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Why Are Extraverts More Popular? Oral Fluency Mediates the Effect of Extraversion on Popularity in Middle Childhood
Abstract
In a sample of 7- to 8-year-old children (N = 760), we examined the associations between personality traits, oral fluency and sociometric popularity. Extending upon research conducted with older populations, we found parent ratings of extraversion at age 7 to predict popularity one year later. More importantly, we expected and found teacher-rated oral fluency to partially mediate the positive association between extraversion and popularity. This mediation effect was independent of psychometrically assessed working memory, academic skills and gender. Our results can be interpreted as suggesting that a Matthew effect, similar to the one proposed for early reading skills and cognitive ability, may be operating in the domain of social competence. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
... Extraversion is associated with both emotional (Ciarrochi & Heaven, 2009;Hubers et al., 2016;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015;Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007;Lösch & Rentzsch, 2018;Lubbers, van der Werf, Kuyper, & Offringa, 2006;Scholte, van Aken, & Lieshout, 1997;van der Linden, Scholte, Cillessen, Nijenhuis, & Segers, 2010;Wolters, Knoors, Cillessen, & Verhoeven, 2014) and reputational sociometric status (Hubers et al., 2016;Massey, Byrd-Craven, Auer, & Swearingen, 2015;van der Linden et al., 2010;Wolters et al., 2014), with very few studies reporting otherwise (Andrei, Mancini, Mazzoni, Russo, & Baldaro, 2015). In older youth populations, similar results have been obtained in work-team settings (Lawless DesJardins, Srivastava, Küfner, & Back, 2015), at zero acquaintance (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2011;Stopfer, Egloff, Nestler, & Back, 2013), and in studies on the attainment of both reputational (Anderson, John, Keltner, & Kring, 2001) and emotional status (Feiler & Kleinbaum, 2015;Ilmarinen, Lönnqvist, & Paunonen, 2016;cf. ...
... Agreeableness is across the literature associated with emotional sociometric status (Andrei et al., 2015;Hubers et al., 2016;Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007;Lösch & Rentzsch, 2018;Scholte et al., 1997;van der Linden et al., 2010;Wolters et al., 2014;cf. Lubbers et al., 2006). ...
... Neuroticism has often been reported to be negatively associated with both emotional (Andrei et al., 2015;Hubers et al., 2016;Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007;van der Linden et al., 2010) and reputational (Hubers et al., 2016;van der Linden et al., 2010) sociometric status, but there are also null findings for both types of status (Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Lösch & Rentzsch, 2018;Massey et al., 2015;Scholte et al., 1997). Among older youth, studies on neuroticism are few, but negative associations have been found for both types of status (Anderson et al., 2001;Ilmarinen et al., 2016;Wortman & Wood, 2011). ...
Sociometric status, the regard that other group members confer to an individual, is one of the most ubiquitous and behaviourally relevant attributes assigned to the person by the social environment. Despite this, its contribution to personality development has received little attention. The present three‐wave longitudinal study, spanning the age range 7–13 years (n = 1222), sought to fill this gap by examining the transactional pathways between peer sociometric status (measured by peer nominations) and Five‐Factor personality traits (measured by self‐ratings and parent and teacher ratings). Sociometric status prospectively predicted the development of extraversion. By contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism prospectively predicted the development of sociometric status. Furthermore, individual‐level stability in extraversion was associated with individual‐level stability in sociometric status. The results were robust across different sources of personality ratings. We argue that peer sociometric status in the school classroom is the type of environmental effect that has potential to explain personality development. Because of its stability, broadness, and possible impact across a variety of personality processes, sociometric status can both repetitiously and simultaneously influence the network of multiple inter‐correlated micro‐level personality processes, potentially leading to a new network equilibrium that manifests in changes at the level of the broad personality trait. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology
... Agreeableness is across the literature associated with emotional sociometric status (Andrei et al., 2015;Hubers et al., 2016;Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007;Lösch & Rentzsch, 2018;Scholte et al., 1997;van der Linden et al., 2010;Wolters et al., 2014;cf. Lubbers et al., 2006). ...
... Neuroticism has often been reported to be negatively associated with both emotional (Andrei et al., 2015;Hubers et al., 2016;Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007;van der Linden et al., 2010) and reputational (Hubers et al., 2016;van der Linden et al., 2010) sociometric status, but there are also null findings for both types of status (Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002;Lösch & Rentzsch, 2018;Massey et al., 2015;Scholte et al., 1997). Among older youth, studies on neuroticism are few, but negative associations have been found for both types of status (Anderson et al., 2001;Ilmarinen et al., 2016;Wortman & Wood, 2011). ...
... The proposed core of extraversionsocial attention seeking (Ashton, Lee, & Paunonen, 2002) and sensitivity to social rewards (Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh, & Shao, 2000) and results connecting extraversion to time spent in social situations (Wrzus, Wagner, & Riediger, 2016) also support the idea that extraversion is important for attaining sociometric status during the initial phases of a newly formed group. Some mechanisms proposed for this association include verbal capability, being generally energetic, and expressiveness (Back et al., 2011;Ilmarinen et al., 2015). ...
Sociometric status, the regard that other group members confer to an individual, is one of the most ubiquitous and behaviorally relevant attributes assigned to the person by the social environment. Despite this, its contribution to personality development has received little attention. The present three-wave longitudinal study, spanning the age range 7-13 years (n = 1222), sought to fill this gap by examining the transactional pathways between peer sociometric status (measured by peer nominations) and Five-Factor personality traits (measured by self-, parent, and teacher ratings). Sociometric status prospectively predicted the development of extraversion. By contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism prospectively predicted the development of sociometric status. Furthermore, individual-level stability in extraversion was associated with individual-level stability in sociometric status. The results were robust across different sources of personality ratings. We argue that peer sociometric status in the school classroom is the type of environmental effect that has potential to explain personality development. Due to its stability, broadness, and possible impact across a variety of personality processes, sociometric status can both repetitiously and simultaneously influence the network of multiple inter-correlated micro-level personality processes, potentially leading to a new network equilibrium that manifests in changes at the level of the broad personality trait.
... Researchers mainly apply this construct to leadership to explain how individuals establish influence over followers (Shapiro et al. 2011) or take innovative action (Estrada et al. 1995;Hollander 2006). While an accumulation of positive impressions influences both constructs (Ilmarinen et al. 2015;Estrada et al. 1995), idiosyncrasy credits also require perceptions of task-related competence (Hollander 2006;Shapiro et al. 2011), which may not be the case for popularity. Additionally, those with high idiosyncrasy credit are Bexpected to assume leadership, group members will only allow them to… exhibit an excess of socially dominant behaviors^ (Estrada et al. 1995;p. ...
... The positive association between CSE, a broad trait reflecting individuals' general self-construal, and employee popularity Fig. 1 The overall conceptual model of the current research found in previous research provides important insight into who is likely to obtain popularity in the workplace. However, as popularity is a social construct based on observers' evaluations (Ilmarinen et al. 2015), variables more directly implicated in the formation of interpersonal judgments may better explain why certain employees attain popularity at work while others do not. Thus, to further the understanding of the relationship between employee characteristics and workplace popularity, the current study examines the role of agreeableness and work knowledge in this context. ...
... In other words, high agreeableness may demonstrate target employees' positive self-construal in a socially constructive way. However, when strong confidence exhibited by high CSE employees is combined with low agreeableness, targets may be viewed as stubborn, cold, or antagonistic (Ilmarinen et al. 2015). Unlike their more agreeable counterparts, these individuals are unlikely to adjust their behaviors in different interpersonal situations, making it difficult to attain general acceptance and or even generate a positive impression. ...
Purpose
This study examines agreeableness and work knowledge as predictors of employees’ popularity above and beyond core self-evaluation (CSE), and the moderating role of these constructs on the CSE–popularity relationship. We also investigate popularity’s effects on supervisor-rated task performance and promotion potential, and the conditional indirect effects of CSE on these outcomes via popularity.
Design/Methodology/Approach
Multi-source data were collected from 213 employees, their coworkers, and direct supervisors in a Chinese mine trading company.
Findings
Agreeableness predicted popularity above and beyond CSE and moderated the CSE–popularity relationship, although the direct and moderating effects of work knowledge were nonsignificant. Popularity positively influenced performance ratings but not promotion potential. Results also supported conditional indirect effects of CSE on performance ratings via popularity.
Implications
The current findings underscore the importance of examining workplace popularity. Discovering agreeableness as an additional predictor of popularity and its moderation effects on the CSE–popularity link suggests that communal qualities are important for employees’ attainment of popularity. The discussion also focuses on expanding the scope of workplace popularity to include performance-related outcomes. Lastly, this study considers how employee characteristics connect to performance ratings through popularity.
Originality/Value
Workplace popularity is relatively unexplored but has tremendous organizational implications. This research advances the understanding of how to attain workplace popularity and the boundary conditions for the relationship between CSE and popularity. It also extends consequences associated with workplace popularity beyond interpersonal outcomes and assesses the role of popularity, a construct rooted in collective perception, in explaining links between employee characteristics and performance-related outcomes.
... First, we expected that childhood temperament would be associated with later antisocial behavior and substance us, via poor social preference, overly positive social self-perception and affiliation with antisocial peers (Hypothesis 1). More specifically, we predicted that higher levels of negative reactivity, lower levels of attention and lower levels of approach would be prospectively associated with poor social preference among peers ( Coplan & Bullock, 2012;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015;Sterry et al., 2010). In addition, we predicted that these temperamental traits would be related to subsequent affiliation with peers who engage in antisocial behavior ( Kendler et al., 2015;Li et al., 2016;Sterry et al., 2010). ...
