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Adults’ Motivation for Physical Activity: Differentiating Motives for Exercise, Sport, and Recreation
Abstract and Figures
Physical inactivity continues to be a significant problem that adversely impacts adult health. An important construct to consider in researching adult physical activity adherence is motivation. Factors motivating participation in two types of physical activity, exercise and sport, have been compared; however, factors motivating participation in another type of physical activity, recreation, have often been left out of the comparison. The current study compared motivation to partake in physical activity among adults whose primary type of physical activity was exercise, sport, or recreation. Results indicate that participation motivation significantly varied among physical activity types (exercise, sport, and recreation). It was found that the participants who engaged in recreation as their primary form of physical activity and the participants who took part in exercise as their primary form of physical activity had motivations that were more similar to one another's than to those of the participants who use sport as their primary form of physical activity. Specifically, the findings suggest that participants who use exercise and recreation activities as their primary form of physical activity are motivated by more extrinsic constructs, compared to those who engage in sport as their primary form of physical activity. Findings provide insight that can be used to facilitate improved adherence to physical activity recommendations.
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... Although the reasons for participation in sports activities are quite high, complex is one of the most important factors that encourage and maintain participation in sports activity (McDonough and Crocker, 2005). Motivation is a psychological concept that encourages an individual towards a desired goal and is considered a psychological force that includes the intent and direction of a particular behavior (Ball, Bice & Parry, 2014). Motivations play a key role in all areas of life, as well as participation in sports activity. ...
Education is expected to help individuals to be developed at the highest level by revealing their hidden powers and abilities. Sports is one of the important factors that helps children with need special education to take their places in daily life, to connect them to life by socializing, to orient themselves with motivation and to accept the idea that disability is not an obstacle to continue living. In this study, it was aimed to determine sport participation motivation levels of children with special educational needs. Method; descriptive survey model from quantitative research methods was used in the research. A total of 60 (20 Girls, 40 Boys) children from Mersin special education practice schools participated in the study. In the research, a personal information form prepared by the researchers and the "Scale of Motivation for Participation in Sports in Persons with Disabilities (SMPSPD)" developed by Tekkurşun, İlhan, Esentürk and Kan (2018) were used as a data collection tool. In the analysis of the data obtained in the research; Descriptive statistics and t-test, Pearson Moment Correlation, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used. According to the findings; the mean scores of internal and external motivation of children who participated in sports activities were significantly higher than those who did not participate in sports activities. While there was no significant difference according to gender, a positive significant difference was found between the age and intrinsic motivation level of the children. As a result; It can be concluded that children with special educational needs have high motivation to participate in sports.
... Childhood sport participation is one of the strongest predictors of physical activity and exercise throughout middle adulthood and beyond, likely due to skills acquired and developed through sports that mitigate many barriers to adult physical activity and exercise behaviors. 1 While the sports environment appears to be a crucial developmental space for lifelong physical activity, its effects likely impact other aspects of health as well. For example, physical activity has been identified as a protective factor for mental health 2,3 and shown to reduce depressive symptoms, lower perceived stress, increase self-rated mental health, 4 and improve overall life satisfaction. ...
Objective: To evaluate the relationship between high school sport participation among university students and whether previous sports participation was associated with current levels of exercise-self efficacy, resilience, and psychological need satisfaction physical activity behaviors. Participants: College freshmen (n = 152) in the United States responded to an electronic survey sent out by their university. Methods: Participants completed a set of questionnaires assessing resilience, psychological need satisfaction in exercise, self-efficacy, and current PA. Results: Analysis of variance, Kruskal-Wallis H tests, independent samples t-tests, and ordinary least squares regression modeling were used. Total PA and having met moderate PA guidelines were both associated with exercise SE and PNSE. HS GPA, total PA, and being a college athlete were associated with both resilience and exercise SE. Conclusions: Sport participation may serve as an effective method for students to develop exercise SE, resilience, and PNSE. The development of these skills may support lifelong PA behaviors.
... According to Vallerand (2008), the main difference between extrinsic motivation and passion is lack of enjoyment of the activity. If people enjoy being active, or their experience of PA is paired with pleasant associations, it is more likely that they will continue to be active (Epstein, 1998;Ball et al., 2014). ...
