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Psychological Distress in Chimpanzees Rescued From Laboratories

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The U.S. is one of the last countries allowing invasive research on chimpanzees. Biomedical research on chimpanzees commonly involves maternal deprivation, social isolation, intensive confinement, and repetitive invasive procedures. These physically harmful and psychologically traumatic experiences cause many chimpanzees to develop symptoms of psychopathology that persist even after relocation from laboratories to sanctuaries. Through semi-structured interviews with chimpanzee caregivers, direct behavioral observations, and consultation of laboratory records, we were interested in qualitatively analyzing symptoms of psychological distress in a sample of 253 chimpanzees rescued from biomedical research now residing at an accredited chimpanzee sanctuary. We present the results of this analysis and include an illustrative case study of one rescued chimpanzee who engages in self-injurious behaviors and meets modified DSM-IV criteria for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. We discuss our results in light of recent policy changes regarding the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research in the U.S. and their implications for those involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of chimpanzees from biomedical research.
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation
ISSN: 1529-9732 (Print) 1529-9740 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjtd20
Psychological Distress in Chimpanzees Rescued
From Laboratories
Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman PhD, Jocelyn Bezner VMD & Chelsea Ritter BA
To cite this article: Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman PhD, Jocelyn Bezner VMD & Chelsea Ritter BA
(2015) Psychological Distress in Chimpanzees Rescued From Laboratories, Journal of Trauma &
Dissociation, 16:4, 349-366, DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2014.1003673
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2014.1003673
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1529-9732 print/1529-9740 online
DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2014.1003673
ARTICLES
Psychological Distress in Chimpanzees Rescued
From Laboratories
STACY M. LOPRESTI-GOODMAN, PhD
Department of Psychology, Marymount University, Arlington, Virginia, USA
JOCELYN BEZNER, VMD
Save the Chimps, Inc., Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
CHELSEA RITTER, BA
Department of Psychology, Marymount University, Arlington, Virginia, USA
The United States is one of the last countries allowing invasive
research on chimpanzees. Biomedical research on chimpanzees
commonly involves maternal deprivation, social isolation, inten-
sive confinement, and repetitive invasive procedures. These phys-
ically harmful and psychologically traumatic experiences cause
many chimpanzees to develop symptoms of psychopathology that
persist even after relocation from laboratories to sanctuaries.
Through semistructured interviews with chimpanzee caregivers,
direct behavioral observations, and consultation of laboratory
records, we were interested in qualitatively analyzing symptoms
of psychological distress in a sample of 253 chimpanzees rescued
from biomedical research now residing at an accredited chim-
panzee sanctuary. We present the results of this analysis and
include an illustrative case study of one rescued chimpanzee who
engages in self-injurious behaviors and meets modified Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, cri-
teria for posttraumatic stress disorder. We discuss our results in
light of recent policy changes regarding the use of chimpanzees
Received 14 August 2014; accepted 22 December 2014.
Address correspondence to Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman, PhD, Department of Psychology,
Marymount University, 2807 North Glebe Road, Arlington, VA 22207. E-mail: Stacy.Lopresti-
Goodman@Marymount.edu
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available online at www.
tandfonline.com/WJTD.
349
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350 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
in biomedical research in the United States and their implications
for those involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of chimpanzees
from biomedical research.
KEYWORDS posttraumatic stress disorder, complex posttraumatic
stress disorder, self-injurious behaviors, psychological distress,
chimpanzees
For ethical and scientific reasons, nearly every country in the world has
banned or discontinued the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research
(Capaldo & Bradshaw, 2011). The United States is the last country con-
ducting large-scale experimentation on chimpanzees, with approximately
850 chimpanzees still confined in research colonies (Capaldo & Bradshaw,
2011; Kahn, 2014; National Institutes of Health [NIH], 2013).
Chimpanzees subjected to biomedical experiments often endure mater-
nal deprivation, unnatural rearing conditions, intensive confinement, and a
variety of invasive and painful procedures, which results in physical harm
and psychological trauma (see Ferdowsian & Merskin, 2012, for a discussion
of laboratory-caused trauma in nonhuman animals, including nonhuman pri-
mates). In the wild, for instance, chimpanzees stay with their mothers for the
first 5 to 7 years of their lives (Goodall, 1986). Chimpanzees born in labo-
ratories are prematurely taken from their mothers—sometimes within their
first hour—and moved to nurseries, where they are raised by humans or
peers. As in humans, maternal separation and deprivation in chimpanzees
is known to negatively shape neurobiology by compromising the chim-
panzees’ responses to stress (Brune, Brune-Cohrs, McGrew, & Preuschoft,
2006; Kalcher, Franz, Crailsheim, & Preuschoft, 2008). Primates who are
raised by peers have enlargements in “stress sensitive brain regions” that
make them susceptible to traumatic and stress-induced psychopathology
(Spinelli et al., 2009, p. 658), which can result in an inability to regulate
affect and stress (Schore, 2005).
