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Problems of Protohistoric Iran as Seen from Hasanlu
... As a result, the skeletal remains of subadults provide information about their physical and social lives, as well as the ability of a society to keep its most vulnerable members functioning and in good health. At Dinkha Tepe and Hasanlu, the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age is characterized as a time of change represented by a shift in material culture, architecture, and mortuary practices (Danti, 2013a(Danti, , 2013bDanti & Cifarelli, 2015Dyson, 1965;Muscarella, 1974). The well preserved skeletal remains and burial contexts at Dinkha Tepe and Hasanlu offer a unique opportunity to study subadults from a 4 cemetery context dated from the Late Bronze to Iron II and provide a more complex perspective on their quality of life and position within their communities. ...
... Archaeologists differentiate the Iron Age from the previous Bronze Age at both sites based on a shift in ceramic tradition, burial customs, and architecture (Danti, 2013a(Danti, , 2013bDanti & Cifarelli, 2015;Dyson, 1965;Muscarella, 1974). Without written history to refer to, earlier scholars attributed this distinct cultural shift to an influx of new but unidentified people(s), perhaps the Indo-Iranians (Burney, 1994;Danti, 2013b;Medvedskaya, 1982;Muscarella, 1968;Young, 1967). ...
... Bronze Age settlement was abandoned and there was a hiatus before the site (or at least its edges) were reused as a cemetery. These changes have traditionally been attributed to an influx of new people (Burney & Lang, 2001;Dyson, 1965Dyson, , 1977. The identity of these unknown people is highly debated. ...
This project considers the status and health experiences of subadults in Late Bronze-Iron II northwestern Iran (1450 – 800 B.C.E.) using osteological and archaeological analysis. It investigates how wealth, status, and health interact with the rise of fortified citadels during ca. 1450 – 1000 B.C.E. and the beginning of urbanization and imperial conflict ca. 1000 – 800 B.C.E. First, I analyze subadult skeletal remains, focusing on cribra orbitalia, a stress marker that has been linked with a wide array of causes, including anemia, malaria, and parasite infection. Second, I consider the wider context of where these subadults were buried and how they may have lived, by analyzing, grave type, associated personal materials, and burial goods. A biocultural approach is applied to thread together the concepts of subadults in archaeology, mortuary practice, social status, age estimation, and skeletal stress. I analyzed 64 subadult skeletons from three contemporaneous skeletal samples from two archaeological sites: 5 from the cemetery context of Dinkha Tepe (1450 – 800 B.C.E.); 26 from the cemetery of Hasanlu (1450 – 800 B.C.E.); and 33 from the destruction level of Hasanlu (c. 800 B.C.E.). At the regional center of Hasanlu, a cemetery was located on the Low Mound outside of the fortified citadel whereas the subadults recovered from the destruction level had sought refuge on the High Mound during a military conflict. The cemetery at the smaller provincial town of Dinkha Tepe was likely located just outside of the town. Results indicate that the relationship between stress and social status as expressed in burial context, grave goods, and other material culture was complex. The cemetery context included more infants and children than adolescents, whereas the destruction level sample included more children and adolescents and fewer infants. Data showed cribra orbitalia was more frequent in the cemetery population at Hasanlu than in the destruction level or cemetery population at Dinkha Tepe. Cemetery burials do not appear to be segregated by age or elite status. Social status as assessed in this dissertation was not a mitigating factor for cribra orbitalia. Skeletal and archaeological data together present a more holistic picture than from either source independently.
... One of the original research goals of RAP was to fully excavate and uncover the ceramic sequence at Gird-i Dasht, as it is one of the only tall mounded sites for hundreds of square miles. In the west is Tell Haftun, on the Harir Plain, and to the east, Hasanlu is the most notable excavated mound, although nearby sites, Dinkha Tepe and Agrab Tepe, also help form the ceramic sequence in the region (Dyson 1959;1960;Muscarella 1968; Khabur ware was plentiful on top of this platform, providing a post-date of the wall in the Middle Bronze Age (Oguchi 1997;Oguchi et al. 2006). Additional miscellaneous sherds in secondary context are of the "Painted Orange Ware" type, characteristic of the Early Bronze Age in the 3 rd millennium BCE (Danti, Voigt, and Dyson 2004). ...