... Moreover, we did not find that lower levels of attention or approach predicted subsequent affiliation with antisocial peer-groups or inflated social self-perception, as was hypothesized by us and as others have found ( Kendler et al., 2015;Li et al., 2016;Scholtens et al., 2012). Nor did we find that lower levels of approach were affiliated with lower levels of social preference among peers ( Ilmarinen et al., 2015). The fact that, with the exception of Scholtens and colleagues (2012), none of the studies cited above controlled for children's antisocial behavior when examining developmental paths between temperament and peer-factors, may be a plausible explanation for our findings. ...
... Hence, this may suggest that certain peer factors may no longer predict the indirect link of attention and approach with later behavioral outcomes, when emerging, concurrent and ongoing antisocial behaviors are taken into account. Furthermore, studies that found links of temperamental dimensions involving the lowerorder traits approach and attention with peer-factors, often included a more complete representation of the higher-order dimensions of temperament (e.g., 'extraversion,' see Ilmarinen et al., 2015;or 'effortful control,' see Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Li et al., 2016), than was utilized in the present study. This potentially indicates that our temperamental measures may be too narrowly defined to capture links between these temperamental traits and peer-factors. ...
This study investigated 3 developmental pathways involving the peer environment that may explain how certain temperamental dispositions in childhood may become manifested in later antisocial behavior and substance use. A total of 411 (52% boys) Canadian children were followed annually from ages 6 to 15 years. The study tested whether the temperamental traits approach, negative reactivity and attention (assessed at ages 6-7 years), were associated with overt antisocial behavior, covert antisocial behavior and illicit substance use (assessed at ages 14-15 years), via poor social preference among peers, inflated social self-perception and antisocial behavior of peer-group affiliates (assessed throughout ages 8-13 years). Results indicated that negative reactivity was indirectly associated with overt antisocial behavior and substance use via poor social preference. Specifically, negative reactivity in earlier childhood predicted poor social preference in later childhood and early adolescence. This poor social standing among peers, in turn, predicted more engagement in overt antisocial behavior but less substance use in later adolescence. Over and above the influence of social preference, negative reactivity predicted engagement in all 3 outcomes via children's antisocial behavior in childhood and early adolescence. Inflated social self-perception and antisocial behavior of peer-group affiliates did not mediate the link between temperament and the outcomes under scrutiny. No sex differences in developmental pathways from temperament to the outcomes were found. To further our understanding of the developmental link between childhood temperament and later antisocial behavior and substance use, we need to recognize the role of peer environmental factors, specifically poor preference among peers. (PsycINFO Database Record
... Three investigations focused on non-romantic peer relations (Ackerman & Corretti, 2015;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015;Wilson, Harris & Vazire, 2015, all this issue). Their results particularly underlined the predictive validity of extraversion in this domain. ...
... Their results particularly underlined the predictive validity of extraversion in this domain. Extending research with older populations, Ilmarinen et al. (2015) showed that parent-rated extraversion-predicted sociometric popularity among 7-to 8-year-olds in school. Although research on the predictors of general satisfaction with life and romantic relationship satisfaction is widespread, little is known about the individual differences that predict friendship satisfaction. ...
... A number of projects concentrated on the way people interact with their social partners (behavioural expression processes). Ilmarinen et al. (2015) showed that oral fluency is one specific behavioural mediator that can partially account for the link between extraversion and popularity among peers in middle childhood. Extraverted children (as judged by their parents) had more fluent ways of speaking (as judged by their teachers), and this contributed to their greater popularity among their peers (as assessed by sociometric nominations). ...
... In line with the last review by Anderson and Cowan [10], several recent studies indicate that extraversion is associated with the attainment of social status (other-rated status, influence, likeability, leadership emergence, popularity) initially and after several meetings [11][12][13][14][15][16]; but see also [17]. The associations between the other four Big Five traits and status attainment have been less consistent and more context dependent. ...
... Indeed, a lens-model analysis indicated that extraverts were evaluated more positively by others based on behavioral cues such as energetic and self-assured movements, strengths of voice, and friendly facial expressions [23] (see also [24], for a review on behavioral cues to extraversion and other traits). Likewise, oral fluency partially mediated the positive association between extraversion and popularity in 7-8 year old children [13]. ...
The current review summarizes recent advances in research on personality predictors of status attainment. In line with previous research, recent studies indicate that extraverted and narcissistic individuals tend to attain status in groups. Research on mediating processes includes a wide range of underlying motivational, behavioral, and interpersonal perception processes. Most generally speaking, those high in extraversion and narcissism attain status because they are more motivated to do so and thus display assertive behavior that makes them look competent. Situational contexts, group tasks, and cultural contexts can moderate the personality-status links by shaping these processes. For example, studies inspired by evolutionary psychology suggest that dominant individuals are more likely to attain status when dominance is instrumental to address a threatening environment.
... Consistent with this, Extraversion is linked to larger social networks (Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998;Lonnqvist, Itkonen, Verkasalo, & Poutvaara, 2014;Selfhout et al., 2010;Wagner et al., 2014), increased time spent interacting with people in social networks (Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998;Wilson et al., 2015), as well as greater levels of disclosure (Nelson, Thorne, & Shapiro, 2011;Peter, Valkenburg, & Schouten, 2005;Wilson et al., 2015), relationship satisfaction (Tov, Nai, & Lee, in press), and closeness (Mund & Neyer, 2014;Neyer & Asendorpf, 2001;Wagner et al., 2014). In contrast, lower levels of Extraversion predict decreased popularity among university students (Paunonen, 2003; see Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lonnqvist, 2015, for similar findings with children), as well as diminished social status among peers (Anderson et al., 2001). ...
... Although we believe that our work can be used to extend work on normative traits, future research directly comparing the correlates of normative and pathological traits is needed. Indeed, collecting both normative and pathological traits in the same studies will help to further clarify the relations between different ranges of the FFM domains and relationship outcomes (see Ilmarinen et al. [2015] for an example of how scales capturing low but not high levels of Agreeableness in children are related to their popularity). In some cases, pathological traits may matter more for consequential life outcomes such as health and relationships (see Gleason et al., 2014). ...
Problems with intimacy constitute an important area of interpersonal dysfunction in those with personality pathology. Drawing on the interpersonal process model of intimacy, the present research used a longitudinal dyadic design of same-sex roommate pairs (n = 103) to address how certain pathological personality traits (i.e. Negative Affect, Detachment, and Antagonism) relate to the development of disclosure, perceived responsiveness, and closeness. We expected that participants' pathological traits would be linked to both their own and their roommate's intimacy development, and that the mechanisms underlying these links would include the endorsement of interpersonal values and/or the dispositional expression of interpersonal behaviour in the roommate relationship. Our findings demonstrate that interpersonal motives and/or behaviours primarily help to explain how individuals with higher levels of Detachment manifest difficulty with intimacy. Implications of our findings for research on personality pathology, normative traits, and intimacy are discussed. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
... Of course, a number of important more specific effects have also been identified, such as positive effects of sociability on getting along with peers (e.g. Ackerman & Corretti, 2015;Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015;Wilson, Harris, & Vazire, 2015), positive effects of self-control on getting ahead in the occupational domain (Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006;Roberts et al., 2007), positive effects of warmth on getting ahead in cooperative contexts (e.g. Lawless DesJardins, Srivastava, Küfner, & Back, in press) and positive effects of emotional stability (e.g. ...
... Morse, Sauerberger, Todd, & Funder, 2015), how (dominantly, warmly, nervously and arrogantly) they behave (behavioural expression; e.g. Ackerman & Corretti, 2015;Ilmarinen et al., 2015;Marshall et al., 2015;Vater & Schröder-Abé, 2015;Wilson et al., 2015), how (positive, negative, activated and self-assured) they feel and how they regulate these states (affective expression and emotion regulation; e.g. Vater & Schröder-Abé, 2015), how positively as well as how accurately they perceive themselves and their interaction partner's behaviours and states of mind (interpersonal perception; e.g. ...
Historically, personality psychology has not focused on the social realm, and social psychology has mostly neglected the influence of individual differences. This has, however, begun to change in the past two decades. Recent years have brought an explosion in creative research programmes on the social consequences of personality. In this paper, we offer a (highly subjective) view on how research on the social consequences of personality should move forward. We note that the existing literature is focused heavily on: traits (at the expense of other personality characteristics), a narrow set of social outcomes (e.g. romantic relationship satisfaction) and effects of personality on one's own outcomes (rather than taking a dyadic/interpersonal perspective). In addition, little attention has been paid to the complex dynamic processes that might account for the links between personality and social outcomes. Based on this, we outline six suggestions for future research on the social consequences of personality: (1) examine a wide range of personality variables and integrate findings across domains; (2) take a broader and more integrative view on social outcomes, including different relationship types, phases and transitions; (3) analyse personality effects on social outcomes from different social perspectives (e.g. self, other and dyad); (4) search for processes that explain the associations between personality and social outcomes; (5) collect rich, multi-method, longitudinal, behavioural datasets with large samples and (6) carefully evaluate the implications of personality effects on social outcomes. We invite researchers to embrace a more collaborative and slower scientific approach to answer the many open questions about the social consequences of personality. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
... For instance, recent evidence showed that extraversion is associated with popularity based on extraverts' tendency to be positive and affective in a sample of adolescent students (Van der Linden et al., 2010). Agreeableness has also been related to popularity among adolescents reported between openness to experience (Jensen-Campbell & Malcolm, 2007) and neuroticism (Ilmarinen et al., 2015) with popularity. A cross-sectional study has shown that popularity was not associated with FFM traits among adolescents . ...