Chimpanzees in laboratories are often socially isolated and confined in
small cages that lack environmental enrichment and do not allow for species-
specific behaviors. The seemingly unpredictable schedule of physical harm
humans repeatedly inflict on them can result in their living in a constant
state of fear. These harms include being injected with sedatives while being
mechanically squeezed between two ends of their 5 ×5-foot cage, and being
shot with anesthesia dart-guns, a process known as a knock-down (see www.
youtube.com/watch?v=y_CF-SOgkOY for an example). Footage from inside
laboratories shows chimpanzees screaming and frantically trying to escape
the technicians with dart-guns. The powerful blow from the dart is painful,
as is the 3-foot drop from a platform that often results from the chimpanzee
being knocked unconscious while sleeping or climbing. Squeeze cages and
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 351
knock-downs are used for a variety of routine procedures, including gav-
age, lavage, and blood and tissue sample collection before infection with
diseases such as hepatitis C, HIV, malaria, norovirus and respiratory illnesses
and before the performing of invasive procedures ranging from liver biopsies
to the removal of vertebrae. Chimpanzees endure pain and discomfort from
such invasive procedures and complications such as anaphylaxis, hypoxia,
and severe allergic reactions from the anesthetics (Adami, Wenker, Hoby,
Morath, & Bergadano, 2013). They also endure the trauma of regularly watch-
ing their peers subjected to these procedures. Some chimpanzees have lived
in such traumatizing conditions for more than 50 years.
Chimpanzees in laboratories commonly live in physically restrictive and
strictly controlled environments, which can result in a severely impaired
sense of agency, because they have little autonomy (Bradshaw, Capaldo,
Lindner, & Grow, 2009; Durham & Merskin, 2009). An inability to cope with
or escape from the stressful and painful conditions they endure in laborato-
ries often results in chimpanzees performing abnormal behaviors, or behav-
iors that are species atypical, occur only or more often in chimpanzees living
in captivity, and resemble symptoms of psychopathology in humans (Walsh,
Bramblett, & Alford, 1982). These include self-injurious behaviors (SIB) such
as self-hitting, -biting, -depilation, and -scratching (Balcombe, Ferdowsian,
& Durham, 2011; Birkett & Newton-Fisher, 2011;Fabrega,2006;Lopresti-
Goodman, Kameka, & Dube, 2013; Nash, Fritz, Alford, & Brent, 1999;Walsh
et al., 1982). Other symptoms of stress-induced psychosis brought about
by their conditions mirror those seen in prisoners of war and individu-
als incarcerated in solitary confinement. These include affect dysregulation,
hypersensitivity, irritability, social withdrawal, lack of impulse control, and
problems with behavior initiation (see Haney, 2003, for a review).
Impaired neuroendocrinological development as a result of stress and
negative early experiences predisposes individuals to psychopathology later
in life (Bradshaw & Schore, 2007; Schore, 2005; Spinelli et al., 2009),
including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Given homologies in brain
structures responsible for stress responses (e.g., the hippocampus, amygdala,
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis), as well as developmental and psy-
chosocial similarities between humans and chimpanzees, using a framework
of transspecies psychology and traumatology, researchers have modified and
behaviorally anchored criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000), for PTSD and applied them to chimpanzees (Bradshaw,
Capaldo, Lindner, & Grow, 2008; Brune et al., 2006; Capaldo & Bradshaw,
2011; Ferdowsian et al., 2011; Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2013). PTSD and the
related complex PTSD (CPTSD), which results from the early onset of pro-
longed, highly invasive, and repetitive trauma (Briere & Spinazzola, 2005;
Herman, 1992; Tummala-Narra, Kallivayalil, Singer, & Andreini, 2012;van
der Kolk, 1997), are fitting diagnoses for chimpanzees in biomedical research
given their experiences outlined previously.
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352 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
Research in human and nonhuman primates has demonstrated that the
greater the number of traumatic events occurring in an individual’s lifetime,
the more severe the posttraumatic symptomatology may be (Bradshaw et al.,
2008; Briere & Spinazzola, 2005; Brune et al., 2006). In humans, increased
difficulties in affect regulation and self-control that are comorbid with diag-
noses of CPTSD may result in increased incidents of SIB (Briere & Gil, 1998;
Dyer et al., 2009). SIB in chimpanzees in captivity might be one way of cop-
ing with or relieving stress or may be used to self-stimulate or soothe (Birkett
& Newton-Fisher, 2011; Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2013; Walsh et al., 1982).
