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Extensive wildlife production on private land in South Africa
... The remainder consists of ducks, geese, turkey and ostrich meat (Dyubele et al. 2010). Game ranching is an increasingly prevalent commercial farming venture in South Africa, because many farmers find it more profitable than livestock farming (Bothma 2005). In addition to income derived from sport hunting, stud breeding and tourism, breeding of rare colour morphs has also become a popular income generator due to rapidly escalating sale prices (Bothma 2005). ...
... Game ranching is an increasingly prevalent commercial farming venture in South Africa, because many farmers find it more profitable than livestock farming (Bothma 2005). In addition to income derived from sport hunting, stud breeding and tourism, breeding of rare colour morphs has also become a popular income generator due to rapidly escalating sale prices (Bothma 2005). The dichotomy between subsistence and commercial farming systems, coupled with the need for food security in a developing country may make South African farmers especially vulnerable to conflict with carnivores when livestock and game species are depredated. ...
... Another unique aspect to South Africa is that of game depredation. Whilst other regions may keep game (such as reindeer in Norway, Johannesen & Skonhoft 2011), it is not on such a large scale or with such booming profitability as the South African game ranching and hunting industry (Bothma 2005). Because many areas in South Africa are unsuitable for crop production (Shackleton et al. 2001), game species are relatively easy to keep on natural feed, with little supplementary feed usually needed (Trollope 1990). ...
... A total of 38 (12.8%) species were categorised as 'Near Threatened'; 53 (18%) species were categorised as 'Data Deficient' and 147 (49.8%) as 'Least Concern' (Friedmann and Daly, 2004 (Torquebiau et al., 2012). In 2007 13 % of South Africa's total land area was used for game ranching, which also utilises a third of the country's potential grazing land for game and game related purposes (Bothma, 2005;Cloete et al., 2007). The reason is that game ranching is more profitable than cattle as it generates a higher gross margin per hectare (Cloete et al., 2007). ...
... Province (Venter et al., 2003;FAO, 2004). On the eastern side of the Limpopo Province a mixed lowveldt bushveldt can be found in conjunction with dense riverine woodland (White, 1983: FAO, 2004 (Bothma, 2005). According to exemption permits, from the 1960s onwards there has been a steady increase in the number of wild ungulates on ranches in South Africa due to the decline in cattle farming in favour of game ranching activities (van der Waal and Dekker, 2000). ...
... The conversion from livestock to wildlife ranching in the Limpopo Province is taking place at a rate of 2.5 % per year. The economic and ecological advantages of land use change are evidenced by this conversion (Bothma, 2005). In 1998 the North West Province contained 2,300 game ranches compared to ten in the 1960s covering 3.6 million hectares equating to 26 % of the total land area, with a mean game ranch size of 1717 ha (van der Waal and Dekker, 2000; Bothma, 2005). ...
Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate, principally as a consequence of increasing human population. Effects of this expansion are exemplified by the extent to which many carnivores are now in conflict with humans, particularly in unprotected rangelands. One such species is the brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea), classified as ‘Near Threatened’ (Wiesel et al., 2008). The IUCN SSC hyaenid specialist group identified that brown hyaena are under threat due to human persecution and noted that greater understanding of their distribution and abundance is needed. With the principal aim of assessing the distribution and abundance of brown hyaena in South Africa, this study responds to that challenge. Five specific objectives were established: to utilise local knowledge to map the distribution of carnivores across South Africa; to determine the factors driving attitudes and perceptions of South African farmers to carnivores; to determine differences in relative abundance of carnivores in protected areas compared to unprotected in the North West and Limpopo Provinces; to compare home range estimates and movement patterns of free living brown hyaena inside and outside protected areas in the same provinces; to determine what variables influence brown hyaena home range size.
Distribution of brown hyaena and other carnivores, and attitudes to them, were determined using a web-based questionnaire involving multiple stakeholder groups. The results confirmed current knowledge on carnivore distributions but, critically, revealed wider distribution of brown hyaena and other key species than are currently known by IUCN (2013). Responses demonstrated that cultural group and land use type significantly affected attitudes towards all carnivores, with Afrikaans livestock farmers demonstrating the most overtly negative attitudes to all carnivore species. An encouraging finding was that 25% of land owner respondents had positive attitudes to brown hyaenas and were therefore likely to be well disposed to engaging in conservation activities. Further information on the abundance and movement ecology of brown hyaena was gained through an intensive field study in the North West and Limpopo Provinces, which are under-researched. The study was conducted in protected and unprotected areas since brown hyaenas are found in both but are subject to different pressures. The use of remote camera traps demonstrated that the relative abundance of brown hyaena was four times lower in unprotected areas than in the protected areas. A significant finding was that mesopredators showed higher relative abundances in the unprotected areas. This suggests probable further human-wildlife conflict if mesopredator release continues to occur. Low levels of abundance in the unprotected areas, in conjunction with persecution, led to the conclusion that conservation efforts should be focused here.
