way of life. It systematizes the social, political
and economic relationships between people in society (Mansour, 2009). In Oman,
as in some other Muslim countries, three aspects of the Islamic religion have greatly
influenced the practice of science education. These are cultural understandings of
how Islam influences science learning and teaching. The first one is that Islamic
beliefs work as a strong driver for many Muslims to explore the nature around them.
Many Muslims are eager to learn about the secrets of their bodies, the creatures
around them and the whole universe. This is encouraged by some verses of the
Koran, which urge Muslims to think of the secrets of creation. Many Muslims
consider these secrets as signs that signify the glory of the Almighty Creator. Some
Muslims even seek rewards from God by doing so; therefore, science learning,
for some, becomes a kind of worship. The second aspect is a concept called the
scientific miracle of the Koran. Some Muslim scientists have devoted their scientific

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
41
practices to studying the verses of the Koran from a scientific point of view. Thus, it
is common to see science teachers use verses from the Holy book to get the students’
attention when they discuss some scientific concepts and explanations. The third
aspect of the relationship between religion and science education is to do with
evolutionary theory, which is not taught at any level in Oman, including the college
level. Many Muslims believe that the theory of evolution contradicts their belief
that God is the Creator. Although there are some Muslims who believe that there is
no such contradiction, curriculum designers in Oman have decided not to include
evolutionary theory in the science curriculum.
The literature shows that some religious beliefs might hinder science learning,
and others might motivate students to learn science (Mansour, 2009; Taber,
Billingsley, Riga & Newdick, 2011). Undoubtedly the interactions between religion
and science in Oman influence the science learning of many Omani students. The
question is, how is it influenced? Science education researchers have not attempted
to answer this crucial question. According to Tables 1, 15 and 16, science education
researchers have neither used religion as a topic of research, nor did they mention it
in the future impact of their research on the practice of science education in Oman.
Therefore, the voices of Omani students and teachers, whose beliefs and knowledge
constructions are influenced by religion, remain unheard. It would be interesting if
students at different grade levels are interviewed about the religious believes that
could motivate them to learn science. Also, science teachers who frequently refer
to verses of Koran while teaching science could be identified and then interviewed
to understand what motivates their decision of integrating science and religion and
whether they feel that this adds value to their teaching and students’ understanding
and appreciation of science.
Gender
Male and female students are equally represented in science education research in
Oman. According to Table 8, both genders have been included almost equally as
research subjects. Grades 5–12 in public schools in Oman are segregated according
to gender. However, this is not the case for Cycle I (grades 1–4) in public schools,
private schools or public schools located in areas with a small population, such as
those located in the mountains and in rural areas. In addition, college level is mixed
gender education in Oman. A question of the effect of co-educational education on
science teaching and learning is not addressed by science education researchers in
Oman.
Language
Although the Arabic language is the official language of Oman, there are other
languages spoken widely by large Omani groups; for example, Swahili, English,
Balochi, Hindi and Urdu. Mehri and Persian are also spoken in certain regions of