Diagnosing PTSD and CPTSD in chimpanzees relies on methods sim-
ilar to those used in assessing the symptomatology of small children or
nonverbal adults (Scheeringa, Zeanah, Drell, & Larrieu, 1995). It consists
of consulting the chimpanzees’ case or laboratory files to assess early life
experiences, conducting interviews with primary caregivers regarding their
history of symptoms, and directly observing the chimpanzees to assess the
frequency and severity of abnormal behaviors and SIB (Bradshaw et al., 2008;
Capaldo & Bradshaw, 2011; Ferdowsian et al., 2011; Lopresti-Goodman et al.,
2013). Using a mixed methodology, we conducted a large-scale analysis of
symptoms of psychological distress in a sample of chimpanzees currently liv-
ing in sanctuary who were retired from NIH- and Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC)–funded biomedical research. Previous investigations
of chimpanzees living in zoos and sanctuaries have found that anywhere
from 4% to 100% of the chimpanzees engage in abnormal behaviors (Birkett
& Newton-Fisher, 2011; Martin, 2002; Wobber & Hare, 2011). Survey esti-
mates of psychopathology, including diagnoses of PTSD, major depressive
disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder,
in chimpanzees rescued from laboratories and the pet and entertainment
industry and living in sanctuary have ranged from 18% to 58% (Ferdowsian
et al., 2011,2012). Given these results, we expected a large percentage of
the chimpanzees rescued from biomedical research living at the sanctuary to
be reported as displaying a variety of abnormal behaviors and symptoms of
distress.
We present an illustrative case study of one chimpanzee rescued from
biomedical research, Seve, who engages in SIB and meets the modified cri-
teria for PTSD. Lastly, we discuss our results in light of recent policy changes
regarding the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research.
METHOD
Research Site
The study was conducted at Save the Chimps, Inc. (STC), a sanctuary in Fort
Pierce, Florida. STC provides lifelong care to chimpanzees who have been
rescued from biomedical research, the entertainment industry, or the exotic
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 353
FIGURE 1 (a) An aerial view of Save the Chimps, Inc., sanctuary in Fort Pierce, Florida. (b)
Large climbing structures and trees on the chimpanzees’ islands.
pet trade. STC cares for nearly 270 chimpanzees, 253 of whom were rescued
from biomedical research and living at the sanctuary in January 2011, when
this project began. The chimpanzees live in social groups of 12 to 25 chim-
panzees on 3- to 5-acre islands. Chimpanzees are free to move between their
indoor enclosure and their island, which includes large climbing structures,
places for the chimpanzees to socialize, and places for them to retreat (see
Figure 1). The sanctuary offers daily opportunities for enrichment, includ-
ing foraging boards, stuffed animals, blankets, and kiddie pools to splash
in. Marymount University’s institutional review board and STC’s board of
directors1approved all procedures.
Procedure
We used a previously developed mixed methodology to assess psycholog-
ical distress and symptoms of PTSD in the chimpanzees (Bradshaw et al.,
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354 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
2008; Ferdowsian et al., 2011; Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2013). Given the
large number of chimpanzees living at STC who have been retired from
biomedical research, and the difficulty in obtaining and analyzing all of their
laboratory records and conducting behavioral observations, we elected to
supplement our survey and interview data with an illustrative case study
of one traumatized chimpanzee. Case studies are a valuable methodology,
as they allow for rigorously and systematically evaluating a representative
individual’s experiences and symptomatology (Bradshaw et al., 2008; David,
2007; Ferdowsian et al., 2011).
CAREGIVER INTERVIEWS
Eight senior staff members at STC (length of employment at the time of
the interview: M=85.00 months, SD =19.15) were told the purpose
of the interviews prior to meeting with the first author. Informed consent
was properly obtained from each individual. Using a methodology detailed
in Lopresti-Goodman et al. (2013), the first author conducted preliminary
semistructured interviews with the staff members to assess the number
of chimpanzees exhibiting abnormal behaviors indicative of psychological
distress, as a present/absent decision (Nash et al., 1999).
The first author conducted structured follow-up interviews with two
primary caregivers of Seve, a chimpanzee who was mentioned by three dif-
ferent caregivers as exhibiting a variety of abnormal behaviors, including SIB,
and met the criteria for PTSD.2The two interviews were used to qualitatively
assess consistency in ratings with regard to Seve’s symptomatology.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
The first author conducted naturalistic observations of Seve on three occa-
sions separated by 6-month intervals. A total of 31 hr of observation was
conducted using instantaneous focal animal sampling with 1-min intervals in
half-hour blocks, resulting in a total of 1,860 observations; 9 hr of observa-
tion was conducted over a week in July 2011, 11 hr over a week in January
2012, and 11 hr over a week in July 2012. Seve was observed inside and
outside his enclosure, with or without the use of binoculars, at distances
ranging from 2 to 25 m.