GPS collars were used to determine differences between brown hyaena home range across the protected and unprotected areas, to gain insights into their habitat use, and to establish their movement patterns through the fragmented landscape. The study demonstrated that home range sizes in the unprotected areas were not only significantly smaller than in the protected areas but also substantially smaller than those found across the entire hyaena’s range. Reasons for the variation are suspected to be higher levels of persecution and greater biomass availability outside the protected areas in conjunction with the relatively high density of apex predators inside the protected areas. In conclusion, large carnivore research is critically required outside protected areas where carnivores are currently involved in the most conflict and are at the greatest risk.
... The impetus behind this change from conventional farming to game farming is complex (Brooks et al. 2011). The initial drive towards game farming may have been leisure-based (e.g., private hunting opportunities for landowners), but has extended to include profit seeking, a belief in conservation and growing awareness that game ranching was more sustainable in comparison to conventional agriculture (Bothma, Suich, and Spenceley 2009). In addition, farmers faced a decrease in subsidies in agriculture and the subsequent deregulation of the agricultural sector (Bothma, Suich, and Spenceley 2009). ...
... The initial drive towards game farming may have been leisure-based (e.g., private hunting opportunities for landowners), but has extended to include profit seeking, a belief in conservation and growing awareness that game ranching was more sustainable in comparison to conventional agriculture (Bothma, Suich, and Spenceley 2009). In addition, farmers faced a decrease in subsidies in agriculture and the subsequent deregulation of the agricultural sector (Bothma, Suich, and Spenceley 2009). There was a decline in the profit levels in cattle farming coupled with increased domestic stock theft (Cousins, Saddler, and Evans 2008). ...
... There was a decline in the profit levels in cattle farming coupled with increased domestic stock theft (Cousins, Saddler, and Evans 2008). The Game Theft Act of 1991 was indeed a 'game changer' in the wildlife industry in South Africa as this legislation bestowed rights on farmers to own game on provision of appropriate fencing (Bothma, Suich, and Spenceley 2009). As Eloff and van Niekerk (2005, 125) argue, 'a change in attitude towards game has also contributed to an increase in numbers [of game farms] as huntable game is no longer regarded as "state game" and is considered to belong to the game ranch owner'. ...
Conversion from livestock and/or crop farming to game farming has been a notable trend on privately owned land in South Africa over the last decades. The rapid growth of wildlife ranching is associated with an annual increase in the areas enclosed by game fences and high demand for wildlife which is being traded privately and at wildlife auctions. Key environmental, agricultural and land reform legislation has been passed since 1994 that impacts this sector, but this legislation does not provide a clear regulatory framework for the game farming industry. This article seeks to understand why game farming is thriving in a regulatory environment plagued with uncertainty. The focus is on one province, KwaZulu-Natal. It is clear that the state is not a homogeneous and monolithic entity applying itself to the regulation of the sector. There is no clear direction on the position of private game farming at the interface of environmental and agricultural regulations. The argument put forward is that the fractured state, in fact, provides space within which the game farmers are able to effectively manoeuvre and to maximise their advantages as private landowners. While game farmers may complain about strict wildlife regulation in the province, the benefits they gain from the combination of a divided state and the presence in this province of a strong, autonomous conservation body are considerable.
... Predation may also have played some role in the rapid and extensive transition to game farming that has taken place in South Africa, along with other market forces and the introduction of legislation to encourage this activity. The impacts of these changes have not been properly studied, but they do not appear to have resulted in catastrophic losses in production or employment, and may even have had positive impacts on GDP, since game ranching tends to be more profitable than livestock farming (Bothma, 2005). ...
This assessment provides a policy relevant synthesis on the topic of livestock predation and its management in South Africa, as well as recommendations for future research.
See also https://predsa.mandela.ac.za/
... The decline in tourism activity and resultant budgetary constraints for private protected areas (PPAs) inherently create significant concerns for ecological sustainability, job retainment and social sustainability in South Africa. PPAs comprise 17-20 million hectares across South Africa, totalling 14-17% of the country's landmass (Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, 2021; Bothma et al., 2008). State protected areas only make up 6.5% of the country's landmass and therefore have a lower ecological, economic and social impact on society within South Africa than the PPAs and are too small to ensure long-term biodiversity conservation (Lindsey et al., 2007). ...