This study explored the short-term longitudinal associations between Five Factor Model (FFM) and social goals (social dominance, popularity, and intimacy), with relational aggression (RAgg) as a mediator. RAgg was claimed to mediate the positive correlations of neuroticism with dominance and popularity, whereas extraversion was argued to positively relate to intimacy through low RAgg. The participants were 2207 Greek 13-to 16-year-olds (M = 14.04; 52.8% female), mostly from middle-class families. Respondents completed three self-report measures (T1, T2; 6-month interval) during the school year. Confirmatory factor analysis explored a measurement model, whereas a longitudinal mediation model tested whether RAgg mediates the relationship between personality and social goals. Cross-lagged correlations revealed associations of RAgg with neuroticism, dominance, and popularity but not openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness. Weak positive correlations emerged between FFM traits and intimacy, neuroticism, and dominance. Results indicated positive indirect effects from Τ1 neuroticism and negative from T1 agreeableness to Τ2 RAgg, which was then positively linked to T2 dominance and popularity. The research highlights the importance of RAgg as a mechanism for endorsing social goals for adolescents with specific personality traits. Intervention strategies aiming at limiting RAgg could consider agreeableness and neuroticism, providing adolescents with the behavioral tools to cope with anxiety and negative affect.
... Schaffhuser et al., 2014). Furthermore, social relationships between interaction partners, for example liking/friendship (e.g., Ackerman & Corretti, 2015;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015;Wilson et al., 2015) or attraction/romantic relationships (e.g., Asendorpf, Penke, & Back, 2011;Vater & Schröder-Abé, 2015), might also influence or moderate the effects. For example, one could imagine that attraction leads to sociable behavior for some people, while for others it results in reserved behavior. ...
What predicts sociable behavior? While main effects of personality and situation characteristics on sociability are well established, there is little evidence for the existence of person-situation interaction effects within real-life social interactions. Moreover, previous research has focused on self-reported behavior ratings, and less is known about the partner’s social perspective, i.e. how partners perceive and influence an actor’s behavior. In the current research, we investigated predictors of sociable behavior in real-life social interactions across social perspectives, including person and situation main effects as well as person-situation interaction effects. In two experience-sampling studies (Study 1: 'N' = 394, US, time-based; Study 2: 'N' = 124, Germany, event-based), we assessed personality traits with self- and informant-reports, self-reported sociable behavior during real-life social interactions, and corresponding information on the situation (categorical situation classifications and dimensional ratings of situation characteristics). In Study 2, we additionally assessed interaction partner-reported actor behavior. Multilevel analyses provided evidence for main effects of personality and situation features, as well as small but consistent evidence for person-situation interaction effects. First, extraverts acted more sociable in general. Second, individuals behaved more sociable in low-effort/positive/low-duty situations (vs. high-effort/negative/high-duty situations). Third, the latter was particularly true for extraverts. Further specific interaction effects were found for the partner’s social perspective. These results are discussed regarding their accordance with different behavioral models (e.g., Trait Activation Theory) and their transferability to other behavioral domains.
... For example, there is some evidence that individuals who choose to participate in team sports score higher on extraversion compared to those who opt for individual sports ( Eagleton, McKelvie, & de Man, 2007). Extraversion has been linked to increased popularity ( Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015), but was not controlled in this study. We also did not assess whether our participants were engaged in other extracurricular activities along with their sports. ...
This study examined whether sports participation moderates the longitudinal link of depressive and aggressive symptoms with increased peer rejection. The sample consisted of 291 adolescents (50.5% girls), assessed at ages 12 and 13 years. Depressive and aggressive symptoms as well as peer rejection were assessed through peer nominations, whereas participation in team and individual sports was assessed via adolescents' self-reports. Regression analyses revealed that boys – but not girls – who displayed high levels of depressive symptoms experienced an increase in peer rejection. However, participation in team sports mitigated the association between depressive symptoms and increased peer rejection in boys, whereas participation in individual sports exacerbated that same association. Although aggressive symptoms were also associated with an increase in peer rejection for boys and girls, sports participation did not moderate this link. These results support the usefulness especially of team sports as part of prevention activities for vulnerable youth.
... For example, there is some evidence that individuals who choose to participate in team sports score higher on extraversion compared to those who opt for individual sports (Eagleton, McKelvie, & de Man, 2007). Extraversion has been linked to increased popularity (Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015), but was not controlled in this study. ...
This study examined whether sports participation moderates the longitudinal link of depressive and aggressive symptoms with increased peer rejection. The sample consisted of 291 adolescents (50.5% girls), assessed at ages 12 and 13 years. Depressive and aggressive symptoms as well as peer rejection were assessed through peer nominations, whereas participation in team and individual sports was assessed via adolescents' self-reports. Regression analyses revealed that boys – but not girls – who displayed high levels of depressive symptoms experienced an increase in peer rejection. However, participation in team sports mitigated the association between depressive symptoms and increased peer rejection in boys, whereas participation in individual sports exacerbated that same association. Although aggressive symptoms were also associated with an increase in peer rejection for boys and girls, sports participation did not moderate this link. These results support the usefulness especially of team sports as part of prevention activities for vulnerable youth.
... For example, more extraverted people are more popular among their peers and have more friends (Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998;Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2011;Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo & Lönnqvist, 2015;Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006); more emotionally stable and agreeable people have more satisfying and durable romantic relationships (Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006;Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007;Schaffhuser, Allemand, & Martin, 2014). Yet, how do more extraverted people attain higher popularity and acquire more friends, and how do more emotionally stable and agreeable people achieve more durable partnerships? ...
How can researchers study personality processes and their social consequences? In our methodology overview, we first introduce ambulatory assessment methods, which repeatedly measure experiences, physiology and behaviour in people's daily lives based on real-time assessments of self-reports, physiological activity and behavioural observations. Then, we describe methods suitable for assessing personality processes in laboratory settings: self-reports on interpersonal perception, physiological measurements and behavioural observation. We discuss the combination of field and laboratory assessment methods based on their respective strengths and limitations and then highlight ethical issues surrounding the use of these methods. Finally, we propose future avenues for how developments in mobile technology can be used to advance personality research. The increasing availability and the decreasing costs of smartphones, wearable sensors and Internet connectivity offer unique potentials for further understanding the processes underlying how personality exerts broad and important social consequences. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
... Accordingly, the purpose of the present paper is to explore one possibility for an intermediate step between personality and social outcomes. Among other examples presented in this special issue, oral fluency has been found to partially mediate the relationship between extraversion and popularity among 7-and 8-year-old children (Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015), and emotion regulation and positive interpersonal behaviour in interactions between relationship partners have been found to partially mediate the relationship between personality and long-term relationship satisfaction (Vater & Schröder-Abé, 2015). ...
The present study demonstrates a novel way of exploring the relationship between personality and social outcomes by examining an understudied intermediate step: situational construal. Construal is assessed in terms of the degree to which one's description of a situation agrees with others' descriptions of the same situation (normativity) and the degree to which the description is positively valenced. Participants (N = 256) provided information about their personality and subsequently used the Riverside Situational Q-sort to describe their construal of three in-lab interactions with unacquainted others. A measure of positive behavioural social outcomes was constructed from observer ratings of the video-recorded interactions. Extraversion, agreeableness, openness and neuroticism (negatively) were related to positive behavioural social outcomes, as well as to normativity and positivity of construal. Additionally, normativity and positivity of construal were related to positive social outcomes. However, mediation analyses did not confirm that construal mediates the relation between personality and positive social outcomes. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
... For example, parent-reported parenting styles, cognitive characteristics reported by the adolescent, parent or teacher might be important mediators to consider. Indeed, elsewhere, in the current special issue, evidence has been provided bolstering the importance of cognitive characteristics by showing that oral fluency partially mediates the associations between extraversion and sociometric popularity (Ilmarinen, Vainikainen, Verkasalo, & Lönnqvist, 2015). Other mechanisms suggested to underlie the association between personality and subsequent peer relations are interpersonal motives and behaviours (Ackerman & Corretti, 2015). ...
Temperamental differences are associated with subsequent stressful life events, a phenomenon that has in part been attributed to evocation. However, we remain ignorant about the mechanisms that mediate this process. In the current paper, we test whether differences in 'perceived relationship affection' accounted for part of the prospective association between temperament and stressful social event evocation in three social domains, viz. parents, peers and romantic partners. Data were derived from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey, a large population cohort of Dutch adolescents (n = 1158). Parent-reported adolescent temperament and adolescent's perceived affection were assessed at age 11 years. Stressful social events that occurred between age 11 and 16 years were captured using the event history calendar. Results indicate that adolescents evoke subsequent stressful social events based on their temperament, and that this association is partially mediated by perceived affection. Importantly, we found evidence for both generic and domain-specific associations, which indicates that social domains are related yet distinct. Taken together, the findings suggest that a search for mediating variables may be a promising way to increase our understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the social stress selection principle, and that perceived relationship affection is one of the candidates.