The first author personally observed and recorded both normal (e.g.,
grooming, playing) and abnormal (e.g., rocking, SIB) behaviors using a
previously developed ethogram for chimpanzees living in sanctuary (see
Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2013, for a detailed description of the observation
methods). She recorded whether he was solitary or interacting with other
chimpanzees and whether he was inside or outside for each observation.
The data were recorded with pen and paper and a continuous alarm timer
(Sper Scientific, Scottsdale, AZ).
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 355
We assessed the severity of Seve’s symptomatology by determining the
percentage of observation time he engaged in abnormal and SIB and spent
socially isolated. We also assessed the amount of time he spent outside of
his enclosure. We were interested in determining whether the severity of
his symptoms would decrease with an increasing amount of time at the
sanctuary free from the harms of biomedical research.
RESULTS
Caregiver Interviews
During the preliminary caregiver interviews, 60 of the 253 chimpanzees
(24%) were mentioned as exhibiting at least one abnormal behavior or
symptom of psychological distress. Symptoms reported included affect dys-
regulation, anhedonia, irritability, social withdrawal, a fear of going outside,3
rocking back and forth while self-clasping, eating and/or smearing of feces,
dissociative episodes, and SIB. During the structured follow-up interviews
with Seve’s caregivers, there was 100% agreement with regard to symptoms
of PTSD reported. We consulted Seve’s laboratory records to obtain a clearer
understanding of the causes of his trauma.4
Case History of Seve (ID# 1572)
LIFE IN THE LABORATORY
Seve (see Figure 2) is a male chimpanzee who was born on July 9, 1993,
at Holloman Air Force Base, in Alamogordo, New Mexico, to parents Carlos
(ID# 958) and Montessa (ID# 893). As is common laboratory practice, some-
time before the age of 2, he was tattooed with the ID# 1572. In May 1995,
when Seve was not yet 2 years old and weighed less than 15 lbs, he was
taken from his mother and placed into his first research protocol under the
direction of the NIH at Bioqual, Inc. laboratories in Rockville, Maryland.
During that study, Seve lived in isolation and was infected with respiratory
syncytial virus, a cause of bronchitis and pneumonia, via intranasal and intra-
tracheal inoculation. His records indicate that in the span of 7 months he had
39 knock-downs for repeated nose and throat swabs, tracheal lavages, blood
draws, and tuberculosis tests in his eyelids.
In December 1995, Seve was transferred to the CDC in Atlanta, Georgia,
where he was placed into a hepatitis C study. His records indicate that
for 3.5 years he was housed alone in a 16-square-foot cage, the size of a
small restroom stall. While at the CDC, he had daily nose and throat swabs,
bidaily tracheal lavages, weekly blood draws, monthly liver biopsies, and
24 tuberculosis tests on his eyelids, all of which involved knock-downs.
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356 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
FIGURE 2 Seve is an adult male chimpanzee who has been diagnosed with complex post-
traumatic stress disorder and engages in self-injurious behaviors as a result of a decade of use
in biomedical research.
In February 1998, he was infused with human antibodies. Seve’s records
indicate that during three of four infusions, he had anaphylactic shock, a
“severe reaction” and was “struggling to breathe” as a result of laryngospasm
and a pulmonary edema. He was intubated and given oxygen and Dopram,
a drug used to stimulate spontaneous respiration.
In April 1998, he was knocked down to have a portion of a liver
lobe removed. His anesthesia notes indicate that the knock-down started
at 7:20 a.m., but Seve “never went completely down” and was “still fight-
ing” the anesthesia until 8:35 a.m., after two more doses of Ketamine and
Valium. At 8:47 a.m. they began the surgery, even though he was still moving
and coughing. At 11:35 a.m. he stopped breathing and required oxygen and
Dopram to be revived.
In August 1998, researchers at the CDC performed another liver biopsy.
Records indicate that he was agitated, was in pain, and turned “blue” on the
operating table. They attempted to intubate him, but he needed Dopram to
be revived. His records indicate that from February through October 2000,
he had another 13 knock-downs for liver biopsies; six times he was given
too much anesthesia and had “complications,” including prolonged pain and
inflammation at the incision site.
In 2001, in addition to having knock-downs for weekly blood draws
and monthly liver biopsies, Seve had his axillary lymph nodes removed.
His records indicate that that year he had a screaming fit and clawed at
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 357
his head and scalp for 2 days. As treatment, he was prescribed Valium and
given access to television. Despite his life-threatening allergic reactions and
deteriorating physical and mental health, he continued to be used in research
protocols until May 2004.