The impact of COVID-19 on Africa’s tourism industry is unprecedented in the modern era. As a result of drastic measures taken by governments to stop the spread of the virus, coupled with the fear of travelling, international tourist arrivals on the continent took a nosedive. This chapter sets the tone for the rest of the chapters by examining the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, recovery strategies and the post-pandemic tourism outlook from an African perspective. Although the African continent recorded the least number of infections and deaths, it suffered disproportionately from the impacts of the pandemic compared to other parts of the world. Africa’s overdependence on inbound tourism, inadequate health infrastructure, unfavourable image and the dominance of small- and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) and informal tourism businesses are among the factors that make African countries particularly vulnerable to crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. In the post-pandemic era, the tourism industry should be restructured to reflect African countries’ local and national peculiarities.KeywordsSub-Saharan AfricaInternational tourismPandemicRecovery strategiesInbound tourism
... The South African game industry has expanded significantly in the last few decades [1], with legislation allowing the ownership of wildlife and the generation of revenues through sustainable activities being the key drivers [2][3][4]. Such activities include ecotourism, live sales, trophy hunting, meat ("biltong") hunting and culling. ...
The objective of this study was to determine the influence of three production systems (intensive, semi-extensive and extensive) with differing nutrition on the descriptive sensory and fatty acid profiles of sub-adult (±15–18 months old) male impala longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscles. The discriminant analysis plot showed that extensively produced impala had a sensory profile distinct from the intensive and semi-extensive system impala. Extensively produced impala had the highest sensory ratings for overall intensity, gamey, beef-like, herbaceous, and sweet-associated aroma and flavor of their meat. The intensive and semi-extensive system impala did not differ for most of the sensory attributes, except for higher ratings for gamey flavor, liver-like flavor, tenderness and mealiness, and lower ratings for residue found in semi-extensive system impala. The overall aroma and flavor intensities of impala meat in general had strong positive correlations with gamey, beef-like, herbaceous, and sweet-associated aromas and flavors; however, marketing should be adjusted depending on the nutrition received by the impala, to allow consumers to select their preferential sensory profile. Impala meat from all three production systems had low fat contents (<2%), and desirable fatty acid profiles.
... Biological Conservation xxx (xxxx) xxx-xxx Taylor et al., 2016), equivalent to 14-17% of the country's land surface area, which is larger than the state protected area network (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2019). The Game Theft Act (No. 105 of 1991), which gave private landowners ownership of wildlife under conditions of adequate fencing, coupled with post-apartheid changes to agricultural policies that reduced the amount of support provided to farmers by the government (van Zyl et al., 2001;Vink, 2004), were likely key drivers of this growth (Bothma et al., 2009;Snijders, 2012). More recently, the South African government implemented a national 'Biodiversity Economy Strategy' (BES) (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2016), an initiative aimed at growing economic activities that depend on biodiversity for their core business (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2016). ...
The private wildlife sector in South Africa must demonstrate value in the face of political pressures for economic growth, job creation and food security. Through structured survey questionnaires of landowners and managers from 276 private wildlife ranches, we describe patterns of wildlife-based land uses (WBLUs), estimate their financial and social contributions and compare these with livestock farming. We show that 46% of surveyed properties combined wildlife with livestock, 86% conducted two or more WBLUs and 80% conducted consumptive use activities. Intensive breeding was conducted on 46% of properties and covered 5.1% of their total land area. Revenues were higher on wildlife only properties than livestock farms, but we were unable to compare the profitability of wildlife and livestock due to data gaps for livestock. Profits from WBLUs were highly variable, while mean return on investment (ROI) was 0.068. Wildlife properties employed more people per unit area than livestock farms, properties conducting ecotourism employed more than twice as many people as non-ecotourism properties, and biltong hunting properties employed 50% fewer people than non-biltong hunting properties. Mean game meat production on wildlife only properties was 4.07 kg/ha, while the top producers harvested game meat at a level comparable with some extensive livestock farms. We suggest that the financial and social benefits of wildlife ranching on marginal land make this a viable land use, but that the contributions towards biodiversity conservation need to be quantified. The South African model could be a suitable option for other African countries seeking sustainable land use alternatives.
... Predation may also have played some role in the rapid and extensive transition to game farming that has taken place in South Africa, along with other market forces and the introduction of legislation to encourage this activity. The impacts of these changes have not been properly studied, but they do not appear to have resulted in catastrophic losses in production or employment, and may even have had positive impacts on GDP, since game ranching tends to be more profitable than livestock farming (Bothma, 2005). ...