... One of the original research goals of RAP was to fully excavate and uncover the ceramic sequence at Gird-i Dasht, as it is one of the only tall mounded sites for hundreds of square miles. In the west is Tell Haftun, on the Harir Plain, and to the east, Hasanlu is the most notable excavated mound, although nearby sites, Dinkha Tepe and Agrab Tepe, also help form the ceramic sequence in the region (Dyson 1959;1960;Muscarella 1968; Khabur ware was plentiful on top of this platform, providing a post-date of the wall in the Middle Bronze Age (Oguchi 1997;Oguchi et al. 2006). Additional miscellaneous sherds in secondary context are of the "Painted Orange Ware" type, characteristic of the Early Bronze Age in the 3 rd millennium BCE (Danti, Voigt, and Dyson 2004). ...
Small polities of marginal borderland regions in the Near East were often pushed and pulled by their far larger neighbors’ political and economic spheres, forced to adapt to their social and environmental situation to thrive and maintain independence. The kingdom of Muṣaṣir, the home to the chief Urartian deity, Ḫaldi, lay in one of these frontier zones in the rugged mountains of northeast Iraq. Despite the significance of the kingdom’s temple for the Urartian kings’ religious ideology, the steep peaks and narrow flatlands of Muṣaṣir’s environs were ill-suited to substantial occupation. In order to locate Muṣaṣir and better understand the settlement behaviors of ancient occupation in the Sidekan subdistrict of Erbil, Iraq, the Rowanduz Archaeological Program (RAP) commenced a series of excavations and a survey in 2013. Excavation of the rural homestead of Gund-i Topzawa provided a dataset to investigate the reasons for settlement in this marginal environment. Synchronizing archaeological data to the Middle Iron Age (1050–550 BCE) Neo-Assyrian campaign texts and illustrations led to broader research questions exploring the factors driving the region’s chronologically limited sedentary occupation and the impact coopting a religious system has on the local polity and its appropriators. This study publishes the ceramic typology, stratigraphic, and architectural findings from the excavations of Gund-i Topzawa and Sidekan Bank, as well as the collected pottery and occupation qualities of surveyed sites in the Sidekan subdistrict (2014–2016). The pottery sequence, structural characteristics, and settlement patterns added to the understanding of the chronological sequence of the northern Zagros Mountains and further confirmed the locational specificity of Muṣaṣir with the Ḫaldi temple’s likely location at Mudjesir. Modeling the Iron Age populace’s ecological adaptations to environmental, social, and political stimuli indicate the interaction of cultural and technology factors first spurred Sidekan’s sedentary occupation in the Late Bronze Age, and the later cooption of Ḫaldi by the Urartian kings led to the area’s subsequent stagnation and contraction as the god’s appropriators declined.
... ironically, the discovery of the treasure did not lead to a scientific study of this site, but led to the massive destruction of one of the most important iron Age settlements in western iran. The first scientific archeological study of the Ziwiye site was carried out by robert Dyson, the head of the archaeological team of the hasanlu mound. in completing its investigations and field studies in the northwest and west of iran, this team in 1956 and 1960 started to visit and examine surface materials at Ziwiye [Dyson 1963] and in 1964 also conducted a three-week limited excavation of the site [Dyson 1963;1965]. These studies based on direct archaeological evidence showed that there are castle ruins of Ziwiye have at least three construction levels dated to the late iron Age. ...
The archaeological site of Ziwiye in the upper Zarrineh River basin is considered one of the key sites for understanding the cultural and political developments of Iron Age III societies of the northwest Iran. However, despite years of excavation at Ziwiye, key questions about this area still remain unanswered. It seems that sites such as Ziwiye, Qalaichi, Zandan-Soleimian, Rabat and Hasanlu indicate a widespread settlement pattern with a political centrality role in the northwestern Iran during the late Iron Age. The pattern in which the local states centered on these sites dominated the entire cultural and geographical area through regional interaction. Therefore, in the present research, with the archaeological survey of the Upper Zarrineh River Basin, focusing on the role and significance of Ziwiye in the political and cultural structure of this region, an attempt has been made to provide a model of regio- nal-political development to understand the developments of the late Iron Age in this region. The studied pottery from the field survey indicates that Ziwiye was not an isolated castle and had an organized cultural and political interaction with the surrounding archaeological sites. In order to understand the status of sites like Ziwiye in the geographical region of the northwestern Iran, in the first step it is necessary to determine its position in the more limited cultural area around it, in the Upper Zarrineh River basin, so that it is possible to recognize the status of Ziwiye in the area of complex cultural–political geography of northwestern Iran in the Iron Age III. Based on this, the study of the Upper Zarrineh River basin was undertaken. Although some studies had previously been conducted in this basin, to understand the settlement position of Ziwiye in relation to its surrounding sites, an archaeological survey around Hasanlu was carried out within a radius of 15 km in the mountains and 30 km in the plains, which is the same distance a horse rider could travel per day. The results of this research indicate that the Ziwiye site was the most important settlement in the upper Zarrineh River basin, which had political, military and cultural dominance over the surrounding area.