Existing research has documented the social benefits (i.e., higher popularity and liking) of extraversion and agreeableness. Do these positive reputational consequences extend to social dilemma situations that require trust? We found that people do not trust extraverts more than introverts. Instead, people's trust decisions are guided by their partner's level of agreeableness. In a trust game (Studies 1 and 2), individuals were more likely to trust a partner who was described as agreeable (vs. disagreeable); and, in a laboratory study of work groups, participants trusted more (vs. less) agreeable group members (Study 3). Individuals anticipated others' preferences for agreeable partners and tried to come across as more agreeable, but not more extraverted, in social dilemmas (Study 4). These findings suggest that the social benefits of agreeableness (but not extraversion) extend to social interactions involving trust and highlight the importance of target personality traits in shaping trust decisions.
Ett av de mest robusta fynden inom personlighets- och välbefinnandeforskning är det starka sambandet mellan personlighetsdraget extraversion och positiva emotioner, lycka samt subjektivt och psykologiskt välbefinnande. Vad som kunde förklara varför extraverta är lyckligare har i årtionden ingående undersökts, om än osystematiskt och från skilda utgångspunkter. Detta har även noterats på fältet, och för att underlätta fortsatt forskning belyser denna litteraturöversikt hur frågeställningen undersökts till dags dato. Utifrån McCraes och Costas (1991) ursprungliga uppdelning i instrumentella och temperamentella modeller samt Hampsons (2012) indelning av medierande och modererande personlighetsprocesser identifieras, systematiseras och presenteras
de huvudsakliga förklaringarna som förekommer i litteraturen för sambandet mellan extraversion och lycka. Resultatet består av ett konceptuellt diagram (se Figur 1 s. 20–21) med två övergripande förklaringsmodeller, sex distinkta mekanismer, tio personlighetsprocesser och tretton hypoteser som redovisas med tillhörande forskningslitteratur. Förutom en historisk överblick över tillvägagångssätt i forskningen presenteras även aktuell metodik för personlighetsprocesser. Vidare behandlas även hur resultaten är symptomatiska för den rådande problematiken kring konceptualisering, operationalisering samt metodologi inom personlighets- och lyckoforskning, samt resultatens och socialpsykologins relevans för fortsatt forskning och befrämjande av lycka och välbefinnande.
[One of the most robust findings in personality and well-being research is the strong relationship between the personality trait extraversion and positive emotions, happiness, and subjective and psychological well-being. The factors explaining why extraverts are happier has been investigated in depth for decades, albeit unsystematically and from different points of view. This has also been noted in the field, and to facilitate further research, this literature review highlights how the issue has been investigated to date. Based on the original division into instrumental and temperamental models by McCrae and Costa (1991), and the division of mediating and moderating personality processes by Hampson (2012), the main explanations that appear in the literature for the relationship between extraversion and happiness are identified, systematized, and presented. The result consists of a conceptual diagram (see Figure 1, pp. 20–21) with two overall explanatory models, six distinct mechanisms, ten personality processes, and thirteen hypotheses, which are reported with associated research literature. In addition to a historical overview of research approaches, current methodology for personality processes is also presented. Furthermore, the issue of how the results are symptomatic of the prevailing problems around conceptualization, operationalization, and methodology in personality and happiness research is also discussed, as well as the relevance of the results and social psychology for continued research and the promotion of happiness and well-being.]
Research Question: The research is oriented towards determining the moderator effects of the employees’ gender (structure) on the correlation between other research constructs, i.e., personality dimensions and job satisfaction. Motivation: Previous research on the influence of employees’ personality dimensions and gender as potential predictors of job satisfaction was also conducted in Serbia. However, no studies could be found in the literature focusing on identifying the moderating effect of the employees’ gender on correlation between job satisfaction and personality dimensions. The results would be of practical importance and applicable in human resource management practice in different organizations, particularly in transitional societies. Idea: The main subject of this research is oriented towards the employees’ dimensions of personality, according to the Big Five personality dimensions, on the one hand, and job satisfaction, on the other. The research was conducted within the conditions of transition, i.e., in the organization that will be under the organizational changes (such as privatization) in the following period. As transition may produce uncertainty of the job positions for the employees (especially within the large public-owned monopolistic enterprises), it could be considered that organizational changes, such as privatization, could affect job dissatisfaction to a significant extent. Data and Tools: The survey research was conducted within the large public-owned monopolistic enterprises in Serbia on the sample of 116 employees. Findings: The research results pointed out that the employees’ gender significantly shaped the correlation between all of the personality dimensions, on the one hand, and different facets of job satisfaction, on the other. Namely, in case of male employees, statistical significance was shown between Extraversion and Pay, Extraversion and Operating Conditions, Conscientiousness and Pay, Conscientiousness and Rewards, Neuroticism and Benefits. In case of female employees, the statistical significance was shown between Agreeableness and Benefits, Conscientiousness and Benefits and finally between Neuroticism and Supervision. Contribution: The obtained results may have practical implications in the form of providing the database for further improvement of the human resource management within the transitional economies, such as Serbian.
Frequent social comparisons can not only influence parents’ well-being but also spill over to their children’s development through intergenerational influences within the family. Using data from children and their parents, the current study shows that the higher parents’ social comparison orientation is, the less their children are willing to contribute to the public in a public goods game. Moreover, we find that if children interact more frequently with non-family members, the effects of parents’ social comparison orientation on children’s decision in public goods game become stronger. The findings of this study serve as a warning for parents and policy makers regarding the downside of excessive social comparisons and shed light on how frequent social comparisons influence human social interaction from an intergenerational perspective.
In this chapter the evolution of aggression is examined in relation to specific types or forms of conflict, including genocide, hate crimes, and extremism. Three specific theories addressing the etiology of aggression are offered: frustration–aggression theory, observational learning theory, and biological–evolutionary theory. We also revisit Ervin Staub’s contemporary research addressing the origins of extreme group violence and provide evidence of how environmental factors (i.e., styles of parenting and community service activities) may help reduce serious social problems, such as apathy and “bystander effect.” The topic of altruism and prosocial behaviors as personality traits is also offered, with an examination of how community development may address the problem associated with negative behaviors associated with group conformity and bystander effect. Finally, this chapter will provide evidence on how community development programs can help improve important sociological and psychological benefits, such as community connectedness and community competence.
Die Beliebtheit bei Gleichaltrigen ist ein relevanter Aspekt für das Wohlbefinden und den akademischen Erfolg. Neben einer Vielzahl von Faktoren sind Selbstkonzepte und akademische Leistungen prädiktiv für die Beliebtheit bei Peers. In dieser Studie wird der Zusammenhang von Noten, Kompetenzen und den Selbstkonzepten eigener Fähigkeiten in Mathematik und Deutsch mit der wahrgenommenen Beliebtheit bei Peers untersucht. Aufgrund der Geschlechtskonnotation der Domänen Mathematik und Lesen werden für Mädchen und Jungen differenzielle Zusammenhänge mit der selbsteingeschätzten Beliebtheit bei Peers angenommen. In einer Stichprobe des Nationalen Bildungspanels wurden N = 4427 Schülerinnen und Schüler der 5. Klasse an Haupt‑, Realschulen und Gymnasien untersucht. In einem multiplen Gruppenvergleich zeigten sich unabhängig von der Schulform keine differenziellen Zusammenhänge für Jungen und Mädchen. Schülerinnen und Schüler mit guten Noten in Mathematik und einem hohen Selbstkonzept in Deutsch nahmen sich als beliebter bei Gleichaltrigen wahr. Die Deutschnote, domänenspezifische Kompetenzen und das mathematische Selbstkonzept hingen nicht mit der wahrgenommenen Beliebtheit zusammen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass mit einem hohen verbalen Selbstkonzept eine hohe Sicherheit im sozialen Umgang und in Kommunikationssituationen wahrgenommen wird und dass das Fach Mathematik als schwieriger und kognitiv anspruchsvoller als Deutsch angesehen wird.
Anthropomorphizing a brand (i.e., imbuing a brand with humanlike features) serves as an important brand positioning strategy formarketing managers. This research identifies a key brand anthropomorphization strategy - positioning a brand as either oriented to interact with consumers or not. Managers generally rely on this brand interaction strategy to enhance consumer brand engagement regardless of the social context. However, given that consumers often experience brands in a social context, this research demonstrates that social crowdedness moderates the positive impact of interactionoriented anthropomorphized brands on consumer brand preferences. Specifically, the authors show that consumers' inferences of an anthropomorphized brand's intentionality to interact with themin a socially crowded context trigger greater social withdrawal, thereby resulting in lower preferences for the brand. The authors further demonstrate that the core negative effect of social crowdedness is contingent on the type of crowding (goal-related vs. goal-unrelated). In particular, a goal-related crowding decreases social withdrawal reactions, which, in turn, leads to greater preferences for interactionoriented anthropomorphized brands relative to brands with other positioning strategies. In contrast, the effect of social crowdedness on consumer preferences for interaction-oriented anthropomorphized brands remains negative in goalunrelated crowded settings.
The Situational Construal Model proposes that characteristics of persons and situations interact to influence construal of situations and resultant behavior. We apply this framework to the study of healthcare experiences in two studies.
In Study 1, mTurk users (N = 670) read vignettes of positive, neutral, or negative healthcare experiences, described their construal of the vignette, and completed individual difference measures. In Study 2, mTurk users (N = 292) recalled a recent healthcare visit and reported individual differences, visit characteristics, and outcomes following the visit.
