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Is Discord Detrimental? Using Institutional Variation to Identify the Impact of Public Governing Board Conflict on Outcomes
Abstract
Few studies have examined the impact of governing board decision processes on board and organizational outcomes. This study
draws on research on small work teams in the private sector to develop expectations about the relationship between outcomes
and one aspect of board dynamics that affects decision making: intraboard conflict. Using administrative and survey data from
school board members and school district superintendents in California, I show a consistent pattern of negative associations
between board conflict and outcomes at multiple organizational levels. An instrumental variables strategy utilizing institutional
variation in board member election type confirms that board conflict can lead to negative outcomes. The findings suggest that
existing conceptualizations of board roles should be broadened to incorporate the interpersonal dynamics that inform board
decision making.
... The recent influx of theories from behavioral science into public policy (Oliver, 2013) and public administration (Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2017) research offers an important starting point to elucidate the need for and focus of behavioral public strategy. Such research has shown: (1) the existence of several heuristics, or shortcuts, taken by policymakers that might result in biased strategic decisions (e.g., Nielsen & Baekgaard, 2015;Christensen et al., 2018;George et al., 2020); (2) that psychological characteristics of policymakers impact their ethical, information-seeking and learning behavior (e.g., Kroll, 2014;Stazyk & Davis, 2015;George, 2020); (3) that group dynamics among teams of policymakers influence the quality of strategic decisions as well as trust-related outcomes between these policymakers (e.g., Grissom, 2014;Klijn et al., 2010;; (4) that team composition influences shared understanding among policymakers, financial decisions and learning with partners (e.g., Opstrup & Villadsen, 2015;Siddiki et al., 2017;Desmidt et al., 2018); and, finally, (5) that strategy tools employed by policymakers can be boundary-spanning or sense-making objects, but can also induce specific heuristics and lead to biased strategic decisions (e.g., Spee & Jarzabkowski, 2011;Vining, 2011;Bryson et al., 2016;Höglund et al., 2018,). As such, a variety of public service performance dimensions can be affected, ranging from quality, efficiency, effectiveness, equity, service outcomes and responsiveness to more governance-related outcomes through these micro-level behavioral phenomena (Walker et al., 2010). ...
... Group dynamics focus on the interactions within a strategic decision-making team and include, for instance, trust, conflict and justice perceptions. For example, Grissom (2014) identified the negative impact of intra-board conflict on a range of board and organizational outcomes within school boards in California. Klijn et al. (2010) focused on the role of trust between the key actors within a Dutch governance network and found that trust enhanced several network outcomes. ...
... George and Desmidt (2018) found that perceived procedural justice of strategic decision-making processes among Flemish pupil guidance centers is positively associated with the perceived quality of strategic decisions. These studies thus suggest that group dynamics underlying strategic decision-making in public organizations and networks influence governance outcomes such as collaboration (Klijn et al., 2010), broader organizational outcomes (Grissom, 2014) and quality . ...
How can we stimulate policymakers to make strategic decisions that enhance public service performance? Traditional strategy theories have not enabled us to answer this question. These theories focus on strategy processes or content in public organizations and networks, and directly link these to public service performance. This article defines and elaborates on a conceptual framework which uses theory from behavioral science to unravel how policymakers can make strategic decisions that actually enhance the performance of public organizations and networks. This conceptual framework is labelled Behavioral Public Strategy and conceptualizes public strategy as a social process shaped by the individuals, teams and tools underlying it. Behavioral Public Strategy thus focuses on the micro-foundations of public strategy and how these micro-foundations influence strategic decisions. Moreover, Behavioral Public Strategy links meso and micro levels by proposing a bathtub model where the relationship between public strategy and public service performance at the organizational and network level is explained by the relationship between the micro-foundations of public strategy and the ensuing strategic decisions at the individual and team level. This article connects three research streams that have been like “ships that pass in the night”, namely public strategy, behavioral public policy and behavioral public administration.
... School boards arguably have a specialized and straightforward performance objective: the maximization of academic performance as measured by state-mandated standardized tests (Ford & Ihrke, 2015b). While the school board governance literature as not historically focused solely on student performance (see Land, 2002), more recent work by Grissom (2010Grissom ( , 2014) and Ford and Ihrke (2015b) argues for the increased attention to the links between school board governance and test scores. Though test scores are an imperfect measure of organizational success, and by no means the sole indicator of organizational performance, they are an externally valid performance measure used in state accountability frameworks across the United States (Wong, 2013). ...
... Within that volume Delagardelle (2008) explains how school board policy decisions impact school cultures, management decisions, and classroom instruction in ways that translate into student performance. More recently Grissom (2014) demonstrates a link between conflict on California school boards and student test scores. Ford & Ihrke (2015a, 2015b, 2017 also demonstrate a link between board member conflict and performance on urban school boards, as well as a link between school-board level agreement on the definition of accountability and performance. ...
... However, given the lack of fully intact boards, it is an imperfect measure that should be interpreted as measuring the presence of some alignment within the group, not necessarily full alignment within the group. Previous research by Ford and Ihrke (2015b) and Grissom (2014) similar relied on this imperfect conceptualization of small group governing board dynamics. ...
In this paper we match originally collected survey data from school board members in the state of Michigan with hard measures of school district outcomes to test two hypotheses regarding the relationship between strategic planning prioritization and organizational performance. We find that school board members who place a higher priority on strategic planning oversee school districts with comparably higher levels of academic performance. The findings demonstrate a correlation between board governance behaviors and organizational outcomes broadly, and between strategic planning prioritization and outcomes specifically. The results are of interest to practitioners and scholars of strategic planning and public sector governance.
... In this article, we propose an alternative governance framework based on the supposition that the perceptions of both the governing and the governed are the key to understanding governance. We first review the state of governance theory, and then offer a framework for understanding governance based on five propositions informed by previous work on governing boards conducted by Bevir and Rhodes (2006); Bevir, Rhodes, and Weller (2003); Brown (2005); Brown and Guo (2010); Ihrke (2015a,b, 2017a,b); Gabris and Nelson (2013); Golembiewski (1995); Grissom (2014);and Nelson, Gabris, and Davis (2011). Why do we focus on the board level? ...
... Brown (2005Brown ( , 2007 looked at nonprofit board dynamics, showing a link between the use of board development measures and nonprofit performance. Grissom (2014) looked specifically at schoolboards, determining that schoolboard member conflict negatively impacts academic performance in California school districts. More recently, Ihrke (2015a,b, 2017a,b) tested the link between the group dynamics of trust and conflict and performance in several difference venues. ...
... In this study, the authors showed that nonprofit boards with lower levels of perceived conflict and higher levels of perceived trust exhibited better school-level performance indicators. All of the Ford and Ihrke studies, as well as the previously mentioned Grissom (2014) study, show how minimizing perceptions of group conflict can translate into measurable performance gains. ...
In this article, we present a theoretical framework for understanding public governance based on human perceptions. We argue that governance is at its core a human enterprise, and concepts such as effectiveness, accountability, and legitimacy cannot be measured without considering the perceptions of both the governed and those involved in governing. The shortcomings of existing governance research are discussed, and five propositions related to the link between micro- and macro-governance, small group dynamics, accountability, and public performance are offered. We conclude by describing how the framework can be applied in future research in the fields of public and nonprofit governance.
... And do the manner in which boards execute their priorities, that is, their governance behaviors, impact performance? In the United States, researchers have examined these questions on various governing boards, including city and village boards (Svara, 1990), nonprofit boards (Brown, 2005;Brown & Iverson, 2004), and, more recently, school boards (Grissom, 2010(Grissom, , 2014Merz, 1986), in search of a connection between governance behaviors, government structures, and government performance. Although no clear consensus exists on a universal way to measure public and nonprofit board performance, a growing body of literature does suggest that board dynamics and structures impact a variety of fiscal and performance indicators across government contexts. ...
... Other scholars, including Thielemann and Stewart (1996) and Meier and Bohte (2001), stress the link between coherent values for actors within an organization and organizational performance. Grissom (2014), in a study of California school boards, specifically linked conflict (measured as split board votes) to lower levels of student achievement. M. R. used a national sample of school board members to link high levels of perceived conflict among board members with lower graduation rates in school districts. ...
... The conceptual framework guiding our quantitative models is that priority conflict on urban school boards is a function of both school district characteristics (as demonstrated in the education and public governance literature by Grissom, 2014, andHeidbreder et al., 2011) and the governing dynamics as perceived by board members (as demonstrated by Gabris & Nelson, 2013). In other words, the differing priorities of board members serving together are expected to be impacted by both the institutional and human governance environments. ...
In this article, the authors use original survey data to test the determinants of priority conflict on urban school boards in the United States. The results indicate that school district demographics, including the percentage of English language learners and education spending per pupil, impact the extent to which urban school board members hold conflicting priorities. In addition, boards whose members indicate they engage in continuous strategic planning exhibit comparably lower levels of priority conflict. The results are of interest to scholars studying the nexus of urban governing boards and performance, as well as practitioners serving on urban governing boards.
... In this article we use a national sample of survey data collected from U.S. school board members, paired with school-district level data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), to model the relationship between school board conflict and district performance as measured by high school graduation rates. We expand on existing literature connecting conflict to board performance through our use of national data, and focus on the different level and impacts of conflict on urban school boards (Gabris & Nelson, 2013;Grissom, 2014;Ihrke & Niederjohn, 2005;Johnson, 2012;Johnson & Ihrke, 2004). ...
... We suspect the findings of Gabris et al. (2001) will apply to school boards as well. Grissom (2014), in a study of California school boards, specifically connects board conflict with negative performance outcomes. Grissom concludes that working to improve board dynamics should be a component of governance. ...
... First, as demonstrated by Miller's (2008) critique, the very legitimacy of democratically elected school boards is being questioned by scholars and pundits (Howell, 2005;Manna & McGuinn, 2013). Second, Smoley (1999), Rice et al. (2000), Delagardelle (2008), Walser (2009), Grissom (2014), and Diem, Frankenberg, and Cleary (2015) have all explored the relationship between school board group dynamics like conflict, board policies, and school board performance. Third, the views of school board members are noticeably absent from the many critiques of the effectiveness of democratically elected school boards, despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of U.S. students receive an education overseen by a democratically elected school board (Alsbury, 2008;Hess, 2008). ...
In this article a national sample of survey data collected from U.S. school board members paired with school-district level data from the National Center for Education Statistics are used to test the relationships between board conflict and school district performance. We add to the existing governance literature through our use of a national data set and specific focus on the impact of conflict on urban school boards. The analysis indicates a negative relationship between board conflict and district performance that is magnified on urban school boards. We conclude that school board members in general can improve school district performance by mitigating potential sources of board conflict, and that the importance of reducing conflict is greater on urban school boards.