... Over the last few decades, transnational 'peace' parks have extended the size of many of these parks even further, relaxing boundaries between adjacent national parks to facilitate greater range distances for migratory species (King, 2010). Concurrent to this has been a dramatic increase in the proclamation of game farms, in which conservation purposes often run parallel to controlled hunting, a diversity of accommodation offerings, and a more commercialised game viewing experience (Bothma & Von Bach, 2010;Bothma, Suich, & Spenceley, 2009;Child, 2009;Pasquini, Fitzsimons, Cowell, Brandon, & Wescott, 2011). Game farms in South Africa are defined as privately owned rural land used for ' … breeding of rare game species and live game sales, hunting, processed game products and ecotourism expenditure' (Van der Merwe & Saayman, 2003, p. 105). ...
Wildlife has represented the key tourist attractions in South Africa. Boasting the big five, pristine national parks and three of the world’s ecological hotspots, tourism is a growing sector in South Africa. In addition to wildlife viewing, South Africa also attracts wildlife hunters to a network of private game farms, and in some cases these bring in higher gross income than nature reserves. In the South African context, private game farms draw local and international tourists often offering accommodation in a natural setting, and a range of nature-based activities. Given the commercial success of private game farms, a number of agricultural farms have been converted to game farms in recent years. This shift has been marked within the cattle farming sector of Limpopo Province, the region with which this study engages. Faced with the risks of diseases, drought, cost of land and labour, and the declining price of beef, game farms offered self-reliance, diversification of product, and reduced seasonality in earnings. Although driven by economic factors, the conversion to game farming is characterised by the re-introduction of large herbivores, is resulting land cover change and an increase in biodiversity and is therefore argued to be a form of ‘rewilding’.
... With an annual return on investment upwards of 80%, wildlife enterprises generate 4.7 billion Rand/year (Oliver, 2015). They are subdivided into the following, often overlapping, market segments: hunting (3.1 billion Rand/year), trophy hunting (510 million Rand/year), game translocation (750 million Rand/year), live auctions (1 billion Rand/year), game meat production (42 million Rand/year), and taxidermy (200 million Rand/year) (Bothma et al., 2009;Du Toit and Van Schalkwyk, 2011;Grobler et al., 2011). ...
Wildlife translocations have historically assisted in re-establishing species in areas of extinction and are currently employed in over 50 countries. Ironically, they may also be responsible for the extinction of pure genetic lineages via hybridization, thereby negatively impacting endangered, indigenous, and rare species. Due to recent evolutionary divergence , black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) can mate and produce fertile offspring when sympatric. A total of 6929 translocated black and blue wildebeest from 273 private ranches and 3 provincial protected areas protected (PPAs) were documented over 5 years, across 5 South African provinces. We analyzed dispersal patterns and wildlife ranching economics to identify conservation implications and to infer if translocations are likely to persist in their current form. Findings indicate (1) 58.45% of sampled private ranches manage for both wildebeest populations, (2) blue wildebeest males are primarily translocated, (3) wildebeest are introduced across provincial lines, (4) wildebeest are introduced to within and amongst the private and commercial industry from multiple sources, and (5) wildebeest revenue accounted for 20.8% of revenue generated from all wildlife translocations. Unwanted conservation implications concern ecological integrity, genetic swamping, and regulatory efficiency. We caution against risks posed by the game industry upon the PPA's ability to function as nature conservation units and act as stocking sources and the plausibility that black wildebeest populations incorporate varying degrees of introgressive hybrids. Moreover, wildebeest account for 1/5 of revenue generated from all game translocations. This is indicative of its likelihood to persist in their current form, thereby inducing hybridization and facilitating outbreeding depression. We caution that concerns are likely to worsen if no intervention is taken. Lastly, we coin the concept of Ecological Sustainable Network (ESN); we designed a framework for standardizing procedures to advance effective wildlife translocation practices worldwide.
... A total of 33 percent (or about 6,200 animals) of the national population of white rhinos and 450 black rhinos were protected on private land in South Africa at the end of 2014 (personal communication with Pelham Jones, Private Rhino Owners Association, 2016). While the privatization of rhinos has been portrayed as an unqualified conservation success story ('t Sas-Rolfes 2012; Bothma et al. 2012), the darker side is often disregarded. By virtue of the apartheid race laws, African people were legally excluded from owning commercial farming land and wild animals until the end of the apartheid regime in 1994. ...