His records from 2001 through 2004 are sparse. His 2002 records indicate
that Seve had severe diarrhea for prolonged periods of time; in 2003 he had
two additional biopsies, and in 2004 he suffered from pinworms. Because
federal law only requires that animal laboratory records be maintained for
the most recent 3 years, most of his records are not available, and it is nearly
impossible to determine what else Seve endured during this time.
LIFE IN ALAMOGORDO
In May 2004, after spending more than a decade in biomedical research
laboratories, Seve was sent to a facility housed at the defunct Coulston
Foundation laboratory in Alamogordo, New Mexico. The laboratory was
closed in 2002 because of extensive Animal Welfare Act violations, and all
of the chimpanzees were under the care of STC (Primate Freedom Project,
2002).
Psychological state. When Seve arrived in Alamogordo, his caregivers
indicated that he seemed constantly “distressed.” He engaged in daily
episodes of SIB similar to those noted in his 2001 CDC records. He was
reported as being “out of it,” screaming, severely scratching and clawing at
his head, and biting his arms and feet frequently (see Figure 3). He was stiff
and shaky, had bizarre postures and movements of his limbs, and would
repeatedly bob and hit his head. He made stereotypic, repetitive movements
with his jaw that seemed to serve no function or purpose. Seve also suffered
from bouts of anorexia.
According to his caregivers, his psychological health seemed to wax
and wane. There were periods of time when he seemed to be improving, his
head wounds would heal, and he was quiet and stable. Months, weeks, or
days later he would regress to a state of constant distress. In February 2007,
during a severe SIB episode, he tried to twist and bite off his index finger.
Physical state. Seve had multiple physical examinations that included
blood work, radiographs, dental exams, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scan, and several computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans to determine
whether his SIB had an underpinning biological cause. Any abnormalities
were ruled out. After consultation with psychiatrists, anesthesiologists, and
veterinary behaviorists, a combination of Risperidone (an antipsychotic) and
Diazepam (an antianxiety medication) was prescribed. Any possible envi-
ronmental stresses were addressed. Seve was slowly integrated into a social
group with 23 other chimpanzees who were rescued from research or who
were formerly kept as pets.
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358 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
FIGURE 3 Evidence of self-injurious behaviors on Seve’s head and neck in July 2011.
LIFE IN FORT PIERCE
In May 2011, Seve was moved from STC’s Alamogordo facility to their Florida
sanctuary. There Seve had access to an unenclosed outdoor area for the first
time in his life. Like many chimpanzees rescued from lifelong confinement
in laboratories, however, when he first arrived at the sanctuary, he chose to
remain indoors. Despite the move to a new pseudo-natural location and the
freedom to decide whom to interact with or whether to stay indoors or go
outside, Seve continued to engage in severe SIB.
Symptoms of PTSD reported from caregiver interviews in July 2011.
Seve’s experiences in the laboratory and the resulting persistent symptoms of
psychological distress meet the modified criteria for PTSD. As detailed pre-
viously, over a 10-year period while living in various laboratories, Seve was
exposed to adverse rearing conditions, routine stress, and physical abuse,
including invasive surgeries and infection with diseases, that caused him
severe physical and psychological trauma (Criterion A1). Even after being
rescued by the sanctuary, Seve had intense physical and emotional reac-
tions to objects that may have symbolized or reminded him of time in the
laboratory (Criteria B4 and B5). For example, his intense screaming fits
and episodes of SIB were prompted by the sound of the food cart being
wheeled around or enclosure doors being shut. Confining him to a single
room would severely upset him. During his episodes of SIB, he scratched
and clawed at his head, neck, and shoulders, causing extreme excoriation;
exhibited a fear grimace; and screamed excessively. He lacked interest in
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 359
socializing, grooming, and playing with other chimpanzees; was often alone;
and avoided his human caregivers (Criteria C4 and C5). He had persistent
symptoms of increased arousal, including excessive outbursts and episodes
of SIB (Criterion D2); was hypervigilant (Criterion D4); and was easily star-
tled and agitated by other chimpanzees and general noises (Criterion D5). He
would attempt to interact with and seek assurance from other chimpanzees
only after an episode of SIB, but his peers did not always welcome these
interactions, and the rejection would magnify the severity of his SIB.
He was reported as being an anxious chimpanzee who had a hard time
calming down once aroused. After his episodes of SIB, he often refused to
eat. Instead, he spent hours picking at his wounds, sitting in a depressed
hunched posture alone in a corner or underneath a bench inside of his
enclosure. Given his history of prolonged repetitive trauma while living in an
environment of constant stress under the control of humans who perpetrated
violence against him, from which he had no means of escape, a diagnosis of
CPTSD is also appropriate.