S. M. AL-BALUSHI & A. K. AMBUSAIDI
42
Oman. For instance, Mehri is spoken by almost 51,000 people in the southern part of
Oman, close to Yemen. In addition, there are some other languages that are spoken
by small Omani groups; for example, Jibbali, Kumzari, Bathari, Harsusi, Hobyot,
Khojki and Zidgali. The estimated numbers of speakers of these languages ranges
from 400–7,000 (Ghaudhuri, 2013). The children of some families whose mother
tongue is not Arabic start to learn Arabic at school. This phenomenon has caused an
educational problem for those children. They struggle in their first school years since
all subject matters are taught in a language foreign to them. None of the science
education researchers surveyed in this study has explored this phenomenon, or how
it might affect the teaching and learning of science.
• To give the reader a sense of the size of the problem, the southern part of Oman
(the Dhofar Governance), which hosts 9.3% of the total population of Oman
(Ministry of Natioanl Economy, 2011), is illustrated here as an example. Most
of the people there speak one or two languages beside Arabic. Unfortunately, this
region receives most of the newly qualified teachers, including science teachers,
who come from the northern parts of Oman where these languages are not spoken.
Neither the Ministry of Education nor the pre-service training and preparation
programmes prepare these teachers to deal with these students with respect to the
cultural differences between the two parts of Oman; and
• The language difficulties that these students face.
Therefore, these new graduate teachers experience a reality shock that they face
during their first years of teaching. These teachers might spend one or two years in
Dhofar, then they go back to the northern regions closer to their home towns. They
are replaced by new graduates. Therefore, some students in the south, where many of
them start learning Arabic at school, always have one or two teachers who are newly
qualified, culturally different, do not understand the languages that students speak,
and are not equipped to deal with these culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Science education researchers have not explored this problem, and have remained
unattracted by it.
Age
Table 7 shows that a small number of researchers tend to do research on younger
students. Table 9 supports these findings. Science teachers who teach Cycle I (grades
1–4) are under-represented, and include a small number of researchers in science
education research. Cycle I schools are mixed gender and taught by female teachers
only. This context produces a learning environment in which age and gender factors
interact together, to shape the knowledge, skills and dispositions gained by grades
1–4 students. This learning environment is different from the one in grades 5–12,
where students study in separate gender schools, and are taught by male or female
teachers according to their gender. Science education researchers in Oman, by not
giving younger students enough attention, miss the opportunity to understand the

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
43
nature of epistemological and pedagogical processes related to science education that
take place at the Cycle I stage. Not fully understanding how science learning takes
place in grades 1–4 in Oman distorts the picture that science education researchers
try to make for science learning in Cycle II (grades 5–10), and the grade levels
above.
Geographical Region
Oman is a diversified country in which its geographical regions have some cultural
attributes that are different from each other. However, Table 10 shows that three
regions – namely, Dhofar, Massandam and Wosta – are under-represented in science
education research: they are not given the same attention as the other regions. These
three regions possess tremendous cultural diversity in terms of spoken languages
other than Arabic, number of mixed gender schools, and school location (i.e. city,
village and mountain). This interaction between cultural variables has not yet been
explored by science education researchers.
Environment
Oman was hit by two strong hurricanes in 2007 and 2010. They resulted in major
damage to infrastructure. Since then, the environment has become a focus of the
government and the media. The Ministry of Education has introduced a new subject
in grade 12, called Environmental Sciences. In science education, environmental
issues attract a number of researchers. Table 2, as we saw earlier, shows that
researchers have focused on topics related to the environment and society, such
as Science, Technology, Society & Environment (STSE) (37.5%), environmental
education (31.3%) and sustainable development (12.5%).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Traditional science education research does not focus very much on the socio-cultural
context and the diverse cultural nature of the learners (Atwater, 1996). The results
of the current study indicate that science education research in Oman falls into this
category. Since research is contextualized enterprise and should engage its users
(e.g. students, teachers and parents) in its development (Sursock, 2010), science
education research in Oman should involve all cultural groups, and consider the
diversity of the Omani community in its strategic plan. Omani learners are culturally
and linguistically diverse. The voices of learners with disabilities, learners who do
not speak Arabic at home, learners with learning difficulties, learners of different
ages, learners who live in the mountains, or reside in a culture that differs from
mainstream Omani culture, should be heard. Teachers might spend their time making
these students acceptable members in the dominant culture, while these students
spend their time trying to define who they are. The two sides have different value