Across both studies, personality was related to the valenced construal of healthcare experiences. In Study 2, patient and visit characteristics predicted situational construal and self-reported visit outcomes, and situational construal statistically mediated relationships between patient and visit characteristics and outcomes.
The current work supports the application of the Situational Construal Model to healthcare situations and demonstrates the importance of both person and situation variables for understanding key healthcare outcomes.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Recent scholars have dismissed the utility of self-esteem as
well as programs designed to improve it. The authors
challenge these contentions on conceptual, methodological, and empirical grounds. They begin by proposing that
the scope of recent analyses has been overly narrow and
should be broadened to include specific as well as global
self-views. Using this conceptualization, the authors place
recent critiques in historical context, recalling that similarly skeptical commentaries on global attitudes and traits
inspired theorizing and empirical research that subsequently restored faith in the value of both constructs.
Specifically, they point to 3 strategies for attaining more
optimistic assessments of the predictive validity of selfviews: recognizing the utility of incorporating additional
variables in predictive schemes, matching the specificity of
predictors and criteria, and using theoretically informed
standards for evaluating predictor– criterion relationships.
The authors conclude that self-views do matter and that it
is worthwhile and important to develop and implement
theoretically informed programs to improve them.
In Finland, schools’ effectiveness in fostering the development of transversal skills is evaluated through large-scale learning to learn (LTL) assessments. This article presents how LTL skills—general cognitive competences and learning-related motivational beliefs—develop during primary school and how they predict pupils’ CPS skills at the end of sixth grade. The six-year follow-up of 608 pupils shows that cognitive competences demonstrated in the beginning of the first grade in a learning preparedness test predict both later cognitive LTL competences and CPS, but their development is not fully determined by earlier individual differences in learning preparedness in the first grade. Motivational beliefs begin to be related to cognitive LTL performance gradually from age 10 on, and they may have a slightly stronger effect on CPS than on cognitive LTL performance. It is concluded that the development of CPS is partly depending on pupils’ initial learning preparedness and the development of their LTL skills.
Peers are a pervasive aspect of people’s lives, but their role in personality development has rarely been considered. This is surprising, given that peers are promising candidates to explain personality development over the entire lifespan. Due to the lack of clear-cut definitions of peers, we first elaborate on their defining criteria and functions in different life phases. We then discuss the role of peers in personality development across the lifespan. We advocate that an integration of social group perspectives and social relationship perspectives is essential to understand peer effects on personality development. Group socialization theory is particularly suited to explain developmental differences between groups as a result of group norms. However, it is blind towards differences in development within peer groups. In contrast, the PERSOC framework is particularly suited to explain individual differences in development within groups as a result of specific dyadic peer relationship experiences. We propose that a conjunct consideration of peer group effects and dyadic peer relationship effects can advance the general understanding of personality development. We discuss examples for a cross-fertilization of the two frameworks that suggest avenues for future research.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a vast field and widely used by many applied researchers in the social and behavioral sciences. Over the years, many software pack-ages for structural equation modeling have been developed, both free and commercial. However, perhaps the best state-of-the-art software packages in this field are still closed-source and/or commercial. The R package lavaan has been developed to provide applied researchers, teachers, and statisticians, a free, fully open-source, but commercial-quality package for latent variable modeling. This paper explains the aims behind the develop-ment of the package, gives an overview of its most important features, and provides some examples to illustrate how lavaan works in practice.
We present a process model that distinguishes 2 dimensions of narcissism: admiration and rivalry. We propose that narcissists' overarching goal of maintaining a grandiose self is pursued by 2 separate pathways, characterized by distinct cognitive, affective-motivational, and behavioral processes. In a set of 7 studies, we validated this 2-dimensional model using the newly developed Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (NARQ). We showed that narcissistic admiration and rivalry are positively correlated dimensions, yet they have markedly different nomological networks and distinct intra- and interpersonal consequences. The NARQ showed the hypothesized 2-dimensional multifaceted structure as well as very good internal consistencies (Study 1, N = 953), stabilities (Study 2, N = 93), and self-other agreements (Study 3, N = 96). Narcissistic admiration and rivalry showed unique relations to the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), the Big Five, self-esteem, pathological narcissism, and other narcissism-related traits like Machiavellianism, psychopathy, self-enhancement, and impulsivity (Study 4, Ns = 510-1,814). Despite the positive relation between admiration and rivalry, the 2 differentially predicted general interpersonal orientations and reactions to transgressions in friendships and romantic relationships (Study 5, N = 1,085), interpersonal perceptions during group interactions (Study 6, N = 202), and observed behaviors in experimental observations (Study 7, N = 96). For all studies, the NARQ outperformed the standard measure of narcissism, the NPI, in predicting outcome measures. Results underscore the utility of a 2-dimensional conceptualization and measurement of narcissism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Sociometric popularity is computed based on peer liking and dislike. The relation between sociometric popularity and perceived popularity, based on peer identification of school associates considered popular, was investigated in a sample of 727 middle school students (7th and 8th grades). Most sociometrically popular students were not high on perceived popularity. Most students high on perceived popularity were not sociometrically popular Perceived popularity was correlated more highly with a measure of dominance than was sociometric popularity. Sociometrically popular students who were not high on perceived popularity were characterized by peers as kind and trustworthy but not as dominant, aggressive, or stuck-up. Students who were high on perceived popularity but not sociometrically popular were characterized as dominant, aggressive, and stuck-up but not as kind and trustworthy. Sociometrically popular students who also were high on perceived popularity were characterized as kind, trustworthy, and dominant but not as aggressive or as stuck-up.
The present study examined whether: (i) self-rated personality (Big Five) is related to peer-ratings of likeability and popularity in classmates and (ii) a General Factor of Personality (GFP), reflecting the shared variance of the Big Five, is related to social status. In a sociometric approach, adolescent classmates (N=512) rated each other on likeability and popularity. The Big Five dimensions Extraversion and Emotional Stability were associated with likeability as well as popularity whereas Agreeableness was positively related to likeability and Conscientiousness negatively to popularity. Moreover, the results of correlation and regression analyses and Structural Equation Modeling converged in showing that the GFP was also a predictor of likeability and popularity, although the GFP played a somewhat larger role in likeability than in popularity.
The years between 6 and 14-middle childhood and early adolescence-are a time of important developmental advances that establish children's sense of identity. During these years, children make strides toward adulthood by becoming competent, independent, self-aware, and involved in the world beyond their families. Biological and cognitive changes transform children's bodies and minds. Social relationships and roles change dramatically as children enter school, join programs, and become involved with peers and adults outside their families. During middle childhood, children develop a sense of self-esteem and individuality, comparing themselves with their peers. They come to expect they will succeed or fail at different tasks. They may develop an orientation toward achievement that will color their response to school and other challenges for many pars. In early adolescence, the tumultuous physical and social changes that accompany puberty the desire for autonomy and distance from the family, and the transition from elementary school to middle school or junior high can all cause problems for young people. When adolescents are in settings (in school, at home, or in community programs) that are not attuned to their needs and emerging independence, they can lose confidence in themselves and slip into negative behavior patterns such as truancy and school dropout. This article examines the developmental changes that characterize the years from 6 to 14, and it highlights ways in which the organization of programs, schools, and family life can better support positive outcomes for youths.
The NEPSY-II consists of 32 subtests for use in a neuropsychological assessment with preschoolers, children, and adolescents. This test review provides an overview of the NEPSY-II for clinicians and researchers, including descriptions of the subtests, changes from the original NEPSY, reliability and validity evidence, strengths, and limitations.