... The Public Administration literature on small group theory gives reason to suspect that shared accountability definitions are determined by perceptions of effective small group dynamics broadly linked with successful board governance practices (Frederickson et al. 2012). For example, Grissom (2014), and Ihrke and Niederjohn (2005), found a link between high levels of perceived board conflict and decreased governing board performance. Golembiewski (1995) showed that board members with regenerative relationships with fellow board members, i.e. relationships built on trust and openness, are comparatively higher performing. ...
... Hypothesis 2: Board members who perceive high levels of board conflict are less likely to be in agreement with fellow board members regarding their perception of whether or not the majority of their fellow board members share their definition of accountability. Ford and Ihrke (2015a, b, c), Grissom (2014), Ihrke and Niederjohn (2005), Johnson and Ihrke (2004) and others discussed and/or demonstrated the negative impact of certain types of perceived board conflict on organizational health and performance. As preciously discussed, the dependent variable used in this analysis, agreement on the group's positions on accountability, is an indicator of a healthy, mature group dynamic. ...
... As such, there is value in understanding how the small groups of human beings serving together on school boards understand the group's take on accountability (Berry and Howell 2005;Ravitch 2010a, b;Yang 2012). The authors address the need to better understand the human element in accountability by building on previous work demonstrating the link between perceptions of small group dynamics, views on accountability, and governance performance (Gabris and Nelson 2013;Grissom 2014;Ford and Ihrke 2015b). The presented results yield several points meriting discussion. ...
This article connects the accountability and small group dynamics literature by testing several hypotheses related to the link between perceived dynamics on American school boards and board member agreement on accountability perceptions. The authors conclude that board members who view their boards as productive, low-conflict, and active, are more likely to be in agreement with their fellow members’ perceptions of accountability. The results are of use to scholars seeking to understand the relationships between small group dynamics, accountability, and performance on governing boards.
... One particular group dynamic appearing frequently in the public administration literature is conflict. A variety of scholars across disciplines and eras, including Coser (1956), Deutsch (1973), and Grissom (2010Grissom ( , 2014 have theorized and tested the potential causes and effects of various types of group conflict. More recently, a body of survey-based studies exploring the determinants and effects of group conflict on municipal government bodies has emerged in the United States (Heidbreder et al., 2011;Ihrke and Scott Niederjohn, 2005;Nelson and Nollenberger, 2011). ...
... More recently, a body of survey-based studies exploring the determinants and effects of group conflict on municipal government bodies has emerged in the United States (Heidbreder et al., 2011;Ihrke and Scott Niederjohn, 2005;Nelson and Nollenberger, 2011). In general, conflict has been shown or assumed, with limited exception, to have a negative impact on the overall performance of public governing boards (Grissom, 2014). Given the generally negative effects of conflict on governing boards, understanding the reasons why conflict appears on boards can provide actionable information that board members can use to lower conflict and improve performance. ...
... However, boards can take action, including engagement in joint strategic planning and/or board-superintendent development exercises, to cultivate the relationship between board members and the superintendent. While some of these steps may seem simple, the creation of safe forums in which a partnership between the board and the executive can be fostered has potential, as demonstrated, to reduce board conflict and improve performance (Grissom, 2014). ...
In this article, we use original survey data from Wisconsin school board members to determine the extent of conflict present on Wisconsin school boards and the determinants of different types of perceived board conflict. School boards, by virtue of overseeing a public good with readily measurable performance variables, offer an ideal case for testing a relationship between board governance performance and conflict. Using multivariate regression analysis, we find that that the perceived level of conflict on Wisconsin school boards is dependent on the quality of superintendent–board relations, the demographic profile of the school district overseen by the school board, and the age and experience level of school board members. Notably, we do not find a clear relationship between conflict and measures of school district academic performance.
... However, research on conflict within boards has provided less conclusive findings. While some point to the possible positive effect of differences of opinion and debate within the board (Forbes & Milliken, 1999), most researchers highlight the negative effects of disagreement and quarrel on the effectiveness of the board (Grissom, 2012). A recent meta-analysis of research on this topic revealed that while the efforts, norms and the use of knowledge within a board of directors have a clear effect on the effectiveness of a board, there is a lack of clarity about the impact of conflicts on the effectiveness of boards (Heemskerk, 2019). ...
... Boards that are free from conflicts and act as a cohesive group are in this view seen as optimally functioning boards, characterised by "superior decision-making" (Van Peteghem et al., 2017, p. 339). Studies focusing on school boards have likewise been preoccupied with the negative consequences of conflicts (Ford & Ihrke, 2016Grissom, 2009Grissom, , 2012Land, 2002). These studies commonly recommend to avoid tensions and conflicts (Ford & Ihrke, 2016;Land, 2002). ...
The increased diversity and autonomy of schools calls for a more professional approach to school governance. In response, attention has been directed to the structure of school boards in the Netherlands. However, previous research indicates that the effectiveness of governance is not so much about structure as it is about behaviour. Conflict, in particular, appears to be an important underexposed factor in the effective behaviour of school boards. In a longitudinal research design, a survey using Likert‐scale items was distributed in 2016 and 2017 to executive directors of schools in the Netherlands to gauge their assessment of conflicts within the supervisory school board. Hierarchical regression analyses and moderator analyses were used to test the hypotheses. An increase in task‐related conflicts were found to have a clear positive effect on the task performance of supervisory boards. An increase in numbers of relational conflicts had a negative effect on the control task performance, while an increase in process‐related conflicts had a negative effect on the advisory task performance. The cohesion within a supervisory board proved to be an important moderator of the effect of task‐related conflicts and relationship conflicts on the control task performance. The results from this research underline the need for a multidimensional conceptualisation of conflict in supervisory boards. The need for further research on the interaction between cohesion and conflicts is underscored. Boards should make room for substantive debate and even for the inevitable friction and irritation that is sometimes inherent in being effective in managing schools.
... Authors provide contemporary examples of the continued existence of disenfranchisement of young adult Black men through public institutions like the judicial and educational systems (Grissom, 2014;Kirshner, 2015;Winfield, 2007). As introduced earlier, Kirshner (2015) found both structural and instructional barriers to the political engagement of Black urban public-school students (pp.142-156). ...
... These contexts may include practices, policies, and or events as proximal manifestations of the environment (Denzin, 1992;Grissom, 2014 This dissertation has a dimensioned goal. The first dimension is toward gaining knowledge of eighteen to twenty-two-year-old young adult Black males' perceptions of civic and political activation. ...
There is a gap in our knowledge and understanding of perceptions of political activities, including the influence of education policies, by young adult Black males. There is a gap in our understanding of the formation of perceptions and attitudes. The purpose of this study is to gain a perspective of the perceptions of young adult Black male students regarding civic and political activism. By increasing our knowledge of Black students’ experiences and motivations, in relation to perception development, there could be lived experience-based pedagogy that encourages Black young adults to engage politically in a greater proportion. Additionally, such knowledge could provide insight toward being enabled to effectively react to perceived injustices and intolerant outcomes.
... A small number of scholars have demonstrated, in general, the connection between school board governance and organizational performance as measured by academic outcomes (see Delagardelle, 2008;Grissom, 2014;Lutz & Iannaccone, 2008). Ford and Ihrke (2015c) found that adherence to a set of school board best practices called the Key Work of School Boards is positively correlated with school district performance on boards with comparatively low turnover. ...
... Theories of small group dynamics provide a plausible explanation as to why nonprofit board governance can impact organizational performance. As mentioned, , Gabris and Nelson (2013), and others demonstrated that positive group dynamics on governing boards, mainly the minimizing of negative conflict types (see Grissom, 2014), having high levels of trust and ownership over decisionmaking (see Golembiewski, 1995), and having positive relationships between the executive and board (see Ford & Ihrke, 2015c), increase the overall performance of the organization. We suspect that 1. Boards exhibiting these positive group dynamics are more productive in policymaking in policy areas key to performance, including the setting of academic standards, the use of standardized assessments, and the setting of behavior policies; and 2. Boards that are more active in the setting of key policies obtain better performance results. ...
In this article, we build on the existing literatures on small group dynamics and public and nonprofit governance by exploring the link between small group dynamics, governance, and nonprofit performance. The results provide evidence that nonprofit governing boards can improve organizational performance by improving their governance behaviors. Specifically, we link survey data from Minnesota nonprofit charter school board members to hard measures of organizational performance in a path analysis predicting school-level math and reading proficiency levels. We find that boards exhibiting better group dynamics are more active in key governance areas, and that active governance is linked to increased organizational outcomes. Our findings advance scholarly understanding of nonprofit governance by identifying a pathway between nonprofit board governing dynamics and sustainable organizational performance gains. We conclude with practical advice on how nonprofit boards can increase their organizational performance through improved small group dynamics.
... Authors provide contemporary examples of the continued existence of disenfranchisement of young adult Black men through public institutions like the judicial and educational systems (Grissom, 2014;Kirshner, 2015;Winfield, 2007). As introduced earlier, Kirshner (2015) found both structural and instructional barriers to the political engagement of Black urban public-school students (pp.142-156). ...
... These contexts may include practices, policies, and or events as proximal manifestations of the environment (Denzin, 1992;Grissom, 2014). And therefore, implied to be important indicators for how a young adult Black man may be perceiving given social contexts, including matters political. ...
There is a gap in our knowledge and understanding of perceptions of political activities, including the influence of education policies, by young adult Black males. There is a gap in our understanding of the formation of perceptions and attitudes. The purpose of this study is to gain a perspective of the perceptions of young adult Black male students regarding civic and political activism. By increasing our knowledge of Black students’ experiences and motivations, in relation to perception development, there could be lived experience-based pedagogy that encourages Black young adults to engage politically in a greater proportion. Additionally, such knowledge could provide insight toward being enabled to effectively react to perceived injustices and intolerant outcomes.
... Respondents were able to answer the question for all six functions included in the hypotheses. The responses of board members serving together on common boards were then averaged out, a technique used in previous school board research by Grissom (2014), to obtain a board-level perception of the board-executive distribution of governance responsibilities. The responses are displayed visually in Figure 1. ...
... To address the concern of the impact of socioeconomic and demographic factors, four school-level control variables known or suspected to impact academic achievement are included in our multivariate regression analysis (Hanushek, 1997). All of these control variables are common in education and charter school studies in which test scores are used as a dependent variable (Hanushek, 1997;Witte et al., 2007;CREDO, 2015;Grissom, 2014). All four variables were obtained from the NCES and paired with data from the board members who represent each school. ...
Purpose
In this paper we use original data collected from school board members representing nonprofit charter schools in the state of Minnesota to examine the relationship between the distribution of board-executive governance responsibilities and the performance of organizations operating as part of a New Public Management style macro-governance reform.