... Young, 1965, 1967, Dyson, 1965( بود ایران تمام سـرزمین از کوچکی بخش نگاری گاه تعمیـم اسـت بدیهی فراوانی های چالش و نبـود درسـت آن کل به ایران پهنـاور Muscarella, 1974:79, 1994:143,( برانگیخـت Medvedeskaya, 1980, Kroll 1994 Schmidt, 1953Schmidt, , 1957Schmidt, , 1970 ۲۰۲ ۱۹۷۳ ۱۹۷۰ ۱۱ ۱۲۹ ۱٤۰ ۱۹۹٦ ۱۹٦۲ ۱۹٦۳ ۱٦ ۱ ۲ ۹ ٦۷ ۱۹٥۳ ۱۹٥۷ ۱۹۷۰ ۱۹۹٤ ۸ ۸۱ ۹۹ ۱۹۷۸ ۱۹٦۱ ۱۹٦۳ ۲۰۰۷ ۲۰۱٦ ۲۰۱۲ ۸٥ ۱۰۱ ۱۹۹٤ ۲ ۸ ٦۷ ۸۱ ۱۹٦٤ ۱۹٦٥ ۱٥۰۰ ٥۰۰ ٥۳ ۸۳ ۱۹٦۷ ۱۱ ۳٤ ۱۹۹٥ ۳۳ ۱٥۲ ۱٦۰ ﺷﮑﻞ 1 - اﯾﺮان ﺷﺮق در ﺟﻨﻮﺑﯽ ﺧﺮاﺳﺎن اﺳﺘﺎن ﻧﻘﺸﻪ ایران شرق در جنوبی خراسان استان نقشه -1 شکل | نامک خراسان | 1 انبزک محوطه و )Jafari et ...
شرق ایران که امروزه تقریباً با استان خراسان جنوبی مطابق است از نظر مطالعات باستانشناسی ناشناخته است. توالی و شاخصههای فرهنگی منطقه طی ادوار مختلف پیش از تاریخ و تاریخی همچنان ناشناخته است. به تازگی کاوش¬های باستانشناسی در این منطقه آغاز شده که نویدبخش آیندهای روشن برای باستانشناسی منطقه خواهد بود. با توجه به کمبود کاوش¬ها و در نتیجه فقدان داده¬های با بستر لایه¬نگاشتی و گاهنگاشتی مشخص و مطمئن، بعضاً می¬توان از طریق بررسی سطحی یک محوطه شواهدی برای شناخت و معرفی شاخصههای فرهنگی یک دوره پیشنهاد نمود، موضوعی که برای تحقق بخشیدن به آن در مقاله حاضر تلاش شده است. قلعه اسرار در 63 کیلومتری شمال شرق بیرجند محوطهای است که در برنامه بررسی و شناسایی شهرستان درمیان در سال 1395 کشف شد. این محوطه یک قلعه کوچک تکدورهای است که شواهد سطحی همچون قطعات سفالی و از همه مهمتر یک قطعه سفال مهر شده، نشان میدهد که متعلق به اواخر عصر آهن و دوره هخامنشی است. به این ترتیب مواد فرهنگی قلعه اسرار به عنوان شاخصهای از سنت¬های سفالی اواخر عصر آهن و دوره هخامنشی در این منطقه از شرق ایران معرفی شده است.
... 550 BC). Hypothetical arguments on the Iron Age are indebted to the early work of Dyson who developed the theory of cultural dynamics in the Northwest of Iran (Dyson 1965) as well as to Young's theory of pottery horizons and immigration of Iranians (Young 1967). ...
In Iran, the Iron Age refers to the period between the beginnings of the mid-second millennium BC and the end of the first millennium BC. Investigations on the archaeological material of this period have been done in different parts of Iran. However, in the northeast of Iran and in the cultural zone of Greater Kho-rasan, the Iron Age remains largely unknown due to a lack of studies. In fact, the basic chronological sequence has not yet been defined. Despite this, it is clear that the neighbouring regions and cultures, such as Yaz and Dahistan, have influenced the material culture of Greater Khorasan. In this research, the cultural materials of the site of Kohne Ghale were collected during a systematic survey; the samples were dated by a comparative-analytical approach. The pottery from Kohne Ghale resembles those from the Yaz culture of Central Asia. The Iron Age pottery industry of Kohne Ghale demonstrates both local and indigenous features and influences of ceramic traditions characteristic of sites in Turkmenistan (including Yaz Depe and Ulug Depe). Such influences are recognizable in the forms of containers and pot-building techniques. The influences also extend further to the west and south of Kohne Ghale, and are found especially in the Neyshabur Plain and the settlements related to the Yaz culture of the Atrek River.