This chapter shows that the illegalization of an economic exchange is not a straightforward political decision with fixed goalposts, but a protracted process that may encounter unexpected hurdles along the way to effective implementation and enforcement. While political considerations informed the decision to ban trade in rhino horn initially, diffusion of the prohibition has been uneven and lacks social and cultural legitimacy among key actors along the supply chain. Moreover, some market actors justify their participation in illegal rhino horn markets based on the perceived illegitimacy of the rhino horn prohibition. The concept of “contested illegality” captures an important legitimization device of market participants who do not accept the trade ban.
... In re-establishing and restocking wildlife populations, the conservation authorities have moved towards introducing species that historically occurred in the area, provided that suitable habitat existed, sourcing from closest natural populations and introducing reasonable founder numbers (Novellie & Knight, 1994;Alpers et al., 2004). Carnivores have also been reintroduced to many smaller reserves in southern Africa to provide the missing large predator trophic level and their associated ecological processes on wildlife populations, as well as providing greater financial opportunities from ecotourism, hunting, or sales (Bothma et al., 2009;Hayward et al., 2007). Restoring or mimicking ecological structure through re-introductions does carry some pitfalls as it may not necessarily address the threats that led to the species losses in the first place and in most cases lacks theoretical guidance or experimental approaches (Seddon et al., 2007). ...
The better performance of large mammal populations in southern African protected areas is related to particular conservation values and historical and socio-economic circumstances. This chapter identifies a key set of desirable conservation, socio-economic, and political outcomes that are necessary to maintaining viable antelope populations in and out of protected areas, and analyse the potential influence of a suite of management interventions that are designed to achieve these conservation outcomes. Examples, primarily from southern Africa, will be used to illustrate how these interventions have had both positive and negative impacts, particularly on the conservation of antelopes, and what lessons have been learnt. The management of wildlife diseases has also become increasingly important in ensuring antelope population persistence. The diversity of Africa's iconic large herbivore systems were shaped predominantly during the dramatic Pleistocene climatic changes. The growth in wildlife populations in southern Africa stems primarily from embracing the sustainable utilization philosophy.
... This shift to local resource management is based on the premise that 47 local people are committed to sustainable resource use (Cousins et al. 2008). In southern Africa, 48 policies that once established centralized control over wildlife were replaced by legislative changes 49 that bestowed custodial rights of wildlife to individual property owners (Bothma et al. 2009; Lindseyenvironmental conservation through the protection of habitat and biodiversity (Lindsey et al. 58 2009b), game ranching inherently increases interactions—and potentially conflict—between 59 valuable game species and free-ranging wildlife (Lindsey et al. 2013). Many free-ranging large 60 mammals across southern Africa are ecologically vital as keystone species, and act as biodiversity 61 indicators (Dalerum et al. 2008), but typically accrue little direct financial benefit to game ranchers. ...
The devolution of user rights of wildlife in southern Africa has led to a widespread land-use shift from livestock farming to game ranching. The economic advantages of game ranching over livestock farming are significant, but so too are the risks associated with breeding financially valuable game where free-ranging wildlife pose a credible threat. Here, we assessed whether the conservation potential of game ranching, and a decentralized approach to conservation more generally, may be undermined by an increase in human-wildlife conflict. We demonstrate that game rancher tolerance towards free-ranging wildlife has significantly decreased as the game ranching industry has evolved. Our findings reveal a conflict of interest between wealth and wildlife conservation resulting from local decision-making in the absence of adequate centralized governance and evidence-based best practice. As a fundamental pillar of devolution-based natural resource management, game ranching proves an important mechanism for economic growth, albeit at a significant cost to conservation.
... The importance of land outside of state-protected areas to biodiversity conservation is therefore becoming increasingly clear (Bond et al., 2004; Fjeldså et al., 2004; Kent & Hill, 2013). Large-scale privately owned land is often much more extensive than state protected areas and generally has a relatively low human population density (de Villiers, 2003; du P. Bothma, Suich & Spenceley, 2009; Lindsey et al., 2013a; Lindsey et al., 2013b; Odendaal, 2006; Scoones et al., 2010), so is capable of supporting relatively large wildlife populations (Child, 2009c; Lindsey et al., 2013b). For example, before 2000, 30% of the land area of Zimbabwe was composed of large-scale private farms (20% of which were managed specifically for wildlife), while state protected reserves occupied just 13% of the country (Table 1; du Toit, 2004; Scoones et al., 2010). ...