Design/methodology/approach
A combination of survey data collected from Minnesota charter school board members and hard performance data is utilized in two OLS regression models to predict the link between organizational governance and school performance.
Findings
We find that boards can improve hard measures of organizational performance by shifting responsibility of day-to-day operations closer to the executive, and public advocacy duties closer to the board. The results build on the existing literatures on school board governance and board-executive relations. Overall, the findings suggest the existence of an ideal balance between board-executive governance responsibilities in key functional areas on charter school boards.
Originality/value
Though a healthy literature exists regarding the value of charter schools, very few studies have actually explored the way in which these organizations are governed. Our study is the first to link charter board governance responsibilities to performance.
... 5 Superintendents are considered to be appointed chief executives or professional administrators of school districts, managing day-to-day operations of their districts, such as preparing a budget, making revisions as requested by the board, and administering the board-adopted budget (Fusarelli & Petersen, 2002;Kirst & Wirt, 2009;Meier & O'Toole, 2001). Conversely, school boards are elected representative bodies that can function as counselors to provide broad guidance to superintendents (Grissom, 2014;Meier & O'Toole, 2001). Thus, their relationship can be explained by a principal-agent theory. ...
... Finally, Texas school districts, as common public organizations, embed a hierarchical governance structure and also employ more than one percent of public officials in the U.S. This allows us to investigate one of the most representative public organizations (Grissom, 2014;Meier et al., 2004;Meier & O'Toole, 2009). Thus, the selection of school districts in Texas as a unit of analysis produces meaningful implications for public management in general. ...
Scholars have emphasized the roles of strategic public management and the financial condition but little is known about the link between the two. Finding the missing link is the purpose of this study. By analyzing data from K-12 Texas school districts, this study investigates how top managers’ strategic efforts toward their superiors, subordinates, and external stakeholders affect the financial condition of school districts. The findings suggest that superintendents’ managing upward toward school boards increases fund balances, whereas managing downward toward school principals decreases fund balances. Apparently, the relationships between school boards, superintendents, and school principals contain different priorities and incentives that influence their behaviors in managing school district budgets.
... Imagine, however, if the governance behaviors on a school board, something board members can control, could offset the impact of some of the many things that a school board cannot control. Indeed, previous research by the authors (Ford & Ihrke, 2015) and others (Grissom, 2014) demonstrated that school board governance can, under the right circumstances, have an impact on the academic performance of school districts. Other research by Svara (1990), Herman and Renz (2000;, and Brown (2007) similarly suggests and/or demonstrates a link between board governance and the performance of public and nonprofit organizations. ...
... This study is exploratory in nature. While we hypothesize based on our previous work (Ford & Ihrke, 2015) and the work of Herman and Renz (2000;, Brown (2007) and Grissom (2014) that board members reporting the use of different models have variation in their board dynamics and performance, little research exists to determine exactly how we should expect those variables to vary across models. In addition, because we allow survey respondents to pick the language that best describes how their board goes about making decisions, the results should not be seen as an indictment or celebration of any specific governance model but rather an indicator of determinants and impacts of the perceived governance behaviors of school boards in our dataset. ...
In this article, the authors apply Mel Gill’s (2002) description of governance model types to a national sample of school board members in the United States. The authors find that the majority of school board members take a policy-driven approach to board governance, while a substantial percentage take a traditional approach that delegates clear authority to the organization executive. Multinomial-logistic regression analysis and a series of analysis of variance tests are used to identify the structural and group dynamic differences between difference governance model types. The authors find that governance models have an impact on the group dynamics of organizations and that board approaches to governance differ substantially by area, concluding that future studies of governance models should consider the differences in governance strategies across functional areas.
... Our data from Michigan municipal council members and department heads reveal that the two groups have divergent view of the qualities of their interactions with one another. In the context of the small group dynamics literature, this divergence of views is problematic; if two groups crucial to effective governance do not have an accurate portrayal of each other, the local government is likely not operating as effectively as possible (Gabris & Nelson 2013;Grissom 2010Grissom , 2014. However, the divergence of views is not surprising given the lack of regular interactions between council members and department heads. ...
... A simple diagnostic tool that asks each group to rate their interaction and then discusses where they are different and why would force both groups to have a common view of their interactions. Given the effects of positive group dynamics identified by Grissom (2014) and , such a step should be expected to lead to real gains in public performance. ...
In this article, we use data collected from municipal council members and department heads in Michigan municipalities with over 10000 residents to determine how, and why, they view the quality of their interactions with one another. Building theories of small group dynamics and political control of bureaucracy, we test several hypotheses and conclude that council members and department heads hold divergent views of their interactions with one another and that their views are determined by government form and community characteristics. We conclude with simple steps that local government officials and administrators can take to improve their small group dynamics and governing performance.
... The connection between school board governance and school district outcomes is arguably even less intuitive due to the limitations on school board actions presented by state and federal mandates (Hochschild, 2005;Howell, 2005). Nonetheless, recent research has shown there is good reason to conclude school boards can and do impact student outcomes (Alsbury, 2008b;Delagardelle, 2008;Grissom, 2012). While, French, Peevely, and Stanley (2008) find that school board members generally believe they are effective, there is limited scholarship demonstrating exactly how board members can be effective. ...
... Broadly, the small group dynamics literature shows that positive group dynamics positively impact organizational performance, while negative group dynamics hinder organizational performance (Carver, 2001;Heidbreder et al., 2011;Ihrke & Niederjohn, 2005;Jehn, 1995;Jehn & Mannix, 2001;Johnson & Ihrke, 2004;Nelson & Nollenberger, 2011). Grissom (2012) found that high levels of conflict on school boards led to decreased academic performance in California school districts. Gabris, Golembiewski, and Ihrke (2001) and Nelson, Gabris, and Davis (2011) linked other small groups dynamics, including trust and leadership, to overall organizational performance. ...
The most prominent set of school board governance best practices used in the United States is the National School Boards Association’s (NSBA’s) Key Work of School Boards. In this article, we operationalize adherence to the Key Work of School Boards with multiple survey items answered by Wisconsin school board members. Using multivariate regression models, we find that adherence to the best practices results in improved achievement in districts represented by board members who have served for five or more years. The findings support the idea that school board governance behaviors are linked to district-level academic outcomes.
... Other variables listed in Table 3 are school and district demographic variables obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). These control variables are widely used in K-12 education research, and in school board governance research, to address the many factors beyond the control of a school board (Hanushek 1997;Grissom 2014). We also control for two variables obtained from our survey. ...
... Second, the lower level of conflict on charter school boards could have both positive and negative implications. On the positive side, a low-conflict board may be more efficient, productive, and ultimately more effective at overseeing the delivery of a publicly funded education (Ihrke and Scott Niederjohn 2005;Grissom 2014). However, low-conflict could also lead to groupthink, and missed opportunities to blow off steam that will ultimately lead to hasty and/or poor governance decisions (Deutsch 1973;'T Hart 1994;Jehn and Mannix 2001). ...
In this paper, survey data collected from nonprofit charter school board and elected public school board members in Minnesota is used to test three hypotheses relating to theories of New Public Management, democratic governance, and small group dynamics. We find that nonprofit charter school board members perceive lower levels of conflict, place less priority on the general public, and perceive a higher degree of governance responsibly in the area of financial management, than elected board members. We conclude that the increased use of nonprofit charter schools has potentially substantial implications on accountability and effectiveness in the delivery of public education.
... Finally, if we should go back to the work of George (2020, p. 6), presenting the concept of public behavioral strategy, he claims that 'group dynamics focus on interactions within a strategic decision making team.' For instance, aspects such as trust (Klijn et al., 2010) or conflict (Grissom, 2014) are deeply studied. However, from the work by George (2020) emerged the main research gap that we intend to tackle with our paper. ...
Purpose : The paper aims to explore group dynamics in the management and administration of the selected public organization. Specific interest is given to two fundamental domains of group dynamics: 1) communication processes and interaction patterns; 2) group cohesion and climate.
Methods: The approach is based on in-depth interviews with public employees representing various departments of a public organization. A total of 34 subjects participated in this study and provided primary data for coding and finding patterns. Both investigator and data triangulation are used to conceptualize group dynamics in the public organization.
Results : Public organizations’ employees face hardships in knowledge sharing and tend to misunderstand the agenda between various departments and citizens. The participation of citizens in decision making could be seen as a ‘double edged sword’ that contributes to the implementation of public projects, but often derails efficient organizational processes. Public organizations struggle with employee turnover, insufficient treatment of employee wellbeing, and unwillingness to pursue personal development.
Conclusion : Understanding and further defining the level of group dynamics among public employees is the first step towards adopting innovation approaches. The paper highlights the implications for public organizations with an overview of the behaviors needed for a smooth strategy process in development planning based on organizational forces that leads to a better understanding of group dynamics.
... Aligned with the behavioural turn in public administration (Grimmelikhuijsen et al. 2017) and given that it is almost unimaginable to 'expect any sort of direct, causal connection between the existence of a strategic plan and performance ' (Bryson et al. 2010, 509), this study uses a micro-level perspective to provide empirical insights on the mechanisms underlying the impact of strategic processes on organizational performance (Desmidt and Meyfroodt 2021; George et al. 2017;Meyfroodt et al. 2019;Poister 2010). By analysing how, in practice, board involvement in rational planning processes and governing boards' use of rational planning instruments impacts governing board-CAO dynamics, the study results address the contradiction that although the literature has acknowledged that the effectiveness of a dual governance structure 'depend [s] heavily on social-psychological processes, particularly those pertaining to group participation and interaction, the exchange of information, and critical discussion' (Forbes and Milliken 1999, 492;Grissom 2014), empirical insight in the black box of board processes and dynamics are limited (Heemskerk et al. 2015). ...
Many local authorities are governed by a dual governance structure involving a political governing board and a chief administrative officer (CAO). The question if both strategic actors should collaborate has been long debated. The politics-administration dichotomy perspective advocates independence, while the complementarity view eulogizes interdependence. But, what is the appropriate level of governing board involvement during strategy implementation? We use data of 96 Flemish local authorities’ CAOs to investigate if specific strategic board role behaviours (SBRBs) stimulate governing board-CAO information sharing and, subsequently, foster strategy implementation effectiveness. Results confirm the relevance of overseeing SBRB in combination with information sharing.
... School directors may or may not be operating from a distinctly partisan lens, and voters may be less aware of their policy preferences. Recent research suggests that Democratic school board members pass policies that decrease school segregation (Macartney & Singleton, 2018), while ideologically mixed boards exhibit greater interpersonal conflict (Grissom, 2010(Grissom, , 2014. School board candidates at the top of the 38 ballot are more likely to be elected than candidates at the bottom of the ballot; school board elections are extremely low information environments (Meredith & Grissom, 2010;Shi & Singleton, 2018). ...