... The beginning of the so-called Iron Age in the mountains on the south side of the Caspian Sea ( Figure 10) has been traced back as far as the mid-15 th century BC (Haerinck 1988;Dyson 1965Dyson , 1989aYoung 1964Young , 1967. However, it should be noted that what distinguishes the Iron Age from the Bronze Age is not the use of iron or the establishment of iron smelting, but rather the changes in ceramics (Medvedskaya 1982;Mousavi 2001;Young 1964Young , 1967 and the presence/absence of settlement continuity in index sites (Dyson 1977(Dyson , 1989bYoung 1985). ...
Recently archaeological excavations in the eastern cemetery of Qara tepe, Sagzābād, have uncovered graves related to the late second millennium and the first half of the first millennium B.C. (Iron ages 2 and 3). Thankfully, with the excavation of this cemetery, we have obtained some findings based on which we can reconstruct part of the social aspects of the life of the societies of the first millennium BC in the region. Graves are one of the most important archaeological contexts for discovering prestige goods. There are many questions and ambiguities in the field of prestige goods, changes in their type and value over time, and how they were distributed in the region in the Iron Ages 2 and 3. Given the theoretical discussions raised about prestige and prestige goods and the results of the excavations in this cemetery, finds such as sea shells, decorative beads made of carnelian and antimony, cylindrical seals of the neo-Assyrian style, cylindrical seals with geometric designs, and iron ornaments and tools can be considered as prestige goods. The evidence of this cemetery indicates the elites' efforts in the first millennium B.C. to maintain their social prestige by achieving new categories of prestige goods. As a sign of * Ph.D. student
Located in the great satrapy of Media, during the Achaemenid period central Zagros was a crucial region throughout this era in western Iran, but archaeologically it has not so far been analyzed because of lacking material evidence. However, a putative reconstruction may be presented on the basis of current documentation. On this ground and as historical geography interpretations suggest, the central, southern and eastern parts of this region were more important, while the western and northern parts are still waiting for further explorations. Ecbatana, Nush-i Jan and Godin formed most significant centers in the eastern part, but the present paper argues that it was Bisotun in the central part that echoed Achaemenid power on various administrative, economic, military and ceremonial levels.
ئایینی ئورارتو ئایینێكی فر هخواوەندە ، خاوه نی 79 خواو هندی سه ر هكی بوون، ئه م شانشین هدوو پایت هختی ه هبوو، یه كیان سیاسی، ك ه شاری )توشپا( واتە )وان(، ئه وه ی تریان ئایینی،كه شاری )ئ هردینی( واتە )موساسیر( بوو ه. ب هگشتی ئ هو توخمانه ی ئایینه كانیان پێك ده هێنابریتی بوون له هۆكاری جوگرافی و مرۆیی. ئه م ئایین ه ب ه پله ی ی هك هم ل ه ژێر كاریگه رییشانشین هكانی د هوروبه ریاندا بوون، ك ه له بواری ئایینیدا خاو هنی مێژوو یه كی دێرین بوون،ل هوانه خورییه كان، هیتییه كان، ئێران و دۆڵی دوو ڕووبار، ئه م كاریگه ریی هش ل ه خواو هند هكان وپه رستگاكان و ڕێوڕ هسمه ئایینییه كان خۆی ده بینیه و ه.چه ندین خواوه ندی گرینگی ئورارتییه كان ڕه گه ز هك هی بۆ میلله تانی تری ناوچ هك ه ده گه ڕێته وه ،ل هوان ه هه ر سێ خواو هندی سه ره كیی خالدی و ت هیشه با و شیوینی. ئه م ه جگ ه ل ه خواو هند هلاوه كییه كانی تر وه ك ئوا، هوبا، ناله ینی...هتد.لە کاتێکدا بوونی خواوەندەکان لە کایەی د هوڵه تدا پێگه یه كی تایبه ت ب هخۆی هه بوو، تێبینیئه و ه كراوە، کە ه هندێ خواوەند هەبوون کە ناوەکانیان نادیارن و ب ه خواوەندە ناوخۆییەکان، یانئ هو توخمان هی پێشر پیرۆز نەکراون دەستیان پێ کردووە، به ڵام بە تێپ هربوونی كات شێو هینه ریتیان و هرگرتووە، بۆیە دەتوانرێت ئایینی ئورارتو وەک ")دیاردەیەکی زیندوو(" لە سەردەمیخۆیدا هەست پێ بکرێت. بەم شێوەیە دەکرێ بڵێین ئایینی ئورارتو ڕەنگدانەوەی گەشەسەندنیکولتووری و مێژوویی خودی و میلل هتانی د هوروبه ر بووە. بەپێی ڕەوتی ڕۆژگار بە بەردەوامی نوێبوونەتەوە.