Large carnivores are decreasing in number due to growing pressure from an expanding human population. It is increasingly recognised that state-protected conservation areas are unlikely to be sufficient to protect viable populations of large carnivores, and that private land will be central to conservation efforts. In 2000, a fast-track land reform programme (FTLRP) was initiated in Zimbabwe, ostensibly to redress the racial imbalance in land ownership, but which also had the potential to break up large areas of carnivore habitat on private land. To date, research has focused on the impact of the FTLRP process on the different human communities, while impacts on wildlife have been overlooked. Here we provide the first systematic assessment of the impact of the FTLRP on the status of large carnivores. Spoor counts were conducted across private, resettled and communal land use types in order to estimate the abundance of large carnivores, and to determine how this had been affected by land reform. The density of carnivore spoor differed significantly between land use types, and was lower on resettlement land than on private land, suggesting that the resettlement process has resulted in a substantial decline in carnivore abundance. Habitat loss and high levels of poaching in and around resettlement areas are the most likely causes. The FTLRP resulted in the large-scale conversion of land that was used sustainably and productively for wildlife into unsustainable, unproductive agricultural land uses. We recommended that models of land reform should consider the type of land available, that existing expertise in land management should be retained where possible, and that resettlement programmes should be carefully planned in order to minimise the impacts on wildlife and on people.
... In Namibia, between the early 1970s and 2001, livestock populations on private land halved from 1.8 million to 0.91 million, whereas 'huntable' wildlife populations doubled from 0.565 million to 1,161 million head for economic reasons (Barnes and Jones 2009). In South Africa, the numbers of wild animals easily quadrupled between 1964 and 2005, with some sources (Flack unpublished data; Carruthers 2008 suggesting as many as 18.6 million wild animals between 1964 and 2005, and there are now some 10,000 wildlife ranches and some 4,000 mixed wildlife and livestock enterprises (Bothma et al. 2009). Private wildlife areas expanded eightfold between 1979 and the mid-1990s (Chadwick 1996), protecting at least 16.8% of the total area of South Africa (Cousins et al. 2008) compared to 6% as IUCN category I to IV protected areas. ...
In southern Africa, there are now 10,000 to 14,000 private ranchers that promote wildlife enterprises alone or in some in combination with domestic livestock. An important conservation success, this new bio-experience economy also creates social well-being through economic growth and job creation. It is an economic sector that needs to be taken seriously, not least because it pioneers policies that inform the valorization and sustainable management of ecosystem services. The article describes the historical emergence of a sustainable use approach to wildlife conservation since the Arusha Conference in 1963. It suggests that indigenous multi-species systems may have ecological advantages over modern livestock production systems, but these are difficult to quantify in complex dryland ecosystems and are trumped by economics and political processes. However, wildlife provides the foundation for a bio-experience economy that has a decided comparative economic advantage over agro-extractive commodity production (like beef) in drylands. We describe how new policy approaches, especially the valorization of wildlife and the devolution of proprietorship to landholders and communities, have allowed wildlife's economic advantages to be reflected in land use decisions through both ‘game ranching’ and ‘community-based natural resource management’. Institutional changes have modified the economics of wildlife in drylands, promoting both conservation and development by allocating environmental raw materials to higher-order goods and services. A further goal of the paper is to describe practical economic methods for assessing and explaining the wildlife sector to policy makers in terms of its profitability, both to individual landholders and to society through jobs and economic growth. The paper covers a 50-year period between the PhD studies of the four authors and takes a trans disciplinary approach which values the knowledge of practitioners as much as the academic literature.
... South African wildlife populations were depleted by colonial settlers and then almost extirpated by crop and livestock farmers in the early part of the 20th century (Pringle & Pringle, 1979; Bothma et al., 2009). Black-backed jackals began to appear in the highveld (east central South Africa) from 1953 (Walton & Joly, 2003), suggesting range expansion or recolonization. ...
Accurate assessment of carnivore population status is frequently hindered by insufficient distribution data. For northern South Africa we address this deficit by mapping new records from landscape-scale sign surveys, questionnaire interviews, problem animal records and camera trapping. The black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal remain common and widespread. Ranges of the serval Leptailurus serval and brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea were much larger than previous estimates, reducing the risk of simultaneous extirpation across all occupied locations. The proportion of range area occupied was larger for several species, notably the leopard Panthera pardus, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and serval. We conclude that the serval continues to recover from historical threats and is expanding into new areas. A larger brown hyaena range and less fragmented pattern of occurrence probably confers greater resilience to threats than was suggested by previous data. Reduced extinction risk arising from the increased area occupied by the cheetah and leopard is tempered by probable local range contraction. Our maps provide baseline information for monitoring the distribution of these six species, which is essential in managing ecological issues that have a spatial component such as responses to changing land use. Our results also demonstrate the utility of detection/non-detection surveys in rapid assessment of carnivore populations at large spatial scales.