Education reform rhetoric frequently pits the vested interests of teachers’ unions against those of students and families. To test whether union restrictions are related to student learning, I analyze a unique database of contractual items for the 2016-2017 school year across all 499 Pennsylvania school districts in order to examine a) variation, b) partisan political predictors, and c) relationships to student achievement and graduation rates. I also examine changes in 105 contracts that occurred during the 2015-2016 school year. I depict variation among items using GIS mapping. I use OLS regression, probit regression, and spatial autoregression to examine relationships between contract features and student proficiency and graduation rates. I also use propensity score weighting with generalized boosted models (GBM). After controlling for spatial dependence and district demographics, I find a significant negative relationship between the percentage of registered Republicans in a district and bonuses for teacher graduate credentials. I find a significant and positive relationship between Republican registered voters and math and science proficiency. This relationship diminishes in magnitude for ELA proficiency. I also find a significant positive relationship between average years of teaching experience and ELA proficiency in grades 3-8. Using GBM, I find significant positive estimates (+2%) of teacher qualification indicators on students’ math achievement in grades 3-8, and a significant positive estimate (+2%) between harsh consequences for ELA teachers and student proficiency. I also find a significant positive estimate between higher teacher pay and biology proficiency (+4% for historically disadvantaged students), as well as a significant negative estimate of graduate credential bonuses on graduation rates (-6%). These correlational results suggest that subject-area and grade-level differentiation in contracts – such as higher wages for STEM teachers – might be beneficial. The most effective STEM teachers might be seeking out positions in the best-paying districts with the strongest contracts.
... Although Superintendent Carroll worked to reverse this trend, with the toxicity building between Carroll and the newly elected board members which included the previous superintendent, the district appears headed toward a contentious relationship which may, once again, affect the students of the district. Grissom (2014) examined the role of board conflict in board effectiveness. Examining four models, Grissom found that across models, board effectiveness was negatively correlated to board conflict. ...
A beloved, respected, and highly accomplished superintendent in a rural, high-risk district, Mr. Carroll, is confronted with dissident board members for the first time in his 7-year tenure. Two newly elected members have strained relationships between current board members and are calling for his resignation based upon what they perceive as low SAT scores, the excessive amount of Carroll’s salary, and the district’s focus on academic growth, rather than achievement, of students. Despite mediation from the state aimed at easing tensions on both sides, the issue reaches a boiling point at a board meeting.
... Since board's often charge superintendents with implementing their directives (Fraga et al., 2005), sometimes creating challenging relationships between the two (Mountford, 2004), the fact that the school board and superintendent were in opposite camps when it came to the district reorganization was surprising. Often, such divisions negatively impact superintendents' ability or desire to remain in the position (Grissom, 2014;Mountford, 2008), which, in this case, may have prompted Skorkowsky to retire at end of his contract in 2018. Nonetheless, it would be interesting to follow the connections noted by the participants between Skorkowsky and the transportation consultant and to what extent this work might be connected to future contracted or consulting services derived from decentralization efforts. ...
Leaders of education policy continue to decentralize school districts, particularly in predominately large urban districts, despite mixed results from this reform. In this article, we seek to explain how decentralization came to fruition through the policymaking process in one of the largest and most diverse districts in the United States that serves urban, suburban, and rural communities. Employing concepts related to advocacy coalitions and critical policy analysis, our analysis suggests that the policymaking process to decentralize this district was complex, messy, and political with clear delineations between those voices that were (un)heard and (un)involved.
... Some of these external influences are political in nature (Meier and O'Toole 2006). As an illustration, organizations under the management of elected leadership are often subject to the influence of the political institutions that govern leaders' behaviour (Grissom 2009(Grissom , 2012. This is the case with organizations that provide educational, healthcare or other local services since many of these bureaucracies are governed by elected leaders. ...
The link between expenditures and organizational performance is central to our understanding of public sector governance. Despite various empirical and theoretical accounts of how organizations buffer or exploit financial situations to stabilize outcomes, the literature remains split on how money influences organizational performance. This study sheds new light on this puzzle by developing an analysis of clientele contexts, and how such contexts intervene in the relationship between expenditure and performance. We analyze competing hypotheses for the heterogeneous effects of clientele contexts on funding and performance –one in which these contexts strengthen the relationship, and one in which they weaken the relationship. Through district‐level empirical analyses of public education data over a seventeen‐year period, we find that instructional spending changes influence student performance, and that the impact is conditioned by the socioeconomic mix of students. Organizations that serve low‐income communities see the greatest performance gains from increased monetary resources.
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... Delagardelle (2008) identified key differences in governance behaviors, concluding that high-performing governance teams establish a clear and consistent culture that translates into improved student outcomes. Grissom (2014) and Ihrke (2015, 2017) more directly connected school board governance to performance measures in studies linking group dynamics of school boards to academic achievement. This strand of research, again, speaks to the importance of school board representation in legitimizing school board decision-making. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this research was to determine the extent to which American school board members faced electoral competition, as well as the factors influencing the likelihood of competition.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors utilized original national survey data of American school board members linked with school district demographic data obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics. Several hypotheses were tested using three state-level fixed-effects logistic regression models predicting electoral competition.
Findings
The authors found that 39.6% of American school board members reported not having an opponent in their most recent election. School board members serving larger urban school districts with higher percentages of special needs students and racial minorities were more likely to have faced electoral competition.
Originality/value
The authors highlighted potential flaws in the traditional model of local democratic governance and helped expand understanding of the dissatisfaction theory of American democracy and continuous participation theory. The authors concluded with several suggestions on how the results can be used to inform future local governance reforms that increase electoral competition and/or create more effective governance models.
... They are sometimes diminished or bypassed altogether by state or mayoral takeover (Burns, 2010;Schueler, 2019;Welsh, 2019;Wong & Shen, 2003). However, school boards can have an impact on district direction through their supervision of the superintendent and budget, and research shows that their leadership can affect student outcomes (Alsbury, 2008, Ford & Ihrke 2016bGrissom, 2012). Studies also show that political and administrative centralization of control as well as mayoral control over school district decision making affects academic achievement (Manna, 2013;Wong, Shen, Anagnostopoulos, & Rutledge, 2007). ...
Purpose: To investigate how and in what way local governance of education is consequential to the work of changing public schools. The focus is on the board of education meeting as a ritual performance where authority is socially negotiated to manage the emotional and symbolic interactions that shape the district organization. Research Design: Data are drawn from 30 months of organizational fieldwork in New Haven Public Schools. Analysis is conducted on meeting transcripts, participant observer field notes, and stakeholder interviews. Findings: Observed as a ritual chain, four aspects of board of education meetings can be manipulated by those attempting to assert their authority within the organization. Organizational members used copresence, shared understandings of the ritual, emotions and symbols, and feelings of solidarity to set boundaries around the organization and maintain stability. Conclusions: Performances of organizational routines such as board meetings are consequential to the micro-level work of leading and changing education. School improvement and reform initiatives must account for the midlevel of school governance at the district and board level to make meaningful and sustainable change.
... 6. Many note the importance of quality 'interpersonal relationships' in groups (Jehn 1995;Kaatz, Edward French, and Prentiss-Cooper 1999;Grissom 2012). Importantly, and contrary to policy conflict, this second type of conflict is not resolved once a vote is taken. ...
Organisational scholars argue there are two distinct types of conflict found in the private-sector workplace. One is referred to as task conflict and the other relational conflict. We use their insights to devise our own measures of conflict on local elected councils. As opposed to ‘task conflict’ we use the term ‘policy conflict’ and keep the same nomenclature ‘relational conflict.’ We will contend it is important to not conflate the two. In this work, we test our unique operationalisations of conflict on an established measure of Governing Board Effectiveness. Because of concerns over using the same survey instrument to measure both explanatory variables and the dependent variable we also test our thesis regarding two-dimensional legislative conflict on entirely exogenous measures of ‘healthy cities.’ We find that higher levels of policy conflict comport with good governance outcomes, while relational conflict provides no measurable benefit.
... Arguably, English learners (ELs) experience some of the nation's worst educational inequities, particularly as a population whose majority is low-income and of Latinx heritage ( García and Kleifgen 2010;USDOE 2013aUSDOE , 2013b). 1 Contemporary research on school boards, as Howell (2005) describes, is at "its infancy" (14). Stemming from education and political science, recent studies focus largely on board dynamics, such as electoral (Alsbury 2008;Viteritti 2009;Wong and Shen 2008), structural (Ford and Ihrke 2016b;Tyack 1993), and interpersonal issues (Ford and Ihrke 2016a; Gabris et al. 2001;Grissom 2014;Peterson and Fusarelli 2008). These studies pay little attention to the role of schools boards in policy making, especially policies that influence educational equity ( Plucki et al. 2006). ...
... Studies on school board behaviour and effectiveness have often been limited to the negative aspects of conflict within school boards (Ford and Ihrke, 2016;Grissom, 2009Grissom, , 2012Land, 2002). This one-sided and one-dimensional orientation leads to the potentially harmful advice to avoid tension and conflicts between, for instance, the principal or superintendent and the school board (Ford and Ihrke, 2016;Land, 2002). ...
This article aims to clarify the effects of conflicts on the task performance of supervisory boards in education. Management studies on conflicts on corporate boards sometimes find a positive effect and sometimes a negative effect on the performance of boards. These mixed findings are considered a result of the triggering of harmful personal conflicts through disagreements about process and content within boards. In order to gain more insight into the complex ways in which conflicts influence the effectiveness of supervisory boards in education, a multidimensional operationalisation of conflict has been designed, in which three different types of conflict – task, process and relationship conflict – are distinguished. Chairs of the executive boards of schools in the Netherlands (N = 300) were questioned via a survey on various conflict dimensions and their supervisory board’s task performance. The results of hierarchical regression analyses underscore the need for a multidimensional approach to conflicts on supervisory boards in education. Task conflict has a positive effect and relationship conflict a negative effect, while process conflict seems to have no significant effect on supervisory board effectiveness. Furthermore, task conflicts have a mitigating, rather than a triggering, effect on relationship conflicts. Supervisory boards in education should therefore not avoid substantive discussions on the differences of opinion among their members to be more effective.
... For example, electing board members of color correlates with increased hiring of administrators and teachers of color (e.g., Meier, Juenke, Wrinkle, & Polinard, 2005;Meier & Rutherford, 2014). Boards with larger numbers of Democrats enact policies that decrease school segregation (Macartney & Singleton, 2018), while ideologically mixed boards exhibit greater interpersonal conflict, with potential consequences for their decision-making effectiveness (Grissom, 2010(Grissom, , 2014. ...