Studying individuals’ motivation to engage in physical activity raises the question of whether physical activity is a consumption good (enjoyment) or an investment good (a health investment). The aims of the study were: (i) What kind of motivational background is it possible to identify for different forms of physical activity among adults, and (ii) Is there an association between different motivational factors and the form and amount of physical activity among adults. A mixed methods approach was applied using interviews (n = 20) and a questionnaire (n = 156). The qualitative data was analysed using content analysis. The quantitative data were analysed using factor and regression analysis. Among the interviewees, different types of motivation were found: ‘enjoyment’, ‘health reasons’ and ‘mixed motivations’, and from the quantitative data: (i) mixed motivation, a combination of enjoyment and investment, (ii) dislike of physical activity, (iii) social, (iv) goal focused, (v) appearance focused and (vi) exercising only within the comfort zone. Mixed-motivational background, with both enjoyment and investment in health, increased weekly physical activity hours significantly (β = 1.733; p = 0.001). Personal appearance-based motivation increased weekly muscle training (β = 0.540; p = 0.000) and brisk physical activity hours (β = 0651; p = 0.014). Conducting such physical activity which provides enjoyment during the performance of the activity, increased weekly balance-focused exercise hours (β = 0.224; p = 0.034). People have different kind of motivational backgrounds for engaging in physical activity. Mixed motivational background, including enjoyment and investment in health, yielded more physical activity in hours than if the person had only one of these motivations.
... Vigorous PA is associated with higher risk-taking, which may be easier for those with a lower need for approval from others or who think they will succeed in anything; common thinking for those with a low need for Acceptance. Further, as Ball et al. (2014) discussed, motives for vigorous PA might be identified as related to competition, but also the enjoyment of exercise itself as the top motive. ...
Aim
Teaching is known as a high-stress occupation. Managing fatigue and promoting work engagement, teachers’ expectations and perceptions can impact work-related stress–recovery–balance and physical activity levels. The main objective of the current study was to investigate the relationship between intrinsic motivational factors and the autonomic nervous system, such as heart rate and heart rate variability regulation, sleep, and physical activity levels.
Methods
The research included 66 primary and high school teachers in Tampere, Finland, in 2020–2021. The Reiss Motivation Profile® (RMP) was selected as an instrument to provide a practical approach to understanding people’s intrinsic motivators and the effects of those on the Firstbeat®-measured heart rate and heart rate variability, and accelerometry. Stepwise multiple linear regression models were used to assess whether the RMP motives reflected Firstbeat®-measured outcomes.
Results
Motives such as Acceptance, Eating, Family, Physical Activity, Power, Tranquillity, and Vengeance were found to have a relationship with Firstbeat®-measured outcomes. An increase in the Physical Activity motive was related to lower stress and less light physical activity. Furthermore, an increase in the Physical Activity motive showed a relationship with better recovery and a higher amount of vigorous physical activity. However, the statistical analysis of heart rate and heart rate variability showed only low explanatory power (R ² = 0.111–0.140) for stress, recovery, and sleep. On the contrary, the explanatory power of measurements related to physical activity and sedentary behavior was higher (R ² = 0.171–0.298). In addition, the need for Acceptance as an important intrinsic motive that may prevent people from vigorous physical activity deserves further research.
Conclusion
The results indicated that there are several factors affecting the autonomous nervous system but also behavior. The basic desires explained sedentary and physical activity behavior better than the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. The 16 life motives can serve as a valuable theory for understanding better how to encourage people to have healthier habits.
... In addition, proceedings of our study took into account gender and level of participation in sport (high-performance, recreational). It was also worth determining whether there was a difference between competitive and recreational athletes because these groups differ in a number of factors e.g., motives for taking up sport activities, expectations of sport performance, personality traits etc. [33][34][35] . In light of previous research findings, comparing these groups in terms of anxiety may be relevant. ...
This study aims to assess the validity and reliability of the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2, as well as to determine the relationship between anxiety and goal orientation among high-performance and recreational athletes. A total of 519 athletes aged M = 22.83 (SD = 4.92) participated in the study, including 266 males and 253 females. 242 athletes trained professionally and 277 recreationally. The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) was used to assess anxiety levels, while the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) enabled to assess athletes’ goal orientation. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit of the model to the data for the Polish version of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (CFI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.072). The models obtained during analysis of high-performance and recreational athletes, women and men, also presented a satisfactory fit to the data (CFI 0.932–0.946). The configural, metric, scalar and strict measurement invariances were demonstrated for high-performance and recreational athletes as well as among women and men. High internal consistency coefficients (alpha 0.81–0.91) and a high test–retest reliability indexes were reported (ICC 0.74–0.87). Women presented higher level of competitive anxiety than men. A positive relationship between competitive anxiety and athletes’ ego orientation was also presented. This relationship concerned particularly women practicing sport recreationally.