Naturalistic observations. When Seve first arrived in Florida, he was
reported as spending a significant amount of time being socially withdrawn
and frequently engaging in abnormal and SIB and went outside rarely to
never. In order to directly assess the severity of Seve’s psychological dis-
tress, as well as to determine whether his symptoms diminished the longer
he was at the sanctuary, the first author conducted nonintrusive behavioral
observations.
With regard to social interactions, in July 2011 Seve was observed being
solitary and socially withdrawn 88% of the observation time. Despite hav-
ing access to the outdoors, he was observed inside his enclosure on more
than 99% of the observations. On 0.004% of the observations, he was in the
doorway of his enclosure but never fully stepped outside. With regard to the
distribution of behaviors, Seve spent 8% of the time engaging in abnormal
behaviors indicating psychological distress (e.g., self-clasping, rocking, bob-
bing head), 10% of the time engaging in severe SIB (e.g., clawing at his scalp
and neck while screaming; see Figure 3 and Figure 4), and 82% of the time
engaging in normal chimpanzee behavior (e.g., resting, eating).
In January 2012, Seve was observed alone on 68% of the observations
and interacting with other chimpanzees during 32% of the observations.
A dramatic increase was observed in the amount of time he spent outside of
his enclosure from 6 months prior; he was observed outside 55% of the time
and inside 45% of the time. His caregivers indicated that this was his new
normal routine. He engaged in abnormal behaviors indicating distress on 6%
of the observations, in more severe SIB on 10% of the observations, and in
normal chimpanzee behavior 84% of the time. Shortly after this visit, he was
placed on Savella, an antidepressant, to help reduce his SIB.
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360 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
July 2011 July 2012January 2012
Observation Dates
Solitary
SIB
Percentage of Observations
FIGURE 4 Seve’s behavioral distribution. Total observations =1,860. Black bars represent
the percentage of observations in which Seve was engaging in self-injurious behaviors (SIB).
Gray bars represent the percentage of observations in which Seve was solitary. Note that these
numbers do not add up to 100%, as he could have been observed as solitary and engaging in
SIB simultaneously.
In July 2012, there were more positive changes in Seve’s behavior. He
was observed alone on only 40% of the observations, and hence was inter-
acting with other chimpanzees 60% of the time. There was a decrease in
the time spent engaging in abnormal behaviors indicating distress, which
dropped to 3%, and a drop in SIB to 1%, which meant he spent 96% of the
time engaging in normal chimpanzee behavior. He was observed outside of
his enclosure 22% of the time (see Figure 5).
DISCUSSION
Seve’s case demonstrates how routine laboratory procedures—early maternal
deprivation, social isolation, repeated invasive procedures, and infection with
harmful diseases—can lead to the development of prolonged psychological
distress, persisting symptoms of PTSD and CPTSD, and severe SIB in chim-
panzees. It also demonstrates how integration into a caring, pseudo-natural
environment can help aid recovery from prior physical and psychological
trauma, as evidenced by the reduction in time Seve spent socially isolated
and engaging in abnormal behavior and SIB over the year observed.
As experts have learned from human survivors of trauma (Herman,
1992; Tummala-Narra et al., 2012), recovery for chimpanzees diagnosed with
PTSD and CPTSD involves establishing safe, predictable routines; caring
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 361
FIGURE 5 Seve with hair regrowth and wounds healed in January 2014.
interpersonal relationships; and a restored sense of self (Bradshaw et al.,
2008). This includes empowering them with the ability to make decisions
about everyday aspects of their lives because autonomy was not something
they had in the laboratory. Although it may seem unusual that Seve remained
inside alone when first given access to the natural world and other chim-
panzees, we must appreciate that this is a decision he made. Because fear
may continue long after danger is gone, Seve needed time to acclimate to
his new environment and to the other chimpanzees and experience safety.
When he was ready, he went outside and interacted with other chimpanzees.
Recovery also involves allowing chimpanzees to decide what activities
to engage in. Therefore, sanctuary caregivers must create complex phys-
ical environments that are stimulating and ethologically appropriate. This
includes providing access to large outdoor areas with climbing structures;
opportunities to forage for food; and cognitively enriching games, puzzles,
and toys. Sanctuaries must also provide places for retreating from other chim-
panzees and relaxing (Wobber & Hare, 2011). These are all features STC
provides the chimpanzees in their care.
Sanctuaries must also create positive and stable social environments.
This involves gradually integrating rescued chimpanzees into established
multi-male, multi-female, mixed-age social groups (Bradshaw et al., 2008;
Wobber & Hare, 2011). Caregivers must work to build empathic, trustful
relationships with the chimpanzees given the chimpanzees’ vulnerable and
powerless relationships with humans in the laboratory. Adequate veterinary
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362 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
care must be provided, including routine checkups and pharmacological
interventions when necessary. As is sometimes helpful with humans who
engage in SIB, antianxiety and antipsychotic medications helped to reduce
Seve’s distress and SIB.