Elected representatives’ place of residence can reveal information about their socioeconomic status, their likely social networks, and potential biases in the constituencies they represent. Using data on home addresses we collected from local elections offices, we investigate the geographic distribution of school board candidates’, including winners’, places of residence across two election cycles for 610 school districts in Ohio. We employ geographic information systems (GIS) to identify census block group and school enrollment zones associated with each candidate’s residence. We document differences among block groups and schools with more and less school board representation, including a robust association between the relative affluence of a neighborhood and the likelihood of school board members residing in that area. We find that more citizens from affluent areas run for school board, and because a large proportion of school board elections feature minimal competition, these higher propensities to run explain disparities in representation.
... While empirical research on school boards within a contemporary context is relatively slim (Howell, 2005), several studies focus on how school boards operate, such as best practices in decision making (Ford & Ihrke, 2015) or the influence of stability and policy choices (Frankenberg & Diem, 2013). Other research highlights school boards' relationships with superintendents (Peterson & Fusarelli, 2008) and with each other (Grissom, 2014). Further studies find that voters tend to hold school boards accountable for student achievement, even though voter turnout tends to be less than 15% (Alsbury, 2008;Berry & Howell, 2005). ...
Purpose: The purpose of this article is to examine how and why Latinx school board members address educational equity, both in general and as related to English learners (ELs). Research Method: This study used a qualitative multiple case study design to examine the leadership of six Latinx school board members representing three different school districts in the U.S. Mountain West region. Data included semi-structured interviews and archival materials. Findings: This study emphasizes the counter-stories of these Latinx school board members, pointing to how family, identity, and encounters with inequities often informed their efforts in addressing equity. Findings also illustrate how most of these board members employed strategies of embracing or avoiding representation, coalition-building, and public advocacy or political neutrality toward equity, with limited and inconsistent results for ELs. Finally, these Latinx school board members often experienced backlash from colleagues and voters that coincided with their efforts. Conclusion: These findings signify that Latinx school board members are often among the most committed on school boards to improving educational equity for ELs and other underserved populations. Moreover, their leadership provides unique and significant representation for these communities that lead to interesting possibilities. Yet Latinx school board members experience several internal and external challenges that make it nearly impossible for them to sufficiently expand educational opportunities for the aforementioned populations.
... Both approaches suggest that the role of HR Managers is pivotal regardless of whether they are involved in changes of organizational structure (addition of new posts, layoffs, job mobility, etc.) or in the conflict itself (Grissom, 2014). ...
This study describes the relationship between three role perceptions and three conflict management styles among human resources managers in a high-tech and low-tech organizations. Three different role perception approaches were identified: the "mechanic" approaches, the "organic" approach, the "strategic" approach, which focuses on the HR manager as a strategic partner. In addition, three distinct conflict management styles were identified: the competitive style: "win–lose", the compromising style and the integrative style: "win- win" situation. The research method was qualitative. Data was collected by semi-constructed interviews of 19 HR managers in low tech and high tech industries. Findings show that Most HR managers which were characterized with "Mechanic" approach, tend to resolve conflict in a competitive style; Most HR managers which were characterized with an "organic" approach, tend to resolve conflicts in a compromising style; and most HR managers which were characterized with a "strategic" approach tend to resolve conflict in an integrative style. Additionally, the type of organization affects the relationship between role perception and conflict management style. This paper contributes both to the methods of qualitative research area and the newest theoretical aspects of human resource role in organizations.
Keywords: Human resource, role perception, conflict, conflict management, conflict resolution, organization research approach.
... If governance were not linked to school performance, it would not be expected that PAVE's efforts to improve governance would manifest in school-level proficiency rate gains. Importantly, the connection between governance and student achievement is demonstrated in a growing body of academic literature (see Delagardelle, 2008;Ford & Ihrke, 2015, 2016Grissom, 2014). However, the question of exactly how governance impacts performance is still unsettled. ...
In this article we seek to understand the impacts of a third party governance reform implemented by the nonprofit organization, Partners Advancing Values in Education (PAVE), on school-level performance in Milwaukee’s maure school choice environment. Specifically, we compare the performance of PAVE and non-PAVE schools on Wisconsin state tests, and explore the relationship between school advancement on PAVE’s internal indicators and performance. We show that generally positive findings for schools with longer exposure to PAVE programming exist independent of school size, history, religious affiliation, or reliance on voucher revenues. The article speaks to the potential of third party governance reforms to improve school performance in mature choice environments.
... Second, a logistic regression analysis predicting survey response was conducted, and no relationship between the percentage of low-income pupils, per-pupil revenue, or the percentage of special needs pupils in a school or district, and the likelihood that a member of their board responded to the survey was found (see Table II). These specific variables were included in the logistic regression model because they speak to the difficulty of the governing task faced by school boards and districts (see Hanushek, 1997;Grissom, 2014;Ford and Ihrke, 2015). Finally, the demographics of charter school board members in the data set was compared with previous data on Minnesota charter school board members collected by Stone et al. (2012). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to determine the differing ways in which nonprofit charter and traditional public school board members define the concept of accountability in the school or schools they oversee. The findings speak to the governing consequences of shifting oversight of public education from democratically elected bodies to unelected nonprofit governing boards.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors use originally collected survey data from democratically elected school board members and nonprofit charter school board members in Minnesota to test for differences in how these two populations view accountability. Open-ended survey questions are coded according to a previously used accountability typology.
Findings
The authors find that charter school board members are more likely than traditional public school board members to define accountability through high stakes testing as opposed to staff professionalization and bureaucratic systems.
Originality/value
The results speak to the link between board governance structure and accountability in the public education sector, providing new understanding on the way in which non-elected charter school board members view their accountability function.
... More recently Smoley (1999) and Walser (2009) created lists of best practices for school boards. However, it was not until the work of Delagardelle (2008), Grissom (2014) and Ihrke (2015a, 2015b) that hard evidence of a link between school board governance and academic achievement came to light. All of these studies look, in part, at the importance of the board-executive relationship in connecting board governance to actual changes in schools and classrooms. ...
In this article, we use original survey data collected from Florida school board members to determine if the perceived benefits of an appointed local government executive apply to the school board context. Though we observe a performance advantage for school districts with appointed superintendents, the advantage appears to be a function of school district size and demographics rather than government form. Similarly, observed differences in board governance dynamics in districts with elected as opposed to appointed superintendents appear to be a function of factors other than government form. Finally, we find that board members are more likely to delegate day-to-day financial management duties to appointed superintendents. Overall, we conclude that the government form literature does not necessarily translate to special purpose governments. The results are of interest to scholars of local government, education administration, and group dynamics.
... Relative to the number of studies on turnover among teachers and principals, the amount of inquiry into turnover among district superintendents has been small. Much of the prior work on superintendent turnover has emphasized the relationship between the superintendent and the school board, the entity that, in most districts, not only makes decisions on behalf of the district about the superintendent's employment but also works closely with the superintendent on district policy and management (e.g., Alsbury, 2003Alsbury, , 2008Czaja & Harman, 1997;Grissom, 2014). Given this relationship, research on superintendent turnover has often been grounded in continuous participation theory, decision-output theory, and dissatisfaction theory (Alsbury, 2003;Kirst & Wirt, 2009;Zeigler & Jennings, 1974). ...
Purpose: Superintendent retention is an important goal for many school districts, yet the factors contributing to superintendent turnover are poorly understood. Most prior quantitative studies of superintendent turnover have relied on small, cross-sectional samples, limiting the evidence base. Utilizing longitudinal administrative records from Missouri, we employ panel methods to investigate factors that predict turnover, including superintendent salary and district performance. Research Methods: We model turnover probability as a function of superintendent and district characteristics. Further investigation differentiates types of turnover, including movement to other superintendent positions and exits from the system. A series of binary and multinomial regression models with district, labor market, and/or superintendent fixed effects are estimated. Findings: Like prior cross-sectional work, we find that district characteristics such as size and student race/ethnicity predict superintendent turnover, but only before district fixed effects are included. Districts with lower test scores also have higher rates of turnover, though we also find surprising evidence of nonlinearities, with lower turnover in the lowest performing districts. Superintendent salary is an especially strong turnover predictor; even with district and superintendent fixed effects, higher paid superintendents are substantially more likely to stay, an association that is even stronger in high-performing districts. Moreover, moves to new superintendent positions are associated with substantial salary gains and systematic changes in district characteristics, such as increases in district size and achievement level, with rural districts losing superintendents to urban and suburban districts. Implications: Increasing superintendent salary may be a worthwhile strategy for retaining superintendents, and may be especially important in smaller and rural districts and districts with lower student achievement whose superintendents are more likely to move to higher paying positions in larger, higher performing districts in more urban areas.
... Accompanying this change should be an increased expectation among the public that school boards will govern in a way that improves student outcomes. There is ample evidence that school boards can influence academic outcomes both through their governing behaviors (i.e., Are they a high-functioning group?), and the policies they enact (Ford & Ihrke, 2015;Grissom, 2012). The following article will answer the question: How can school board governance be used as a tool to raise student achievement in a postcollective bargaining Wisconsin? ...
The popular narrative of Wisconsin’s collective bargaining battle started out being about money. Should public employees pay more toward their healthcare? Can school districts offset state aid cuts using the additional revenue from employee healthcare contributions? Does collective bargaining have a cost? This article gives an overview of Wisconsin school boards, explains exactly how Act 10 increased their power, demonstrates why and how improved school board governance can have an impact on student achievement, reviews the changes Wisconsin school boards are making because of Act 10, and provides policy recommendations to improve both board governance behaviors, and the quality of policies enacted by school boards in the postcollective bargaining era.
... Third, and also related, much of the public criticism of elected school boards is based on arguments that school boards lack either the ability or will to improve student outcomes (Hochschild, 2005;Miller, 2008). While both Delagardelle (2008) and Grissom (2012) provide evidence to challenge the argument that boards cannot improve student outcomes, there is no evidence as to how elected school board members see their accountability role in regard to academic outcomes. The following sections address this research gap, using data from a survey of elected Wisconsin school board members informed by the preceding discussion of accountability. ...
Recent reforms in K-12 education governance shift the accountability responsibility in public education away from the democratic governance provided by school boards, but little is known about how school board members define accountability. In this article, survey data from school board members in Wisconsin is combined with school district demographic and performance variables to determine how board members define accountability, and how those definitions relate to outcomes. The analysis finds no connection between any single accountability definition and school district outcomes, but does find a significant positive relationship between board member agreement on accountability definitions and academic performance indicators.