... It gravitates an individual toward a desired goal and is considered a psychological force that can reinforce action. [18] The self-determination theory (SDT) stipulates that motives can satisfy basic psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are critical nutrients for developing quality motivation and personal growth. [19][20][21][22][23][24] In addition, motives can also serve cognitions and emotions included in personal goals. ...
Objectives: The study aimed to determine motives for physical activity (PA) participation in Libyan adults and compare motives related to sex and places of participation (indoor vs. outdoor). Participants and Methods: A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was conducted. The questionnaire was adapted from the Exercise Motivation Inventory version 2. Six hundred Libyan adults (300 males and 300 females) were involved in this study. Results: In general, positive health, activation, and avoiding ill-health (4.83 ± 0.89, 4.20 ± 0.93, 4.09 ± 1.00, mean ± standard deviation [SD]) were the most common motives for PA participation, respectively, while competition, affiliation, health pressure, and social status (2.73 ± 1.29, 2.69 ± 1.21, 2.59 ± 1.29, 2.50 ± 1.24, mean ± SD) were the least motivational factors, respectively. In males, enjoyment, social status, affiliation, competition, health pressure, strength, and endurance were significantly higher (P= 0.017, 0.000, 0.010, 0.000, 0.007, 0.024). In contrast, activation, positive health, weight control, appearance, and fitness were significantly higher in females (P= 0.002, 0.001, 0.000, 0.000, 0.005). In addition, health pressure, avoiding ill-health, and positive health motives were similar in adults practicing PA indoor and outdoor. In contrast, other motives tended to be significantly higher in indoor activities. Conclusions: Motives for PA participation differ across participants' sex and places of participation among Libyan adults. It is crucial to understand the motives for PA participation to capitalize on the positive motives to increase their participation and enhance the positive effects of increased PA in the community.
... A través de un estudio más específico sobre la comparación de motivos, Ball et al. (2014) buscaron diferencias entre los practicantes de deporte, de ejercicio y de AF recreativa. Los autores encontraron que son semejantes en cuanto a motivación quienes hacen ejercicio y quienes realizan AF recreativa para obtener fuerza y resistencia y controlar su peso corporal y el estrés. ...
Objetivo. Conocer la experiencia de personas físicamente activas por un largo plazo desde tres etapas: inicio de la vida activa, motivación actual y afrontamiento a las barreras. Método. Se realiza un análisis fenomenológico a partir de entrevistas examinadas a profundidad. N = 11 de personas adultas que han sido activas a un nivel suficiente por los últimos 10 años. Resultados. Surgieron cuatro categorías que describen: la vivencia autónoma, la decisión, el gusto adquirido desde la infancia y el hábito para regular emociones. A manera de conclusión, al conocer las características de la experiencia en la actividad física en personas activas, se confirmó aspectos sobre la motivación autodeterminada, lo que sugiere la presencia de elementos útiles en la intervención dirigida a la activación a largo plazo.
... It has been shown that sports enjoyment consists of rather stable (pleasure) but also influenceable components (flow and recovery). 2 This implies that sports enjoyment may vary depending on the situation and is therefore subject to change: For instance, the type of sportand how it is taught/practiced in physical education classcan impact the enjoyment someone gets out of it (e.g., Ball, Bice, & Parry, 2014;Engels & Freund, 2018, 2019Frederick & Ryan, 1993;McCarthy, Jones, & Clark-Carter, 2008). Also, a sport context that fulfills the basic needs of Self-Determination-Theory (need for autonomy, need for competence, need for social relatedness; Deci & Ryan, 1985) is associated with an increase in sports enjoyment in physical education (Mouratidis, Vansteenkiste, Sideridis, & Lens, 2011;Sanchez-Oliva, Sanchez-Miguel, Leo, Kinnafick, & García-Calvo, 2014). ...