Experts have learned from humans diagnosed with PTSD and CPTSD
that multidimensional treatment, including increasing social and environ-
mental stability, can improve mental health (Harvey, 2007; Tummala-Narra
et al., 2012). It appears that the holistic care Seve received at STC—including
integration into a large social group, living in a cognitively stimulating envi-
ronment, restoring his sense of autonomy and trust in human caregivers, and
pharmacological intervention—facilitated his healing process and mitigated
his symptoms of psychological distress over the course of the year he was
observed.
CONCLUSION
Chimpanzees subjected to biomedical research are susceptible to trauma and
stress-related psychological disorders brought about by intensive confine-
ment, social isolation, and routine invasive procedures. We were interested in
qualitatively assessing to what extent a large population of chimpanzees who
were retired from such conditions still exhibited symptoms of psychological
distress. Our results revealed that for 24% of the chimpanzees, the negative
effects of this trauma persisted for years even after they were removed from
the original traumatizing environment; this parallels what is seen in some
human survivors of trauma. As is illustrated by Seve’s case, integration into
a caring, accredited sanctuary; drug treatment; and time can help heal these
wounds.
Although Seve’s case may be representative of the distress that some
chimpanzees endure even after retirement to sanctuary, it is important to
acknowledge that three fourths of the chimpanzees retired from biomedical
research were not mentioned as exhibiting symptoms of distress during the
caregiver interviews. One limitation of this study is that we did not conduct
behavioral observations of all of the chimpanzees or a more in-depth analysis
of their laboratory records and case files to examine what individual differ-
ences may contribute to the variation in resilience and coping after trauma.
Future research will be aimed at investigating this.
In 2011, as a result of substantial public concern for the welfare of
chimpanzees in laboratories, and at the request of Congress and the NIH,
the Institute of Medicine conducted a year-long investigation of the scientific
value of using chimpanzees in research that concluded that “most current
use of chimpanzees for biomedical research is unnecessary” (Institute of
Medicine, 2011, pp. 66–67). As a result, the NIH announced that it will take
steps to retire at least 310 of the remaining 360 federally owned chimpanzees
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Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 16:349–366, 2015 363
still in laboratories, and it has created a new oversight body and guidelines
for the review of experiments on chimpanzees (NIH, 2013). Unfortunately,
this decision does not necessarily impact the approximately 500 chimpanzees
still in private facilities. Given the overwhelming scientific evidence for the
physical and psychological suffering of chimpanzees confined in laborato-
ries, it is difficult, if not impossible, to ethically justify their continued use
in harmful biomedical research. Lessons learned from cases like Seve’s also
provide insight for individuals working at sanctuaries into how to antici-
pate symptoms of distress in chimpanzees being retired from research, how
to alleviate some of these symptoms, and how to help acclimate them to
sanctuary life following years, even decades, of physical and psychological
trauma.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Portions of these data were presented at the 2014 Annual Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in Chicago, Illinois,
and the 2014 Bi-Annual Meeting of the Virginia Psychological Association in
Norfolk, Virginia.
FUNDING
This research was supported by a Marymount University Faculty
Development Grant awarded to Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman and a
Marymount University Discover Summer Undergraduate Research Grant
awarded to Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman and Chelsea Ritter.
NOTES
1. Research at STC is permitted only under limited circumstances. Such research must be obser-
vational, must be noninvasive, and must demonstrate that it is of direct benefit to chimpanzees before
approval by the leadership of STC is granted.
2. Since the time this research was conducted, the American Psychiatric Association has published
revised criteria for PTSD. Although the revised criteria were not used in the original caregiver interviews,
Seve also meets these revised criteria set out in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition.
3. Survey data gathered from the two caregivers in charge of each family group revealed that
82.3% of chimpanzees go outside frequently (i.e., multiple times a day), 13.5% go outside occasionally
(i.e., once a day or every other day), 4% go outside infrequently (i.e., from once every other day to a few
times a month), and less than 1% have never been seen going outside. Interrater reliability, as measured
by Cohen’s kappa, was significant (p<.0001).
4. A Freedom of Information Act request was made to the NIH and the CDC for Seve’s records.
The information reported here was obtained from those requests and from records obtained from STC.
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364 S. M. Lopresti-Goodman et al.
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... Sanctuaries in range countries provide life-long care for wild primates who have been orphaned, abandoned, or who would be unable to survive on their own in the wild [10,93]. In the U.S. and E.U., sanctuaries provide homes for primates who were former pets, used in entertainment, or released from research [10,[94][95][96][97][98][99][100]. Many sanctuaries only house one species of primates, reducing some of the stressors primates in zoos may experience being housed next to predators [10]. ...