Little has been dedicated to the experience and potential support for local educational policy actors, school board members, that were at the heart of unprecedented decision and sensemaking during the Covid-19 pandemic. Employing sensemaking theory and an interpretivist case study design, this study conducts interviews with four school board members in a Missouri school district. The study explores their motivations for candidacy and perceptions of the role’s responsibilities, especially as individuals elected during the pandemic. The findings highlight that candidates’ decisions to run are influenced by personal and professional experiences, shaping their initial understanding of the position. However, post-election, a transformative process unfolds in the actual enactment of the role, signifying an evolution in their sensemaking journey. This study contributes to the limited but growing literature on school board members who play critical roles in education and whose roles and responsibilities have often been overlooked in the scholarship.
School boards are a fixture of American public education systems, but their efficacy and necessity are often called into question by scholars and activists. This chapter reviews the common types of school boards in the U.S., research on the relationship between school boards and student achievement, and best practices of high-functioning boards.
Public institutions seeking to facilitate effective decision making by boundedly rational constituents often must determine what information to provide and in what form to provide it. Ideally, this determination would reflect an understanding of how different kinds, forms, and sources of information are processed by constituents and influence constituents’ beliefs. However, research on this topic—especially in the context of educational institutions, and with a focus on official numerical information versus electronic word of mouth—has been minimal. Considering the case of state governments wishing to inform citizens about their schools, we examine how parents and the US public evaluate schools after receiving two increasingly abundant kinds of school quality information: numerical government ratings and online parent comments. Using an online survey experiment with a nationally representative sample, we find that perceptions of school quality are heavily influenced by parent comments even when these comments appear alongside official ratings. By contrast, the effects of official numerical ratings appear modest. Additional findings suggest that the comments’ influence results from preferences for the information’s source (parents over government) and style (narrative over numerical), and that nonprofit organizations are more trusted messengers of performance information than state governments. These results advance our theoretical understanding of the effects of different kinds of information on belief, and we conclude the article by discussing their implications for how public institutions disseminate information to their constituents.
In this paper we use the case of U.S. school boards to compare small group governing dynamics across suburban and rural school boards serving fewer than 1,000 students. Using a national dataset, we find that rural school board members are less diverse, perceive higher levels of interpersonal conflict, and higher levels of interest group influence compared to their suburban colleagues. The results reveal the need to consider contextual factors such as urbanity when researching small group governing dynamics on public boards, and the importance of place-based policy making. The results are relevant to scholars of small group dynamics, municipal governance, and school boards.
Performance accountability systems have generally been used as a way to provide salient information to citizens regarding school district performance, enabling voters to make more informed decisions at the ballot box. This paper considers the electoral accountability consequences of financial intervention systems, which monitor school district financial health and intervene in cases of severe financial problems. Examining the Ohio fiscal stress label system, I find that the labels received through this system lead to greater school board member and school administrator turnover, with larger effects found following the most severe label that involves the state takeover of the school district's financial decision-making. The large turnover effects for school boards after the state takeover appear to be driven by a decreased voter preference for incumbents after the state takeover. These results suggest that citizens in these school districts are likely placing accountability pressure on school officials more as a result of the sanction (i.e., the state takeover) than the financial information these labels may provide.
This article examines how school trustees (i.e., elected school-board members) conceive of their own leadership role and work with other levels of leadership within school districts. In a mixed-method study, a total of 121 school trustees were surveyed and 12 were interviewed across Ontario. A framework is proposed to better understand the tension in the competing and conflicting leadership roles of trustees. Furthermore, even though all school districts operate under the same policy and legislative framework across the province, the framework captures the two very different models of working with school-district management reported by trustees in this study.
Since the passage of No Child Left Behind, public schools have felt pressure to emphasize equitable academic outcomes. We investigate whether contracts agreed to by school boards and the superintendents they employ include academic and equity criteria to judge the performance of superintendents. Data come from the universe of 2013‐14 school superintendent contracts in North Carolina. Only nine of the 115 contracts include academic goals of any kind, and none include equity‐related criteria. Similarly, the universe of model superintendent contracts provided by state school boards associations (N = 20) rarely mention such criteria. Findings suggest that one reason for the relatively static equity and achievement outcomes in American public schools since the national introduction of accountability‐oriented reforms is that local school boards refuse to use academic and equity criteria to evaluate superintendents. The political science literature on elections and accountability suggests possible explanations.
Related Articles
Patrick , Barbara . 2016 . “” Politics & Policy 44 (): 1116 ‐ 1157 . http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/polp.12185/full
Webber , David J . 2010 . “.” Politics & Policy 38 (): 81 ‐ 95 . http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2009.00229.x/full
Patrick , Barbara . 2012 . “” Politics & Policy 40 (): 593 ‐ 628 . http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2012.00370.x/full
PurposeThe study aims to contribute to the literature on board behavior and performance in public sector organizations, by investigating conflicts as a fundamental and inevitable part of interactions between board members. Despite impressive advances in studying the behavioral dimensions of governing bodies, several gaps still remain in our knowledge, especially for public sector boards. These face specific challenges related to multiple, conflicting, and ambiguous goals.
Methodology/approachEarlier studies identified four different types of conflict (affective, cognitive, interest, and authority conflicts). These were used to guide a systematic literature review considering the source and the nature of conflicts to classify and describe the state of knowledge on the topic.
FindingsMost academic contributions emphasized cognitive and interest conflicts, suggesting that solving them was essential to improve board performance and enable boards to create value. The results suggest the utility of broadening the perspective of the governing board role, moving beyond agency and institutional theory, taking into consideration resource dependence theory as an alternative perspective to investigate board roles and task expectations.
Originality/valueUnderstanding conflicts within public boards is an interesting challenge from several perspectives. First, it provides a deep look inside board decision-making processes using a behavioral perspective. Second, analyzing the nature and sources of conflict places boards in a better position to address complex political issues. Finally, resolving conflicts may lead boards to channel their energies into collaborative activities that stimulate best practices, facilitate mutual awareness, and generate commitment to cooperation inside and outside the boardroom.
Purpose: This article examines factors that affect school board policy making about student diversity within two southern urban-suburban school districts experiencing changing demographics: Jefferson County Public Schools and the Wake County Public School System. Both districts have a history of voluntary integration efforts, and research shows that racially diverse countywide districts can make integration more feasible. However, as courts constrain mechanisms used in policies to establish/maintain racial integration, it is crucial to examine how school boards make policy decisions while navigating the politics of their communities and competing conceptions surrounding racial diversity. Research Method/Approach: This study employed qualitative case study methods to understand under what circumstances school boards are creating policy, paying particular attention to the local sociopolitical and geographic contexts. Data collected consisted of 37 interviews with school district officials and community stakeholders. Mainstream and specialty media articles, legal documents, and policy documents from the districts or other governmental bodies also helped frame the local contexts. Findings and Lessons Learned: The two districts in our study illustrate political and legal factors that create complex environments to pursue school-level diversity even in districts with a long history of diversity policies. Our study also illustrates the difficult role of the superintendent and school boards in leading diverse communities with different histories and experiences as they navigate the local politics of diversity amid a variety of competing policy goals. We conclude with implications including the importance of remaining vigilant about student diversity efforts and perfecting technical details to minimize politicization about diversity policies.
This research represents a continuation and a more in depth analysis of a previous systematic research conducted few years ago by some of the authors (Hinna et al., 2010; Hinna et al., 2012). In order to focus on the need to deepen the study on board dynamics in public organizations, this study presents an overview of international literature regarding boards in public organizations, in order to evidence if, and in which terms " board dynamics and interactions " has been a topic of research in public governance in recent years. Then, using a resource dependence approach as suggested by Hillman et al. (2000), we try to understand how external factors and pressures can influence board composition and board interaction. The results will contribute and provide suggestions to further research on board dynamics in public organizations.
Dissertation: The impact of frequent change on personnel
Corporate governance is an increasingly provocative topic, evident in ongoing debates between proponents of control versus collaborative approaches. We accommodate these contrasting approaches within a paradox framework, using agency and stewardship theories to elaborate the underlying tensions and to emphasize the value of monitoring, as well as empowerment. Building from these tensions, we examine reinforcing cycles that foster strategic persistence and organizational decline. We conclude by discussing means of managing control and collaboration, highlighting the implications for corporate governance.
Most turnover research positions employee turnover as the dependent variable and focuses on identifying its antecedents. In this study, we viewed turnover as a key predictor in determining unit-level performance. Specifically, a structural model was developed and tested that links managerial and employee turnover with performance through efficiency. We tested the model using a sample of 262 BURGER KING® restaurants. Results demonstrate that efficiency, measured as customer "wait time," mediates the relationships of both management and crew turnover to both sales and profit, and efficiency, measured as food waste, does not mediate the relationship of turnover to sales or profit.
Boards of directors serve two important functions for organizations: monitoring management on behalf of shareholders and providing resources. Agency theorists assert that effective monitoring is a function of a board's incentives, whereas resource dependence theorists contend that the provision of resources is a function of board capital. We combine the two perspectives and argue that board capital affects both board monitoring and the provision of resources and that board incentives moderate these relationships.
This article explores the concept of dispute systems design for workplace disputes, focusing particularly on the first two stages: organizational diagnosis and design. It argues that dispute systems should be designed in light of the conflict-related motivations and behaviors of personnel under existing conditions, as well as the likely consequences of each design choice on their future motivations and behaviors, including incentives to participate in the new system.These assertions are illustrated with an in-depth case study of Resolve Employment Disputes, Reach Equitable Solutions Swiftly (REDRESS®), the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) employment mediation program. The case study shows that the organizational diagnosis stage was critical to the successful design of the USPS program in that it provided important information about the dispute behaviors of personnel in the existing system. In turn, this information helped the USPS understand how various design choices would affect individual incentives to participate the future REDRESS® system.
A multimethod field study of 92 workgroups explored the influence of three types of workgroup diversity (social category diversity, value diversity, and informational diversity) and two moderators (task type and task interdependence) on workgroup outcomes. Informational diversity positively influenced group performance, mediated by task conflict. Value and social category diversity, task complexity, and task interdependence all moderated this effect. Social category diversity positively influenced group member morale. Value diversity decreased satisfaction, intent to remain, and commitment to the group; relationship conflict mediated the effects of value diversity. We discuss the implications of these results for group leaders, managers, and organizations wishing to create and manage a diverse workforce successfully.
The contribution of board structure and process dynamics to organiza tional and board effectiveness is the focus of this article. Based on data collected from a cross section of Canadian nonprofit organizations, the results show a positive association between the perception of board effec tiveness and the use of many of the most widely advocated prescriptions on how a nonprofit board of directors should operate. However, when objective indicators of organizational performance are examined, the link between performance and board behaviors is found to be more limited.