Human-wildlife interactions can range from reverence to extreme conflict. Conservationists have come to the realization that humans and wildlife have always coexisted together in shared landscapes across the globe. Thus, understanding and acting upon the prospects of human-wildlife coexistence (HWCo) is now a crucial component of biodiversity conservation to sustain it. HWCo is a state where humans and wildlife share spaces by exposing each other to tolerable levels of risks and disadvantages. HWCo transpires as a result of interplay between a number of perceived and behavioral factors, some of which are interdependent on one another. Through this framework, we find ways to identify these factors, which can then be used to evaluate HWCo and understand the drivers of HWCo. Therefore, the current article focuses on changing this paradigm in HWCo research. We suggest three continuums involving three crucial factors viz., space-use by wildlife, daily activity pattern of wildlife, and human attitude towards wildlife, be used to obtain a cumulative value signifying HWCo for a particular species/taxon in a shared landscape. We propose that these factors be measured simultaneously on a predefined scale, which will allow it to become relative, and will further allow cross-site comparisons. This preliminary framework is expected to enable scientists and researchers to visualize the complexity and dynamicity embedded within human-wildlife interactions through modeling. The evaluation on a continuum is especially effective when positive or negative interactions between humans and wildlife are not obvious.
This study analysed factors of COVID-19 which affected the tourism industry and how private protected areas adapted to decrease the effects of external market shocks within the industry. This tested the resilience within the tourism industry, allowing the study to critique the current theory surrounding resilience. This was done using a qualitative case study analysis of four private nature-based tourism lodges through semi-structured questionnaire surveys based on five socio-economic themes. The findings suggest that wildlife-based land uses can successfully adapt over the short term through cost-saving methods, a move to focus on the domestic market, retrenchments and wage-cutting. However, private protected areas (PPAs) cannot operate in the long term without international clients. We recommend improved government communication and support for PPAs, considering their natural, social and economic importance to South Africa, and the establishment of an emergency fund.KeywordsCOVID-19 Private protected areas Ecotourism Socio-economic adaptation Wildlife-based land use Resilience
Poachers profit from the illegal trade of animal parts. Elephants and rhinoceros are often the target of poachers. In South Africa areas of private reserves agreed to drop fences bordering Kruger National Park. At same time they keep fences that don't boarder the park. Poachers are crossing these fence lines. This paper discusses a work in progress to develop sensors to detect poachers as they cross the fence line.
Legislative changes during the 1960s–1970s granted user rights over wildlife to landowners in southern Africa, resulting in a shift from livestock farming to wildlife-based land uses. Few comprehensive assessments of such land uses on private land in southern Africa have been conducted and the associated benefits are not always acknowledged by politicians. Nonetheless, wildlife-based land uses are growing in prevalence on private land. In Namibia wildlife-based land use occurs over c. 287,000 km2. Employment is positively related to income from ecotourism and negatively related to income from livestock. While 87% of meat from livestock is exported ≥ 95% of venison from wildlife-based land uses remains within the country, contributing to food security. Wildlife populations are increasing with expansion of wildlife-based land uses, and private farms contain 21–33 times more wildlife than in protected areas. Because of the popularity of wildlife-based land uses among younger farmers, increasing tourist arrivals and projected impacts of climate change on livestock production, the economic output of wildlife-based land uses will probably soon exceed that of livestock. However, existing policies favour livestock production and are prejudiced against wildlife-based land uses by prohibiting reintroductions of buffalo Syncerus caffer, a key species for tourism and safari hunting, and through subsidies that artificially inflate the profitability of livestock production. Returns from wildlife-based land uses are also limited by the failure to reintroduce other charismatic species, failure to develop fully-integrated conservancies and to integrate black farmers sufficiently.
A survey of the nature and extent of wildlife ranching in the province of Gauteng was conducted during 2001. The survey was an empirical investigation of game-fenced properties. These included provincial nature reserves and privately owned wildlife ranches or nature reserves as well as game-fenced properties owned by the South African National Defence Force (SANDF), and mining companies in Gauteng. Questionnaires were completed for 89 properties. This represents more than 90% of game-enced properties larger than 50 ha in the province. The properties covered a total of 115 913 hectares. This is 6.8% of the province's surface area. There is a concentration of wildlife ranches in the northern part of the province, which accounts for 70% of the game-fenced properties surveyed. Data were also collected on consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife utilization. Information on wildlife species and numbers are also presented. Wildlife ranching contributes to a limited extent to the economy of the province and, unlike most other provinces, it seems as if ecotourism rather than hunting is the primary revenue earner for the majority of Gauteng ranches. Of concern is the discrepancy between official perceptions and the facts on the ground concerning wildlife ranching in the province.