... Other sanctuaries might not allow any research to be conducted given early potential trauma their primates may have experienced [4]. Sanctuaries that do allow research may restrict activities to surveys or purely observational studies on applied behavior, cognition, culture, and welfare [10,100,101]. In the past few years, however, there has been increased interest by sanctuaries in allowing a wider variety of research activities [102]. ...
... Recent studies in sanctuaries include research on social networks, dominance hierarchies, social learning [103], communication, play behavior, cooperation, helping behavior, altruism, perspective taking [10], social dynamics [96], and social interactions [4]. Others have investigated friendship and trust [104], personality [65,95,96,105], welfare [10], psychological health, and mood and anxiety disorders [93,100,101]. A recent analysis found that 6% of studies on primate cognition published in the past 15 years have been conducted in sanctuaries [4]. ...
Article
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Internationally, primate research takes place in laboratories, zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild. All of these settings present unique advantages and challenges in terms of methodology, translatability, animal welfare, and ethics. In this novel commentary, we explore the scientific and ethical benefits and drawbacks of conducting non-invasive psychological research with primates in each setting. We also suggest ways to overcome some of the barriers. We argue that while there may be greater experimental control in laboratory-based research, settings that more closely mirror primates’ natural habitats are generally better suited to meet their specialized needs. More naturalistic research settings, including field studies, may also circumvent some ethical concerns associated with research in captivity, and yield more ecologically valid data.
... While there are studies focusing on the lasting effects of laboratory housing on nonhuman primates (Bradshaw et al., 2009;Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2015), less is known in this regard about former pet (i.e. privately owned and kept for companionship or pleasure) and entertainment (i.e. were trained and used for commercial purpose) chimpanzees. ...
... Aspects such as recognizing chimpanzees to have emotions (de Waal, 2011;Kret et al., 2018), personality (Massen et al., 2013;Massen & Koski, 2014;Padrell et al., 2020), their social complexity (Aureli et al., 2008;Aureli & Schino, 2019;Pasquaretta et al., 2014) as well as their susceptibility to traumas physical deficiencies (Laurence et al., 2017;Lowenstine et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2022), mental disorders and psychological problems (Bradshaw et al., 2008;Bradshaw et al., 2009;Lopresti-Goodman et al., 2015;Úbeda et al., 2020), are important milestones, yet also imply complex challenges when working with these animals in captivity. ...
Thesis
Primates, and great apes such as chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in particular, were and are still a matter of great interest to humans. As a consequence, we can find large numbers of captive chimpanzees all over the world housed in a wide array of living conditions. Chimpanzees can be found in zoos, sanctuaries and rescue centers, yet others might still be part of private unregistered animal collections, or held as pets or used in the entertainment industry. Living conditions in non-accredited housings and private homes are typically not regulated in any way to ensure minimum standards of safety and wellbeing and hence often inadequate. Rescue centers, such as Fundació MONA, in collaboration with regional and international authorities strive to locate chimpanzees held in such illegal and/or species inadequate living conditions in order to relocate these animals to institutions that have the capacity and resources for rehabilitation and to provide lifelong care. 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... Several studies have shown how study subjects that do not undergo death during invasive experiments do suffer long-term psychological effects as a consequence of their traumatic experiences in laboratories [98]. These studies have been mostly conducted on NHPs that have been moved to sanctuaries after spending several years as laboratory subjects and are therefore mostly limited to research on chimpanzees [99]. ...
... Traumatized chimpanzees are 19 times more likely to be diagnosed with depression and 88 times more likely to show posttraumatic stress disorder than their wild conspecifics [100]. These problems persist for years, even after animals have been released from laboratories and moved to sanctuaries [98,100]. Although environmental enrichment may reduce the occurrence of some of these negative consequences (e.g., stereotypies and social impairment), it appears to have no effect on more severe forms (e.g., self-harm) [102]. ...
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... Trauma includes obvious things like work in war zones or with refugees, or more subtle things like work with individuals who are injured or ill, euthanasia, laboratory experimentation, or simply captivity [60]. Some captive chimpanzees manifest abnormal, stereotypical, or self-injurious behaviors [61][62][63][64][65] which are associated with trauma in humans [66][67][68]. Many captive chimpanzees have experienced some level of trauma such as separation from mother in infancy or life history events (experimentation, entertainment, neglect) [26,45]. ...
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... Simultaneously, however, the values for vigilance were extraordinarily high, ranging from 26 to 29 percent of time. These very high values may have been indicative of hypervigilance, as described by Bradshaw et al. [75] and Lopresti-Goodman et al. [76] as observed in distressed former laboratory chimpanzees. Hypervigilance may have been caused by the chimpanzees being kept in a cage in the garden of a private house, where many people were coming in and out. ...
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