Intragroup conflict research has shown that task conflict can improve group outcomes, but it has not addressed how groups ensure that the positive aspects of task conflict are realized. This study examines the influence of group conflict management on group effectiveness, as well as the moderating role of group conflict management on task conflict—group outcome relationships. Results of a field survey of 96 business school project groups indicated that the use of agreeable conflict management in response to task conflict was associated with greater group satisfaction. Results examining group conflict management as a moderator showed that the relationship between task conflict and group performance was positive when conflict was actively managed and negative when it was passively managed. Similarly, task conflict improved group satisfaction when managed with agreeable behavior, and harmed satisfaction when neutral or disagreeable behaviors were used. Results from this work provide an important first look at how group conflict management behaviors directly impact group outcomes and affect task conflict—group outcome relationships.
In this quasi-experimental study we investigate value congruence and demographic dissimilarity among group members as factors which influence various types of conflict within workgroups. We also examine whether it is beneficial for members to be different or alike, to agree or disagree, in order to foster work group productivity. Results indicate that visible individual demographic differences (i.e., sex, age) increase relationship conflict, while informational demographic differences (i.e., education) increase task-focused conflict. Value congruence of members decreased both relationship and task conflict, and the specific content of the values held by members influenced performance. Specifically, both detail and outcome group value orientations increased objective performance; outcome, decisiveness, and stability orientations increased perceptions of high performance; and both decisiveness and supportiveness orientations increased the satisfaction level of group members while a team orientation decreased individual member satisfaction in this sample.
Political scientists have long been interested in the link between election structures and the representation of interest. Here we examine one such link, that between local election structures and minority representation. Research of the middle and late 1970s revealed that at-large city council election procedures resulted in a dramatic underrepresentation of blacks and some underrepresentation of Hispanics. Now a revisionist position claims that at-large elections no longer have this detrimental effect on minority representation, if needed they ever did. In this paper we examine this controversial link by assessing the impact of at-large and district elections on the representation of blacks and Hispanics using varied methodologies and 1988 data. We find that although at-large elections represent blacks much better than a decade ago, there is still a small gap between the representation afforded by at-large and district systems. On the other hand, the impact of local election structures on Hispanic representation is less clearcut and seems to vary from region to region.
Participants were led to expect either cooperation or conflict, and then performed K. Duncker's (1945) functional-fixedness task (Experiment 1) or E. Rosch's (1975) categorization task (Experiment 2). Those who expected cooperation, compared with those who expected conflict, were more likely to solve Duncker's task and used categories more inclusively, that is, rated low-prototypic exemplars of a category as better members of the category. In Experiment 3, the direct experience of cooperation and conflict had the same effect on categorization. In Experiment 4, participants were classified as having cooperative, competitive, or individualistic social values, and were led to expect either cooperation, conflict, or neither in a control. In the control, cooperators used categories more inclusively than competitors or individualists. Competitors used categories least inclusively in the conflict condition; in the cooperation condition, they used categories most inclusively. These results are interpreted in terms of the possible mediating role of cognitive organization in individual and intergroup conflict resolution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A typology of the relative powers of the chief executive officer and the board of directors was derived based on the literature, highlighting four situations: Caretaker, Statutory, Proactive and Participative boards. Data collected from Fortune 500 Industrial and Fortune 500 Service corporations supported the typology. The results showed significant differences among the four board types in their characteristics, internal process, decision-making styles, board effectiveness, and contribution to company performance. Powerful boards were associated with superior corporate financial performance.
Studies of employee turnover are reviewed using meta-analytic techniques. The findings indicate that almost all of the 26 variables studied relate to turnover. The findings also indicate that study variables including population, nationality, and industry moderate relationships between many of the variables and turnover. It is suggested that future research on employee turnover: (1) report study variables, (2) continue model testing rather than simply correlating variables with turnover, and (3) incorporate study variables into future models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Academy of Management Review is the property of Academy of Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
The effects of conflict on strategic decision making effectiveness and organizational performance Most scholars and practitioners agree that the complexities and pressures of strategic decision making can often produce conflict (Carter, 1971; Hickson, Butler, Cray, Mallory & Wilson, 1986; Mintzberg, Raisinghani & Theoret, 1976). The effect this conflict has on the decision making process, however, is unclear (Eisenhardt & Zbaracki, 1992). Traditional wisdom holds that conflict hinders decision making. Conflict can disrupt the exchange of information among the team of decision makers, reducing decision quality. Conflict can undermine the commitment that is needed to get the decision properly implemented. Finally, conflict can reduce satisfaction and affective acceptance among the team members, threatening cohesion and the prospects for future decisions (Schweiger, Sandberg & Ragan, 1986; Schweiger & Sandberg, 1991). However, there is also reason to believe that conflict improves decision making. Conflict can enhance decision quality by encouraging thorough evaluation of ...
Background
High rates of teacher turnover likely mean greater school instability, disruption of curricular cohesiveness, and a continual need to hire inexperienced teachers, who typically are less effective, as replacements for teachers who leave. Unfortunately, research consistently finds that teachers who work in schools with large numbers of poor students and students of color feel less satisfied and are more likely to turn over, meaning that turnover is concentrated in the very schools that would benefit most from a stable staff of experienced teachers. Despite the potential challenge that this turnover disparity poses for equity of educational opportunity and student performance gaps across schools, little research has examined the reasons for elevated teacher turnover in schools with large numbers of traditionally disadvantaged students.
Purpose
This study hypothesizes that school working conditions help explain both teacher satisfaction and turnover. In particular, it focuses on the role of effective principals in retaining teachers, particularly in disadvantaged schools with the greatest staffing challenges.
Research Design
The study conducts quantitative analyses of national data from the 2003-04 Schools and Staffing Survey and the 2004-05 Teacher Follow-up Survey. Regression analyses combat the potential for bias from omitted variables by utilizing an extensive set of control variables and employing a school district fixed effects approach that implicitly makes comparisons among principals and teachers within the same local context.
Conclusions
Descriptive analyses confirm that observable measures of teachers’ work environments, including ratings of the effectiveness of the principal, are generally less positive in schools with large numbers of disadvantaged students. Regression results show that principal effectiveness is associated with greater teacher satisfaction and a lower probability that the teacher leaves the school within a year. Moreover, the positive impacts of principal effectiveness on these teacher outcomes are even greater in disadvantaged schools. These findings suggest that policies focused on getting the best principals into the most challenging school environments may be effective strategies for lowering perpetually high teacher turnover rates in those schools.
This article reviews the conflict literature, first examining the causes of conflict, its core process, and its effects. Subsequently, we probe into conflict escalation (and de-escalation), contexts, and conflict management. When examining this last topic, we note that conflict can be managed by the disputants themselves, by managers, or by other third parties. In conclusion we suggest directions for future research and provide recommendations for practicing managers.
Although superintendent turnover can hinder district reform and improvement, research examining superintendent exits is scarce. This study identifies factors contributing to superintendent turnover in California by matching original superintendent and school board survey data with administrative data and information hand-collected from news sources on why superintendents left and where they went. Among 215 superintendents studied beginning in 2006, 45% exited within 3 years. Using a multinomial framework to separate retirements from other turnover, the authors find that factors such as how highly the school board rates its own functioning and the superintendent's performance and whether the superintendent was hired internally strongly predict non-retirement exits 3 years later. Short-term district test score growth, however, is uncorrelated. Superintendents who move migrate away from rural districts toward larger, higher-paying districts in urban and suburban locations.
Public administrators often have to deal with conflicts. However, many public administrators have not been adequately exposed to the skills and rationales of conflict resolution. Ample literature about conflict exists in sister disciplines such as sociology, international relations, and labor relations. These studies focus on the impact of conflict, the nature of conflict, the players in the conflict, and possible strategies for conflict resolution. These studies can help public administrators better understand the nature of their work as well as their roles as conflict resolvers, conflict observers, or parties to conflict. The field, of public administration could benefit greatly by incorporating the conflict resolution perspective into its teaching and research.
The field of corporate governance is at a crossroads. Our knowledge of what we know about the efficacy of corporate governance mechanisms is rivaled by what we do not know. This special topic forum is dedicated to continuing the rich tradition of research in this area, with the hope that the models and theories offered will propel corporate governance research to the next level, enhancing our understanding of those governance structures and mechanisms that best serve organizational functioning.
Empirical research has typically rested on the assumption that board independence from management enhances board effectiveness in administering firms. The present study shows how and when a lack of social independence can increase board involvement and firm performance by raising the frequency of advice and counsel interactions between CEOs and outside directors. Hypotheses were tested with original survey data from 243 CEOs and 564 outside directors on behavioral processes and dynamics in management-board relationships.
This article considers how perceptions of leadership credibility toward the chief administrative officer within a local government setting associate with perceptions toward innovation success and policy board behavior. The target group for this study includes local city administrators, department heads, and elected officials on respective policy boards. The authors' preliminary findings suggest that as perceptions of leadership credibility held toward the chief administrative officer increase, so do perceptions of reform success and cooperative board-staff relationships. These patterns offer insight into how city managers and administrators may wish to develop their leadership skills in the future.
Corporate governance is an increasingly provocative topic, evident in ongoing debates between proponents of control versus collaborative approaches. We accommodate these contrasting approaches within a paradox framework, using agency theory and stewardship theories to elaborate the underlying tensions and to emphasize the value of monitoring, as well as empowerment. Building from these tensions, we examine reinforcing cycles that foster strategic persistence and organizational decline. We conclude by discussing means of managing control and collaboration, highlighting the implications for corporate governance.
: Community conflict has been the domain of social science researchers for decades. However, the systematic study of conflict on city councils has received scant attention in this literature. In this study the authors explore the extent to which conflict is present on city councils in Wisconsin communities with populations greater than 10,000. By using the literature on non-profit and local government boards, the authors develop a set of hypotheses for testing in the analysis of the survey data. The multivariate model used in the analysis reveals certain demographic characteristics of council members, community characteristics, and board practices and behaviors explain a significant amount of the variance in city council conflict in Wisconsin local governments.
Local school boards have traditionally governed public education in the United States but have seldom been the focus of empirical research. This article provides a review of literature published in the past two decades on the role and effectiveness of local school boards, specifically with respect to school boards’ influence on students’ academic achievement. First, a brief history of school boards is presented. Second, their current status is described. Next, school board and educational governance reforms are examined. Then characteristics of effective school boards that experts have identified are delineated. The final section is devoted to discussion of research limitations and future directions.
Recent research developments underscore the need for research on the processes that link board demography with firm performance. In this article we develop a model of board processes by integrating the literature on boards of directors with the literature on group dynamics and workgroup effectiveness. The resulting model illuminates the complexity of board dynamics and paves the way for future empirical research that expands and refines our understanding of what makes boards effective.
Top management teams make strategic decisions, and the products of their decision making influence organizational performance, However, a subtle paradox is embedded in this relationship. This study focuses on conflict as the crux of this paradox and provides evidence from two different samples of conflict's consistent yet contradictory effects on decision quality, consensus, and affective acceptance.