Communication patterns were investigated related to the emergence and maintenance of social status in young children. 66 preschool children were classified as
liked, disliked, or
low-impact, using classmates' sociometric nominations. Children were observed interacting in 1 of 2 conditions: as entry child and host to children they did not know, or as entry child and host to children they knew. Results indicated that when entering the play of children they did not know, disliked children were less responsive to peers and more likely to make irrelevant comments than were liked children. With acquainted peers, disliked children were not only less responsive and more irrelevant than liked children, they were also less likely to clearly direct their communication to specific peers. Thus, responsiveness and contributing to coherent conversation appear to be important to both the establishment and maintenance of social status, whereas failure to socially direct communications may occur only after children develop a negative reputation with peers and, thus, may be a factor only in the maintenance of social status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors assessed change over 3 years in elementary school children's competence beliefs and subjective task value in the domains of math, reading, instrumental music, and sports. The longitudinal sample consisted of approximately 615 mostly White, lower middle to middle-class children. Stability correlations indicated moderate to strong stability in children's beliefs, especially older children's competence beliefs. The relation of children's ratings of their competence in each domain to estimates of their competence in those domains provided by both parents and teachers increased over the early elementary grades. Children's competence beliefs and ratings of the usefulness and importance of each activity decreased over time. Children's interest in reading and instrumental music decreased, but their interest in sports and math did not. Gender differences in children's competence beliefs and subjective task values did not change over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Consensus between self-ratings and stranger ratings of personality traits was investigated. A sample of 100 adults was videotaped while entering and walking through a room, sitting down, looking into the camera, and reading a standard text. The targets then provided self-descriptions on 5 personality factors. A sample of 24 strangers who had never seen the targets before was given 1 of 4 types of information on the targets: (1) sound-film, (2) silent film, (3) still, or (4) audiotape. Strangers rated various physical attributes and 20 traits of each target. Level of information influenced the validity but not the reliability of the stranger ratings, which were most valid for extraversion and conscientiousness. Extraversion covaried most strongly with physical attributes, and implicit theories on the covariation of traits with physical attributes were more accurate for extraversion and conscientiousness than for agreeableness, emotional stability, and culture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Personality influences on social relationships and vice versa were longitudinally studied. Personality affected relationships, but not vice versa. After entry to university, 132 students participated for 18 month in a study in which the Big Five factors of personality, the subfactors Sociability and Shyness, and all significant social relationships were repeatedly assessed. A subsample kept diaries of all significant social interactions. After the initial correlation between personality and relationship quality was controlled for, Extraversion and its subfactors, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness predicted aspects of relationships such as number of peer relationships, conflict with peers, and falling in love. In contrast, relationship qualities did not predict personality traits, and changes in relationship qualities were unrelated to changes in personality traits. Consequences for dynamic-interactionistic views of personality and relationships are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
this chapter draws heavily upon a programmatic set of studies done in our laboratory / these studies, based almost entirely on observational methods, provide descriptions of friendship interaction from preschool age to adolescence (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Understanding how persons, situations, and behaviors contribute to behavioral consistency is a central goal for the science of behavior. The present study focused on dyadic social situations that were created by professional actors who enacted 4 social roles derived from interpersonal theory: dominant, submissive, agreeable, and quarrelsome. A total of 128 behavioral episodes from 32 target participants who each interacted for 5 min with 4 same-sex actors were videotaped. Several behaviors were coded from the videos, and stranger-ratings of targets' personality and behavior in the four different situations were also obtained based on those videos. The results provided novel evidence regarding the cross-situational consistency of different behaviors and allowed the following conclusions: (a) on average, targets were both rank-order and intraindividually consistent; (b) molar behaviors were more rank-order consistent than were micro-level behaviors; (c) interpersonal behavioral tendencies were evident in directly observed behavior, and (d) high Conscientiousness may facilitate interaction with quarrelsome partners. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
A FRAMEWORK for conceptualizing the development of individual differences in reading ability is presented that synthesizes a great deal of the research literature. The framework places special emphasis on the effects of reading on cognitive development and on "bootstrapping" relationships involving reading. Of key importance are the concepts of reciprocal relationships-situations where the causal connection between reading ability and the efficiency of a cognitive process is bidirectional-and organism-environment correlation-the fact that differentially advantaged organisms are exposed to nonrandom distributions of environmental quality. Hypotheses are advanced to explain how these mechanisms operate to create rich-getricher and poor-get-poorer patterns of reading achievement. The framework is used to explicate some persisting problems in the literature on reading disability and to conceptualize remediation efforts in reading.
The relatively small number of linguistic studies in which extraversion is focussed on as an independent variable suggests that applied linguists believe it unrelated to speech production or language learning. We argue that this suspicion is based on a misunderstanding originating in the 1970s. Reappraisal of the literature suggests that extraversion may not be a predictor of success in second language learning but does affect both L1 and L2 speech production. An analysis of the psychological literature on extraversion allowed us to formulate a number of hypotheses about the causes of linguistic variation in the speech of introverts and extraverts.
This study examines motivational precursors of social status and the applicability of a dual-component model of social competence to middle childhood. Concurrent and longitudinal relationships between self-reported social goals (social development, demonstration-approach, demonstration-avoid goal orientations), teacher-rated prosocial and aggressive behavior, and peer nominations of social status (preference, popularity) were examined over the course of an academic year among 980 3rd- to 5th-grade children. Findings support dual-component expectations. Confirmatory factor analyses verified the expected 3-factor structure of social goals and 2-factor structure of social status. Structural equation modeling (SEM) found that (a) social development goals were associated with prosocial behavior and increased preference, and (b) demonstration-approach goals were associated with aggressive behavior and increased popularity. Demonstration-avoid goals were associated with a popularity decrease. SEMs were invariant across grade, gender, and ethnicity. Discussion concerns the potential risks of high social status, extensions to the dual-component model, and the generality of an achievement goal approach to child social development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
The current study focuses on the emergence of friendship networks among just-acquainted individuals, investigating the effects of Big Five personality traits on friendship selection processes. Sociometric nominations and self-ratings on personality traits were gathered from 205 late adolescents (mean age=19 years) at 5 time points during the first year of university. SIENA, a novel multilevel statistical procedure for social network analysis, was used to examine effects of Big Five traits on friendship selection. Results indicated that friendship networks between just-acquainted individuals became increasingly more cohesive within the first 3 months and then stabilized. Whereas individuals high on Extraversion tended to select more friends than those low on this trait, individuals high on Agreeableness tended to be selected more as friends. In addition, individuals tended to select friends with similar levels of Agreeableness, Extraversion, and Openness.
People’s interest in personality is so pervasive that one encounters assessment instruments in the most unlikely places. Recently, I happened to wander across a Spring Fair, an informal gathering of artists, craftspeople, cooks, and entertainers. One booth that piqued my interest was devoted to the “analysis of personality through handwriting.” Interested in the categories this handwriting analyst would find most important for personality description, I perused his hand-made “personality profile” which was on display at the booth. It consisted of a collection of about 60 trait-descriptive terms, such as assertive, energetic, generous, cooperative, perseverant, organizational ability, balanced, mature, imagination, creative, and analytical, which were grouped loosely under headings like Leadership, Economics, Behavior, Character, Emotions, and Thinking.
This second edition of the bestselling textbook Personality Traits is an essential text for students doing courses in personality psychology and individual differences. The authors have updated the volume throughout, incorporating the latest research in the field, and added three new chapters on personality across the lifespan, health and applications of personality assessment. Personality research has been transformed by recent advances in our understanding of personality traits. This book reviews the origins of traits in biological and social processes, and their consequences for cognition, stress, and physical and mental health. Contrary to the traditional view of personality research as a collection of disconnected theories, Personality Traits provides an integrated account, linking theory-driven research with applications in clinical and occupational psychology. The new format of the book, including many additional features, makes it even more accessible and reader friendly.
Who are the people who maintain satisfying friendships? And, what are the behaviours that might explain why those people achieve high friendship satisfaction? We examined the associations between personality (self-reports and peer-reports) and friendship satisfaction (self-reports) among 434 students. We also examined whether role personality (how people act with their friends) and quantity and quality of social interactions using ecological momentary assessment mediate the associations between personality and friendship satisfaction. Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and (low) neuroticism were associated with higher levels of friendship satisfaction. These associations could not be accounted for by individual differences in role personality. In addition, our results suggest that quantity of time spent with friends and quality of friend interactions (depth of conversation, self-disclosure and lack of emotion suppression), although associated with friendship satisfaction, do not account for the associations between trait personality and friendship satisfaction. Future research should examine other potential interpersonal processes that explain why some people are more satisfied with their friendships than others and the consequences of friendship satisfaction (e.g. for well-being). Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
Problems with intimacy constitute an important area of interpersonal dysfunction in those with personality pathology. Drawing on the interpersonal process model of intimacy, the present research used a longitudinal dyadic design of same-sex roommate pairs (n = 103) to address how certain pathological personality traits (i.e. Negative Affect, Detachment, and Antagonism) relate to the development of disclosure, perceived responsiveness, and closeness. We expected that participants' pathological traits would be linked to both their own and their roommate's intimacy development, and that the mechanisms underlying these links would include the endorsement of interpersonal values and/or the dispositional expression of interpersonal behaviour in the roommate relationship. Our findings demonstrate that interpersonal motives and/or behaviours primarily help to explain how individuals with higher levels of Detachment manifest difficulty with intimacy. Implications of our findings for research on personality pathology, normative traits, and intimacy are discussed. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology
“Self-understanding” refers to one's conception of different aspects of the self. These aspects include, but are not limited to, one's knowledge of the physical, active, social, and psychological qualities of the self. In a recent review article, we proposed that the development of self-understanding proceeds through four levels. The developmental levels represent differing degrees both of the integration of self-characteristics and of the individual's sensitivity to the immediate social context. Furthermore, the modesl suggests that at each level self-understanding has a different focus. Corresponding to levels 1–4, the focus of self-understanding is first on the physical qualities, next on the active qualities, then on the social qualities, and finally on the psychological qualities. In the first study reported in the present paper, a reliable assessment procedure was constructed to evaluate the developmental trends proposed by this model. A group of 82 children and adolescents was then tested with this...
Social relationships are assumed to be among the most important sources of well-being. However, previous studies showing that objectively measured social network size contributes to well-being have not included personality traits. We investigated, in a sample of Facebook users (N = 4701), whether the effects of Extraversion on well-being are mediated by a larger network. Although network size was initially associated with heightened well-being, this association was rendered insignificant when Extraversion was controlled for. Extraversion had a direct positive effect on ratings of Life Satisfaction and Happiness, but none of this effect was mediated by Facebook network size. The previously reported on associations between social network size and well-being could, at least in some contexts, be an artefact of Extraversion.