There has been a long-running debate on the merits of introducing exotic wildlife to wildlife production units in South Africa. This review examines the major issues, and concludes that exotic animals should not be introduced to extensive wildlife production units on natural habitats. It is also argued that a clear separation in goals and principles must be made between intensive and extensive wildlife producers, and that the latter two terms should be used in preference to wildlife farmers and ranchers.
The last decade has seen a considerable increase in the area of land devoted to wildlife in South Africa. In this chapter we argue that this has been driven by economic rather than conservation reasons. A strong local and overseas market within the right political and legal framework have made game ranching an economically attractive proposition for many landowners in certain areas of South Africa such as Maputaland.
An obstacle to the creation of game ranches is the large sum of initial capital required for the acquisition of game and the erection of fences and other infrastructure. This chapter provides four case studies on how this problem was overcome. Shareblock schemes provide one method for raising the required capital. This method has had a significant impact on the growth of game ranching in South Africa and so the schemes are discussed in some detail.
The use of mathematical models have contributed to the optimal utilisation of capital in the set-up phase of a game ranch and in determining management strategies to maximise sustainable income. A case study is provided where this approach was used to calculate an optimal mix of species. Another mathematical model then generated the sequence of purchases and acquisitions of game that minimise total net capital outflow during the set-up period. This minimisation enabled the optimal sustainable populations to be attained within three years taking into account ecological constraints and the limited availability of some species. The model output also includes a detailed cash flow statement for the set-up period.
Ecotourism serves as the principal revenue source for many private protected areas worldwide. We surveyed seven ecotourism-based private protected areas in South Africa to identify key attributes and challenges. The findings include: 1) the top three attractions to private reserves were the wildlife, the scenery, and the high quality accommodation / service; 2) establishing a reserve was a costly undertaking, requiring an average initial outlay of USD 715 to 11.3 million to the regional economy per year; 5) reserves were making a substantial contribution to biodiversity conservation; and 6) lack of support by government entities was the most pressing challenge facing reserve owners. The analysis points to ecotourism as an economically and ecologically desirable alternative to other land uses, while also highlighting the need for governments to provide assistance and support for both the establishment and management of private reserves.
The concept of carrying capacity originally was developed for domestic grazers and does not make provision for the wide variety of diets found in wild African herbivores. In the African savannas, herbivores are classified into 4 basic dietary classes: low-selective grazers, high-selective grazers, mixed feeders, and browsers. Given these conditions, a more appropriate approach was needed than the agricultural method based on livestock units to determine stocking rates for wildlife. Consequently, a new approach was developed that recognizes plant resource variation at the plant community level and differentiates between the grazing and browsing component in the diet of herbivores in the African savannas. The model used to calculate the grazing and browsing capacity on wildlife ranches provides for rainfall variability, quality and quantity of available grazing and browse, dietary requirements of each type of wildlife, and availability of suitable habitat. In this model the conventional conversion of wildlife to a Large Stock Unit has been replaced by a Grazer Unit, which is the equivalent of a 180-kg blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), and a Browser Unit, which is the equivalent of a 140-kg greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros). By separating the grazing and browsing components in the diet of wildlife for stocking density calculation, the diversity in the vegetation resources is optimally utilized. This concept is exemplified with an actual case study of a wildlife ranch in a South African savanna. In doing so, quantitative and clearly defined parameters are provided on which to base wildlife management decisions.
This article presents the most relevant findings of a case study on tourist accommodation facilities in the Southern Maputaland Biosphere Reserve. The aim of the study was to gather information on the benefits and costs associated with the operation of existing tourist accommodation in the subregion. Twenty private tourism operations ranging from upmarket game lodges to bed and breakfast facilities were sampled. The results present a comparison of indicators of the economic impact and efficiency of tourism, such as revenue generation, annual rates of return on investment, employment creation and wage levels between various types of tourism operation as well as between tourism as a land use option and the alternative of agriculture. They also highlight the economic importance of the protected areas to the local tourism industry.
There is increasing interest in the potential of animal species that do not currently fall within the scope of conventional livestock farming to supplement the production of animal protein for human consumption. This paper provides an overview of the current situation and the conditions the led to it, and offers an analysis of the future of wildlife usage within the general framework of sustainable development.
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