This paper presents a multifaceted qualitative investigation of everyday conflict in six organizational work teams. Repeated interviews and on-site observations provide data on participants' perceptions, behaviors, and their own analyses of their conflicts, resulting in a generalized conflict model. Model evaluation indicates that relationship conflict is detrimental to performance and satisfaction; process conflict is also detrimental to performance; and task conflict's effects on performance depend on specified dimensions. In particular, emotionality reduces effectiveness, resolution potential and acceptability norms increase effectiveness, and importance accentuates conflict's other effects. Groups with norms that accept task but not relationship conflict are most effective. The model and the findings help to broaden understanding of dynamics of organizational conflict and suggest ways it can either be alleviated or wisely encouraged.
This article examines the influence of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on decision-making conflict on governing boards in
public organizations. Using survey data from more than 700 school board members in California, I investigate the degree to
which various characteristics of the environment in which the board operates, processes the board implements, and traits of
board members themselves predict how often the board experiences division among its members and how well its members report
being able to work together. The findings point out that external characteristics play a large role in predicting intraboard
conflict. In particular, boards in urban districts with large numbers of nonwhite students and more active interest group
environments experience greater conflict. However, internal characteristics also make a difference. Boards that use more professional
decision practices and whose members share a common vision for their work experience conflict at substantially lower rates.
Also, whereas ideological heterogeneity among board members positively predicts conflict, contrary to expectations, racial
diversity is associated with less division among board members.
Strategic decision making influences organizational performance. However, close examination of this relationship reveals a subtle paradox. It appears that the products of strategic decision making, all of which are necessary for enhanced organizational performance, do not peacefully coexist. Conflict seems to be the crux of this conundrum. As such, a better understanding of conflict's effects on strategic decision making is needed This paper integrates a multidimensional conceptualization of conflict Into a model of strategic decision making and organizational performance and develops propositions to guide empirical study of the effects of conflict on strategic decision making.
A study was conducted to assess the expectations and sources of conflict and frustration for school board members in Washington, Missouri, and New Jersey. It tested the widely held belief that school board members are experiencing increased conflict and frustration and explored how these pressures are related to the conflicting expectations on boards to represent their constituents and to make efficient business decisions. Questionnaires were mailed to 100 school board members and 100 superintendents in each of three reasonably similar western, mideastern, and eastern states, in order to get a national sample. The study did not confirm the suggestion that schools are becoming more complex and too demanding, with neither information acquisition nor insufficient time seen as areas of difficulty by the respondents. Instead, employee negotiations and special interest groups were sources of conflict and frustration. Divergent board expectations also led to conflict, with board members consistently rated less effective when there were strong demands that they be both representatives and experts. (Author/DCS)
School board-superintendent collaboration is essential to the success of public education. This report presents findings of a study that focused on board-superintendent collaboration for higher student achievement. Data were collected through a review of state laws and interviews conducted with 132 educators, parents, and other citizens in 10 diverse school districts in 5 states--Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Oregon, and Texas. The report offers 41 recommendations in 6 categories: (1) Build a foundation for teamwork; (2) get the best and most capable team players; (3) ensure that the team players know their roles and responsibilities; (4) get into team training; (5) adopt good team strategies; and (6) convince others to support the team. Appendices contain profiles of the 10 school districts, including profiles of their student achievement, school board members, and superintendents; job descriptions of superintendents and board members; and a partial bibliography of school district governance. (LMI)
develop an integrated overview of the complex fabric of variables involved in conflict and negotiation / the major parts of this fabric include (a) the sequence of events in the conflict/negotiation process, (b) structural variables which shape that process, (c) outcomes of the process, and (d) third-party interventions to manage conflict/negotiation / separate models are developed for each of these parts, along with a more general model or paradigm that shows the interrelationships between them
special attention has been given to topics that are central to conflict and its management but which have not received sufficient analysis / one involves the prevailing motivational/behavioral assumptions used to explain or predict conflict/negotiation behavior / the deficiencies of prevailing rational-economic assumptions are noted, and a more complex model of motivation is introduced that incorporates emotions and normative reasoning as well as rational-economic reasoning / a second topic involves the goals of conflict management / it is argued that much of the divergence in conflict management prescriptions within the literature is based on confusion among quite different goals / a framework is developed to categorize these goals, based on one's choice of beneficiary and time frame (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Commentators on the effectiveness of nonprofit boards of directors usually find them wanting in a number of ways and urge that they reform themselves. A study to ascertain how many boards actually accept this advice and intentionally attempt to change the way they operate also examines what changes boards attempt to make, what provokes their efforts, and what outcomes result.
Contemporary educational theory holds that one of the pivotal causes of inadequate school performance is the inability of schools to adequately staff classrooms with qualified teachers. This theory also holds that these school staffing problems are primarily due to shortages of teachers, which, in turn, are primarily due to recent increases in teacher retirements and student enrollments. This analysis investigates the possibility that there are other factors—those tied to the organizational characteristics and conditions of schools—that are driving teacher turnover and, in turn, school staffing problems. The data utilized in this investigation are from the Schools and Staffing Survey and its supplement, the Teacher Followup Survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics. The results of the analysis indicate that school staffing problems are not primarily due to teacher shortages, in the technical sense of an insufficient supply of qualified teachers. Rather, the data indicate that school staffing problems are primarily due to excess demand resulting from a "revolving door"—where large numbers of qualified teachers depart their jobs for reasons other than retirement. Moreover, the data show that the amount of turnover accounted for by retirement is relatively minor when compared to that associated with other factors, such as teacher job dissatisfaction and teachers pursuing other jobs. The article concludes that popular education initiatives, such as teacher recruitment programs, will not solve the staffing problems of such schools if they do not also address the organizational sources of low teacher retention.
This study examines the structure of 105 work groups and management teams to address the question of whether conflict can be beneficial. Multiple methods were used to examine the effects of conflict on both individual- and group-level variables to provide a more refined model of intragroup conflict. Results show that whether conflict was beneficial depended on the type of conflict and the structure of the group in terms of task type, task interdependence, and group norms. Relationship and task conflicts were negatively associated with individuals' satisfaction, liking of other group members, and intent to remain in the group. In groups performing very routine tasks, disagreements about the task were detrimental to group functioning. In contrast, in groups performing nonroutine tasks, disagreements about the tasks did not have a detrimental effect, and in some cases, such disagreements were actually beneficial. Contrary to expectations, norms encouraging open discussion of conflict were not always advantageous. The results suggest that while such norms were associated with an increase in the number and intensity of relationship conflicts, they did not increase members' ability to deal with the conflicts constructively. The model developed here contributes to an integrated perspective on organizational conflict.
This study examines an important potential conflict between the institutional, governance, and strategic functions of boards. We specifically test how higher levels of board size and diversity, traditionally associated with optimal institutional and governance performance of boards, affect the boards ability to initiate strategic changes during periods of environmental turbulence. Our findings suggest that board diversity, in particular, may be a significant constraint on strategic change.
Note: This study investigated six dimensions of effective board performance, as suggested by Chait, Holland, and Taylor (1991), in relation to three theoretical explanations (agency theory, resource dependency theory, and group/decision process theory) of how board governance activities potentially influence organizational performance. Survey research findings revealed that strategic contributions from the board are more robust in organizations with higher financial performance. In addition, organizations that are judged to be higher performing also reported having high-performing boards across all dimensions. In particular, the interpersonal dimension provided a unique explanation of judgments of organizational performance.
This paper investigates the determinants and consequences of Latino political representation in the field of K-12 education. The first task is to examine the association between Latino population and the Latino presence on school boards. We then investigate if Latino representation is affected by the electoral structure of school boards, as scholars have reached differing conclusions on whether at-large and ward systems hinder or enhance minority descriptive representation. The next step examines the consequences of Latino representation, specifically whether board membership is associated with the share of Latino school administrators and teachers. The regression results show that Latino population positively affects Latino board representation, but that at-large systems hinder descriptive representation. The primary determinant of Latino administrators is Latino school board membership, and the primary determinant of Latino teachers is Latino administrators. In sum, at-large elections negatively influence Latino educational representation, which produces a ripple effect that ultimately reduces the share of Latino teachers.
This study investigates the benefits and detriments of emotional and task-related conflict in work groups. Group value consensus (GVC), or the extent to which group members share values, and group value fit (GVF), or the degree to which the culture of the group matches the ideal culture envisioned by external parties with control over the group, are hypothesized to decrease conflict. In examining 88 workgroups performing comparable organizational tasks, it was found that groups with low levels of value similarity among members and between the group and governing superiors had higher levels of conflict than groups with high levels of value similarity. As hypothesized, emotional conflict was negatively associated with group performance and satisfaction, while task conflict was positively associated with group performance. The implications of these results for conflict management and group effectiveness are discussed.
Incl. bibliographical references
This article reviews the conflict literature, first examining the causes of conflict, its core process, and its effects. Subsequently, we probe into conflict escalation (and de-escalation), contexts, and conflict management. When examining this last topic, we note that conflict can be managed by the disputants themselves, by managers, or by other third parties. In conclusion we suggest directions for future research and provide recommendations for practicing managers.
Throughout this century, reformers have fought to eliminate party control of city politics. As a result, the majority of American cities today elect council members in at-large and nonpartisan elections. This result of the turn-of-the-century Progressive movement, which worked for election rules that eliminated the power of the urban machine and the working class on which it was based, is today still a subject of lively debate. For example, in the mid-1980s, regular Democrats in Chicago sought to institute a nonpartisan mayoral election. Supporters thought that reform would make the electoral process more democratic, while opponents charged that it was meant to dilute the voting powers of blacks. Clearly, the effect of urban reform remains an important issue for scholars and politicians alike. Susan Welch and Timothy Bledsoe clarify a portion of the debate by investigating how election structures affect candidates and the nature of representation. They examine the different effects of district versus at-large elections and of partisan versus nonpartisan elections. Who gets elected? Are representatives' socioeconomic status and party affiliation related to election form? Are election structures related to how those who are elected approach their jobs? Do they see themselves as representatives concerned with the good of the city as a whole? Urban Reform and Its Consequences reports an unprecedented wealth of data drawn from a sample of nearly 1,000 council members and communities with populations between 50,000 and 1 million across 42 states. The sample includes communities that use a variety of election procedures. This study is therefore the most comprehensive and accurate to date. Welch and Bledsoe conclude that nonpartisan and at-large elections do give city councils a more middle- and upper-middle-class character and have changed the way representatives view their jobs. Reform measures have not, however, produced councils that are significantly more conservative or more prone to conflict. Overall, the authors conclude that partisan and district elections are more likely to represent the whole community and to make the council more accountable to the electorate.