Background: Sports enjoyment is a prerequisite for continued engagement in sports (e.g., Mullen et al., 2011 ; Woods, Tannehill, & Walsh, 2012 ). To date, it is understudied whether perceived stress and personality relate to the experience of sports enjoyment. Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between perceived stress, personality (the Big Five), and sports enjoyment. Method: Data were collected online from a group of N = 195 adults. There were two points of measurements with an interval of 4 weeks in between. Personality was assessed at t 1 , while perceived stress and sports enjoyment were measured at t 2 . Results: The results indicate that perceived stress is significantly related to sports enjoyment: A high amount of perceived stress was associated with less enjoyment of sports. Neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness were related to sports enjoyment, but openness was not. Models testing the mediating effect of perceived stress for personality on sports enjoyment showed significant direct effects for extraversion and conscientiousness and significant indirect effects for neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness. Limitations: Limitations concerning the sample characteristics and some poor fit statistics for the models including openness and extraversion are discussed. Conclusion: Overall, our findings suggest that perceived stress influences the affective experience in physical exercise.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, rekreasyonel egzersize güdülenmenin yaşam doyumuna etkisinin belirlenmesi, aralarındaki ilişkinin ortaya konulması ve üniversite öğrencilerinin bazı demografik özelliklerine göre karşılaştırılmasıdır. Araştırmada nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama tekniği kullanıldı. Çalışmaya lisans düzeyinde öğrenimlerine devam eden toplam 1408 gönüllü öğrenci dahil edildi. Araştırmada Rogers (2000) tarafından geliştirilen Rekreasyonel Egzersize Güdülenme Ölçeği ile Diener ve arkadaşları (1985) tarafından geliştirilen Yaşam Doyumu Ölçeği kullanıldı. Verilerin analizinde SPSS (26.0) paket programı kullanılmış olup, analizlerde Basit Regresyon, Korelasyon, Bağımsız Örneklem T-testi, Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (ANOVA) yöntemleri uygulandı. Rekreasyonel egzersize güdülenmenin yaşam doyumunun %34,1 oranında yordayıcısı olduğu ve motivasyonel faktörler içerisinde en etkileyici güdülenme faktörünün sağlıklı yaşam (%47,4) düşüncesi olduğu sonucuna ulaşıldı (p
This study details the relationship between intrinsic motivation and exercise behavior in volunteer subjects (N=109) participating in an eight week aerobic fitness program. Prior to and following the program, the subjects completed measures of intrinsic motivation. Exercise leaders monitored subjects' attendance at each class, serving as an indicant of exercise behavior. Subjects also indicated their perception of degree of success in the program and their intention to continue exercising post-program termination. Intrinsic motivation was found to be significantly associated with attendance and subjects' confidence in their intentions to continue exercising post-program. Additionally, subjects' perceptions of success experienced in the program were moderately related to post-program levels of intrinsic motivation. More successful subjects generally perceived themselves as being more competent, experiencing more enjoyment, and putting forth more effort. Results are discussed in terms of the role of intrinsic motivation as a predictor of exercise program participation.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
In the United States, employment and labour laws derive from a multitude of legal sources, including the constitutional law, statutory law, treaties, administrative regulations and common law. Employment and labour laws are promulgated at the federal, state and sometimes even local level, and each source of law presents a varied approach in regulating labour and employment matters. In addition, case law and administrative regulations provide additional coverage and guidance when implementing the federal, state and local law. For these reasons, it is unsurprising that companies in the U.S. are often faced with the challenging task of navigating complex legal requirements and obligations that do not always align.
Physical activity interventions are most effective when they are tailored to individual preferences. This study examined preferences for exercising on one's own with some instruction vs. in a class in 1,820 middle- aged and 1,485 older adults. Overall, 69% of middle-aged and 67% of older adults preferred to exercise on their own with some instruction rather than in an exercise class. The study identified subgroups - 5 of middle-aged and 6 of older adults - whose preferences for exercising on their own with some instruction ranged from 33-85%. Less educated women younger than 56, healthy women 65-71, and older men reporting higher stress levels were most likely to prefer classes. All other men and most women preferred exercising on their own. The identification of these subgroups enables us to tailor exercise recommendations to the preferences of middle-aged and older adults, with increased rates of physical activity adoption and maintenance a likely result.
Future-oriented self-perceptions, or possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986), represent how individuals think about their potential and their future. To explore the cognitive processes involved in the decision to exercise, the possible selves of 203 middle-aged women from a university community, representing a range of exercise behaviors, were examined. Comparisons were made of possible selves identified by participants across levels of exercise behavior, and the ability of possible selves to discriminate exercisers from nonexercisers was examined. Group differences were most evident in possible selves related to body image, with hoped-for and feared selves more likely to be described by inactive individuals than by their more active counterparts. The self-regulatory mechanisms of self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and importance discriminated nonexercisers from exercisers, particularly long-term exercisers. Findings support the conclusion that possible selves related to exercise is a useful construct for examining the process of behavioral change and for planning future exercise interventions.