We linked seven-year-old children's personality (n = 406), as rated by both teachers and parents, to a wide array of cognitive ability measures. Besides (i) providing descriptive data on the associations between childhood personality and cognitive ability, we (ii) investigated the benefits of having multiple informants provide personality ratings and (iii) examined the recent proposition that the general factor of intelligence be partialled out of associations between personality and narrower domains of intelligence. In a regression model, the shared variance of teacher and parent ratings of personality explained 14% of the variance of cognitive ability. Both teacher and parent ratings of Openness to Experience (O) were positively associated with cognitive ability, and both explained unique variance in cognitive ability. Moreover, the associations were stronger the stronger the inter-rater agreement on O. When the unique variances of each perspective and the moderating effect of inter-rater agreement were added to the aforementioned regression model, personality explained 18% of the variance of cognitive ability. Controlling for the general factor of intelligence caused the correlations between personality and performance on the specific cognitive ability measures to diminish to near zero. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Background: Recent decades have been marked by an extensive movement to analyze bias in people’s thinking, especially in gender-related issues. Studies have addressed the question of gender bias in classrooms on different levels—the use of gender in books, learning opportunities determined by students’ gender, or teachers’ gender preferences.
Purpose: In this study, we aim to answer the question of whether and under which circumstances the interaction between teacher gender and student gender positively or negatively influences teachers’ evaluations of students’ performance, while controlling for objective measures of students’ performance. For instance, it could be possible that a teacher with the same gender as a student evaluates the student as better than opposite-gender students, independent of their objective performance.
Sample: The sample consisted of n > 1,500 Finnish 6th grade students (Mage= 12.67) and their respective class teachers.
Design and methods: Students completed several academic skills tests, including a mathematical thinking test, reading comprehension test, and scientific reasoning test. Furthermore, teachers provided their evaluation of each student, evaluating students’ performance in different school subjects and answering questions regarding their probability of academic success. To test whether the teacher-student gender interaction had an effect on the criterion variable, i.e. teachers’ evaluation of the students’ performance, multilevel analyses accounting for between- and within-class effects were applied. Thereby, the effect of students’ objective performance on teachers’ evaluation of the students and main effects of gender were controlled for as covariates.
Results: The main results indicated that the interaction between student and teacher gender did not influence teachers’ evaluation of the students. However, regardless of their gender, teachers tended to evaluate girls as better than boys in first language performance (i.e. Finnish language) and potential for success in school. Teacher gender did not influence the evaluation.
Conclusions: The results of the study suggest that the interaction between teacher and student gender is unlikely to be a source of possible bias in the evaluations of students in the Finnish educational system.
Aims of the present study included understanding the manner in which shyness during the first year of formal schooling predicts early popularity in the peer group, as well as the manner in which children's shyness and popularity uniquely contribute to later school liking, cooperative participation, and internalizing problems. Structural equation modeling using parents’, teachers’, and children's reports suggested that children's (N = 291; 46% girls) kindergarten shyness predicted lower school liking and lower cooperative participation during second grade through its negative association with first grade popularity. Shyness during the first year of formal schooling may relate to difficulties in the classroom during later years due to problematic peer relations. The indirect relation of kindergarten shyness to second-grade internalizing problems through first-grade popularity was not statistically significant. Kindergarten shyness was also directly related to higher cooperative participation, which suggests that relations between early shyness and classroom engagement may be more complex than previously assumed.
We investigated how personality affects both peer-perceived popularity (status) and sociometric popu-larity (liking) in online social networks (OSNs). Self-ratings of agentic (e.g., extraversion), communal (e.g., agreeableness), and creativity traits (e.g., openness) were collected from 103 OSN profile owners (targets). Unacquainted perceivers provided status and liking judgments based on either targets' full OSN profiles or profile pictures. Independent coders assessed behavioral cues (e.g., attractiveness) from targets' OSN profiles. Results showed that targets scoring high on agency were ascribed a high status (without necessarily being liked), whereas targets scoring high on creativity or communion were liked. Brunswikian lens model analyses revealed mediating behavioral cues. Analyses based on profile pictures suggested that the differentiated impact of personality on popularity is a fast process.
In this paper, we investigate personality expression and impression formation processes in online social networks (OSNs). We explore whether, when and why people accurately judge others' personalities (accuracy), successfully manage the impressions that others form of them (impression management) and accurately infer others' impressions of them (meta-accuracy) at zero acquaintance. On the basis of targets' OSN profiles (N = 103), overall perceiver impressions were collected and compared with targets' self-view, desired impression and meta-perception. In addition, independent groups of thin-slice perceivers based their personality impressions solely on one of four kinds of information within the OSN profiles (profile picture, interests field, group list and notice board), and more than 300 OSN cues (e.g. attractive person and number of friends) were coded. Results showed evidence of accuracy, impression management and meta-accuracy, but their extent was moderated by the trait (e.g. Big Five and self-esteem), the kind of information and the interplay of trait and information. Findings could be explained by cue expression and cue utilization processes (lens model analyses). Future prospects for studying personality impressions in online and offline environments are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Previous studies showed that extraversion influences social network size. However, it is unclear how extraversion affects the size of different layers of the network, and how extraversion relates to the emotional intensity of social relationships. We examined the relationships between extraversion, network size, and emotional closeness for 117 individuals. The results demonstrated that extraverts had larger networks at every layer (support clique, sympathy group, outer layer). The results were robust and were not attributable to potential confounds such as sex, though they were modest in size (raw correlations between extraversion and size of network layer, .20 < r < .23). However, extraverts were not emotionally closer to individuals in their network, even after controlling for network size. These results highlight the importance of considering not just social network size in relation to personality, but also the quality of relationships with network members.
There is surprisingly little understanding of how personality traits are associated with being generally liked by others after adolescence (Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006). We examined the relationship between self-reported personality traits and being generally liked in young adulthood in Greek organizations and freshman dormitories. We found a high level of consistency in which traits were associated with being liked. We examined the relationship between liked and socially desirable traits, using a recent theory on agency and communion (Wojciszke, Abele, & Baryla, 2009). Results help to create a personality profile of the person who is more liked by others, especially pointing to the importance of communal characteristics that are associated with behavior benefiting others.
This article uses an ecological approach to predict students’ peer acceptance within junior high school classes. The authors investigate whether various characteristics (self-perception of physical attractiveness and athletic competence, cognitive ability, agreeableness, extraversion, age, parents’ education, number of siblings, siblings at same school, parental control, percentage of classmates who attended the same primary school, ethnicity) predict peer acceptance and whether effects are consistent across classes. Participants are 6,847 students (±13 years) from 461 classes in the Netherlands. Girls’ and boys’ data are analyzed separately using multilevel analyses. Extraversion and the percentage of classmates from the same primary school are the strongest predictors of peer acceptance for boys and girls. Smaller effects are observed for self-perception of athletic competence (boys and girls), agreeableness (girls), and ethnicity (boys). The effects are consistent across classes. The need for more complex models of peer acceptance is discussed.
Although personality factors are known to influence sociality, there is as yet no evidence to suggest that they directly affect the size of social networks. In the present study, 168 adults completed questionnaires on social network size (focussing on the two inner, most intimate layers of the network: support clique and sympathy group) and the personality sub-scales for extraversion and neuroticism from the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). There was a significant gender-bias in contacts at both levels (suggesting a degree of sexual social segregation). Extraversion was correlated with the size of support clique, but not the size of the sympathy group. However, age correlated with extraversion score, and when age was controlled for, there was no significant correlation between extraversion and the size of either the support clique or sympathy group. There was also no correlation between neuroticism and the size of support clique and sympathy group. These results suggest, when a wide range of ages are included in the sample, the relationship between personality and network size is more complex than previous studies have shown.