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44
systems and might not manage to communicate successfully and inter-culturally
with each other (Atwater, 1996). Thus, these students should not be left to passive-
resistance behaviour, such as silence, evasiveness and manipulation when studying
science by a newly prepared science teacher, who is culturally different and not
equipped with the proper understanding, skills and disposition to deal with them.
Therefore, science education research should work constructively, to ensure that
equal learning opportunities are given to all students to learn high quality science
(Atwater, 1996). It should explore the possibility of accommodating all learners,
and lay the ground for culturally responsive science teaching practices. There is a
need to initiate a dialogue among science education researchers, their institutes, the
Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Education and The Research Council,
on the need for multicultural education research in general and multicultural science
education research in particular.
The previous illustration and discussion of the socio-cultural factors that might
interact with the practices of science education in Oman reveal an overlap between
different variables. For instance, the three Omani geographical regions (i.e. Dhofar,
Wosta and Massandam) which receive less attention from science education
researchers, have at least six spoken languages in total. Also, mixed gender and
mountain schools are high in number. In addition, these regions possess natural
environments that are different from the rest of Oman. For instance, while the
northern parts of Oman are hot during the summer, Dhofar is rainy with moderate
temperatures in the mid-twenties Celsius during the summer. Massandam is a
mountainous region located on the Strait of Hurmuz, and Wosta is a completely
desert region populated by Bedouins. This amalgamation of different variables (e.g.
religious beliefs, region, language, gender, school location, culture and environment)
requires significant attention by science education researchers, to study the effect of
interactions between these variables for the learning of science. An example of the
studies that might be done in this important area of research are qualitative studies
that explore this phenomenon from different aspects and include all stakeholders,
in order to estimate the size of the problem and its effects on students’ learning of
science. The results of these qualitative studies could be used to design inductive
programmes for in-service science teachers, especially the new ones, to equip them
with differentiated instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students.
A reason for the under-representation of the socio-cultural factors in science
education research in Oman might be the research methodology used. The dominance
of quantitative research methodologies gives little chance of generating knowledge
effectively, regarding the involvement of diverse groups and socio-cultural factors in
science education, and leaves researchers with little space to examine what science
education and its enterprises mean to diversified local contexts in Oman. Relying
heavily on quantitative research does not construct the big picture of the societal
influence on learning science and the interaction between students’ scientific
beliefs and their cultural surroundings. Individual and focus group interviews with
science teachers and students and analysing their written reflection on the socio-

SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN
45
cultural factors that could influence their epistemological beliefs are examples
of research approaches that could produce in-depth knowledge to understand the
interaction between different aspects of science education and socio-cultural factors.
An important aspect that we believe contributes significantly to the limit number
of qualitative research in science education in Oman is the backgrounds of the
researchers themselves. None of the researchers who we involved in the current
study had qualitative research as his/her main research agenda. Only two of them
were known for conducting mixed research methods from time to time. Also, the
preparation of young researchers in Oman in the main university (i.e. SQU) focuses
heavily on quantitative research. No course is devoted to qualitative methodologies.
From the responses obtained from science education researchers to the third
research question, regarding the current and future impact of science education
research, it does not seem that science education research in Oman has an impact on
policymaking with regard to the strategic planning for science education reform at
the national level. The literature shows that this might be the case in other GCC and
Arab countries (Mazawi, 2010). Some researchers who participated in the current
study did not feel that the policymakers took the findings and recommendations
of their research seriously. They cautioned that the science education field in their
country required a great deal of work in order to improve.
Another important factor that greatly relates to the low impact of science
education research on society and policymaking processes in Oman and the GCC
is the nature of most GCC universities, which are teaching universities with a high
teaching load that leaves academics with little time to conduct thorough research
projects (Brint, 2010; Ma, 2010). Instead the researchers conduct quick quantitative
survey-based research that contributes inadequately to educational reform (Mazawi,
2010). In addition, science education researchers in Oman are working in a few
higher education institutions in small numbers, with no academic association that
organizes their scattered research efforts. Such an association also does not exist
at the GCC level. Also, the GCC states have very limited mobility of academics
among higher education institutions and across different states (Mazawi, 2010). This
makes the collaborative research in science education and networking between GCC
researchers very limited.
Efforts should take place to make the findings of the science education research
in the GCC reach the policymakers and impact the community. For instance, science
education researchers should engage in country-wide research projects that would
help reform the science education practices and policies. Such projects will attract
more local schools, science teachers and science teaching experts who become
to realize the importance of science education research and might play a role in
convincing policymakers to take the research findings more seriously. In addition,
generally speaking, GCC universities should facilitate the dissemination of their
researchers’ findings within the local professional communities. In this regards,
conferences which engage different stakeholders should be funded by universities
and become more frequent. Also, science education researchers should be encouraged

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46
to conduct research projects that have a high impact in the community instead of
small-scale research projects. In this regard, different types of incentives might be
provided to science education researchers.
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Sulaiman M. Al-Balushi
College of Education
Sultan Qaboos University
Muscat, Oman
Abdullah K. Ambusaidi
College of Education
Sultan Qaboos University
Muscat, Oman