Psychologists and nonpsychologists alike assume that people have distinct, enduring personalities. Ample evidence exists that individuals do differ reliably in what they do and think and feel in any given situation (e.g., Mischel, Shoda, & Ayduk, 2008). But, historically, it has remained surprisingly difficult to demonstrate the
consistency of such individual differences from one situation to another. Findings to date show that neither the research nor the intuition was wrong about the nature of individual differences in social behavior, although each had given an incomplete picture. It turned out that hidden in the seemingly random variation of individuals' behavior across situations is a pattern that is stable and distinctive for every individual (e.g., Shoda & LeeTiernan, 2002). The behavior itself varies, but there is stability in how each individual's behavior varies from one situation to another. These stable and distinctive
if ... then ... situation-behavior patterns form
behavioral signatures of personality (Shoda, Mischel, & Wright, 1994) and suggest the existence of a higher-order consistency on which the intuitive belief in personality may be based (Mischel & Shoda, 1995). To understand these stable intraindividual patterns of variability requires a theory and research paradigm that goes beyond the traditional investigation of personality and social situations. The findings yield both new answers and new questions about the nature of personality and the interactions of persons and situations. Happily, passionate debates in the search for the nature of personality are being replaced by findings and reconceptualizations that promise to resolve paradoxes and to overcome problems that have frustrated and divided the study of personality almost since its inception. This chapter focuses on the key implications of these developments in recent decades for building a unifying, cumulative personality theory and science, based on the findings from a century of theory-making and research in psychology and related fields. The question is: In light of advances in our science, is it possible to integrate, within a unitary framework, the dispositional (trait) and processing (social-cognitive-affective dynamic) approaches that have so long been split virtually into two separate fields (e.g., Mischel & Shoda, 1994, 1998)? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Five experiments investigated the effects of articulatory suppression and unattended speech on performance in simple counting tasks. Results were consistent in showing substantial disruption of counting performance by concurrent articulatory suppression. However, when response errors occurred, they tended to be numerically close to the correct figure, suggesting that performance was not totally disrupted by suppression. A small effect of unattended speech on counting was obtained when the unattended speech was phonologically similar to numbers used in counting. A larger effect on counting was observed when the unattended speech consisted of random number sequences; however, this effect was much less than that found with suppression. These results are tentatively interpreted in terms of two separate components of the counting task: subvocalization of a running total and priming of the most recently accessed numbers in an input register or long-term memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The use of social comparison information for self-evaluation may be viewed as a major developmental step in children's growing understanding of their competencies and limitations. The 2 studies presented here suggested that children's achievement-related self-evaluations are little affected by relative comparisons until surprisingly late—that is, not earlier than 7–8 yrs of age. In Study 1, 104 1st and 2nd graders performed a task with 3 coacting peers; only the 2nd graders made any use at all of the social comparison information in their evaluative judgments. In Study 2 an attempt was made to maximize the potential for using comparative information by providing a strong incentive to engage in social comparsion of abilities in a situation in which objective information about a success/failure outcome was unavailable. The 90 kindergarten, 2nd, and 4th graders played a game with peers and made competence-related self-evaluations and decisions about future performance. Only the judgments of the 4th graders were consistently affected by the social comparison information. Previous research on the development of social comparison and possible explanations for the developmental trends observed are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attention to self processes has burgeoned since the 1983
Handbook of Child Psychology. The field has witnessed a return to classic issues that plagued historical scholars of the self. In addition, shifts in emphasis, including new themes and characterizations of the self, have emerged. In this chapter, the theoretical formulations of selected historical scholars of the self whose influence is still very much in evidence are first reviewed, followed by those historical developments since the turn of the century. A major contemporary thrust has been the emphasis on the functions of the self, which is summarized. Then attention turns to the development of self-representations in infancy, in an attempt to provide an integrated account of the major ontogenetic changes. The normative development of self-representations in childhood and adolescence are then addressed, applying contemporary stage models. The focus then shifts to individual differences in self-evaluations. Theory and findings on discrepancies between one's perceived and ideal self-concepts are reviewed, followed by evidence for James's (1890, 1892) model in which the discrepancy between perceived successes and aspirations for success influences global self-esteem. James also set the stage for multidimensional and hierarchical models of the self, which are reviewed. This discussion serves as a springboard to a consideration of multiple selves versus the unified self, with implications at adolescence for behaviors that are viewed as unauthentic. Attention then shifts to theory and research on the social sources of self-evaluation, building upon the tradition of symbolic interactionists and emphasizing the role of socializing agents. The topics described above speak to the antecedents of self-representations. However, other considerations include the stability of such representations over time and situation as well as their accuracy. Attention then turns to selected correlates of self-esteem, followed by implications for intervention. Issues involving autonomy and connectedness are also considered. The liabilities of self-development are then summarized, followed by concluding comments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on the development of childhood internalizing problems has largely failed to consider that there may be different developmental paths for boys and girls. Additionally, studies have begun with elementary school children who are well beyond their first social experiences. This study follows 144 boys and 125 girls from kindergarten (for most children the time of first social experiences) to fifth grade. We identify the best predictors of fifth grade internalizing problems from kindergarten measure of anxiety-withdrawal, shyness, adaptability, and popularity. We also test whether maternal overprotectiveness moderates the link between kindergarten predictors and fifth-grade internalizing problems. Throughout, we consider boys and girls separately. Peer-rated unpopularity was the best predictor of later problems for both boys and girls, followed by peer-rated shyness for boys and teacher-rated anxiety-withdrawal for girls. Maternal overprotectiveness was more important for boys than girls. For boys overprotectiveness reduced the predictive link between some kindergarten variables and some fifth-grade outcomes; for girls overprotectiveness did not significantly moderate the predictive link. We discuss the advantages of different perspectives (peers, teachers, and mothers) for predicting internalizing problems. We also discuss the roles of early temperament, early social experience, and maternal overprotectiveness versus close temporal experience in developing internalizing problems.
Based on a new theoretical framework—the Social Relations Lens Model—this study examined the influence of personality on real-life attraction at zero acquaintance. A group of psychology freshmen (N = 73) was investigated upon encountering one another for the first time. Personality traits, attraction ratings and metaperceptions were assessed using a large round-robin design (2628 dyads). In line with our model, personality differentially predicted who was a liker and who expected to be liked (perceiver effects), who was popular and who was seen as a liker (target effects), as well as who liked whom and who expected to be liked by whom (relationship effects). Moreover, the influence of personality on attraction was mediated by observable physical, nonverbal and audible cues. Results allowed a closer look at first sight and underline the importance of combining componential and process approaches in understanding the interplay of personality and social phenomena. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The associations between measures of popularity (acceptance, rejection and preference) and friendship were examined in three independent samples of elementary and middle school children. Data were obtained by means of sociometric nomination and rating scale procedures. Results reveal that, regardless of measurement technique, acceptance is generally more strongly related to friendship than is either rejection or preference. The size of the association between popularity and friendship decreases with age. Mean comparisons show that popularity is a predictor and/or is temporally antecedent to friendship rather than vice-versa. These results indicate that the association between popularity and friendship derives from their conceptual dependence on the construct of liking.
Agreement between multiple informants on child personality has received limited attention. Focusing on factor structure, gender differences and the influence of socially desirable responding (SDR), we compared parent and teacher Big Five personality ratings of around 600 7-year olds. Although parent ratings were more desirable than teacher ratings, differential agreement was generally similar to that found for adults, and especially high for ratings of boys. The more evaluative the personality item, the larger the mean-level difference between parents and teachers on that item. However, undesirable items showed the highest levels of differential agreement. In parent ratings, the two poles of Agreeableness formed separate factors. To view Pro-sociality as independent of Antagonism could enable parents to view their child more positively. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Social skill and language are known to relate, not least in the example of those with specific language impairment (SLI). However, most of the research examining this trend has been conducted on young primary school age children and the nature of the relationships is unclear. Furthermore, little is known about which young people in general have social difficulties and whether language, social cognition, and social skills are directly associated at this age. In this study, a large cohort made up of young people with a history of SLI (N = 134) and a typically developing (TD) group (N = 124) of the same age were followed up in their final year of compulsory schooling (aged 16). Language, social cognition, social skills, and functional social outcomes (friendships and levels of social activity) were assessed using tasks and questionnaires. Modest associations were found between social cognition, language, and social behaviours, the strongest being between language and social cognition. Regression analyses showed that as a combined group, the adolescents' functional social outcomes were most associated with expressive language, social skill, and social cognitive ability. However, the patterns differed when the groups were analysed separately, with social cognition playing more of a role for those with SLI. These findings suggest that poor language may play a complex role in adolescents' social development.
Much research has focused on youth who are rejected by peers; who engage in negative behavior, including aggression; and who are at risk for adjustment problems. Recently, researchers have become increasingly interested in high-status youth. A distinction is made between two groups of high-status youth: those who are genuinely well liked by their peers and engage in predominantly prosocial behaviors and those who are seen as popular by their peers but are not necessarily well liked. The latter group of youth is well known, socially central, and emulated; but displays a mixed profle of prosocial as well as aggressive and manipulative behaviors. Research now needs to address the distinctive characteristics of these two groups and their developmental precursors and consequences. Of particular interest are high-status and socially powerful aggressors and their impact on their peers. The heterogeneity of high-status youth complicates the understanding of the social dynamics of the peer group, but will lead to new and important insights into the developmental significance of peer relationships.
A Monte Carlo simulation examined the performance of 4 missing data methods in structural equation models: full information maximum likelihood (FIML), listwise deletion, pairwise deletion, and similar response pattern imputation. The effects of 3 independent variables were examined (factor loading magnitude, sample size, and missing data rate) on 4 outcome measures: convergence failures, parameter estimate bias, parameter estimate efficiency, and model goodness of fit. Results indicated that FIML estimation was superior across all conditions of the design. Under ignorable missing data conditions (missing completely at random and missing at random), FIML estimates were unbiased and more efficient than the other methods. In addition, FIML yielded the lowest proportion of convergence failures and provided near-optimal Type 1 error rates across both simulations.
Maximum likelihood algorithms for use with missing data are becoming common-place in microcomputer packages. Specifically, 3 maximum likelihood algorithms are currently available in existing software packages: the multiple-group approach, full information maximum likelihood estimation, and the EM algorithm. Although they belong to the same family of estimator, confusion appears to exist over the differ-ences among the 3 algorithms. This article provides a comprehensive, nontechnical overview of the 3 maximum likelihood algorithms. Multiple imputation, which is fre-quently used in conjunction with the EM algorithm, is also discussed. Until recently, the analysis of data with missing observations has been dominated by listwise (LD) and pairwise (PD) deletion methods (Kim & Curry, 1977; Roth, 1994). However, alternative methods for treating missing data have become in-creasingly common in software packages, leaving applied researchers with a wide range of data analytic options. In particular, three maximum likelihood (ML) esti-mation algorithms for use with missing data are currently available: the multi-ple-group approach (Allison, 1987; Muthén, Kaplan, & Hollis, 1987) can be imple-mented using existing structural equation modeling (SEM) software; Amos (Arbuckle, 1995) and Mx (Neale, 1995) offer full information maximum likelihood STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING, 8(1), 128–141 Copyright © 2001, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Although originally developed by R.K. Merton to explain advancement in scientific careers, cumulative advantage is a general mechanism for inequality across any temporal process (e.g., life course, family generations) in which a favorable relative position becomes a resource that produces further relative gains. This review shows that the term cumulative advantage has developed multiple meanings in the sociological literature. We distinguish between these alternative forms, discuss mechanisms that have been proposed in the literature that may produce cumulative advantage, and review the empirical literature in the areas of education, careers, and related life course processes.