Khanghah Gilavan cemetery with an area of 300 hectares is one of the unique sites located in northwestern Iran in the Ardabil province. The first season of excavations in this site, was carried out in 2006, during which, 10 burials belonging to the Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age I and Parthian period were excavated. They were pit graves lacking any structure. In other words, these types of graves had no particular architectural features and were created by digging a hole and placing the dead people there. The burials were mostly individual, with some double burials seen as well. Funerary objects in the graves were pottery, bronze and iron objects. These burials contained gifts such as pottery, bronze weapons, metal ornaments and decorated beads of various forms. An interesting point regarding the cemetery is the existence of burials from three periods, the middle Bronze Age, Iron Age I and the Parthian Era. Based on the archaeological data obtained from the burials and compared with other graves and archaeological sites, two of the burials can be attributed to the middle bronze age, four to Iron Age I and four to the Parthian period.
During the remarkable excavations at Hasanlu, in northwestern Iran, thousands of metal objects were discovered, but few have been systematically studied. The goal of this study is to present a catalogue of the metal quivers found by the Joint Expedition to Hasanlu (1956–1977), led by Robert H. Dyson of the University of Pennsylvania Museum. After a brief introduction concerning the site and the evidence for metal quivers in the Ancient Near East as a whole, the examples discovered at Hasanlu will be presented and analyzed within their archaeological contexts.
The article introduces the papers presented at the Ninth Seminar on Armenian and Christian Eastern Art of the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. These studies provide a broad overview of the art of the South Caucasus and beyond; from Christian Art (the furnishings of the Basilica of the Nativity; the so-called crosses of St. Thomas; the illustrations of the apocryphal Gospels in Armenian manuscripts of the Vaspurakan School) to the transmigration of iconographic and symbolic themes between Persia and Armenia, to the travel narrative ( Itinerarium ) of Friar William Rubruk, to the Iron Age archaeological site of Taštepe (Iran), and concluding with the different architectural phases of the House of Creativity on Lake Sevan during the Soviet period. The volume restores the richness of themes and possible research perspectives in Eastern Christian Art, highlighting the important role of inscriptions as a possible leading thread.
The article introduces the papers presented at the Ninth Seminar on Armenian and Christian Eastern Art of the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. These studies provide a broad overview of the art of the South Caucasus and beyond; from Christian Art (the furnishings of the Basilica of the Nativity; the so-called crosses of St. Thomas; the illustrations of the apocryphal Gospels in Armenian manuscripts of the Vaspurakan School) to the transmigration of iconographic and symbolic themes between Persia and Armenia, to the travel narrative ( Itinerarium ) of Friar William Rubruk, to the Iron Age archaeological site of Taštepe (Iran), and concluding with the different architectural phases of the House of Creativity on Lake Sevan during the Soviet period. The volume restores the richness of themes and possible research perspectives in Eastern Christian Art, highlighting the important role of inscriptions as a possible leading thread.
Islam is the only biblical religion that still practices animal sacrifice. Indeed, every year more than a million animals are shipped to Mecca from all over the world to be slaughtered during the Muslim Hajj. This multi-disciplinary volume is the first to examine the physical foundations of this practice and the significance of the ritual. Brannon Wheeler uses both textual analysis and various types of material evidence to gain insight into the role of animal sacrifice in Islam. He provides a 'thick description' of the elaborate camel sacrifice performed by Muhammad, which serves as the model for future Hajj sacrifices. Wheeler integrates biblical and classical Arabic sources with evidence from zooarchaeology and the rock art of ancient Arabia to gain insight into an event that reportedly occurred 1400 years ago. His book encourages a more nuanced and expansive conception of “sacrifice” in the history of religion.
Nahçıvan'da yapılan arkeolojik kazı ve araştırmalar, bu yörenin, İ.Ö. II. binyılın sonu ve I. binyılın başlarında "Hocalı-Gedebey" adı verilen bir kültürün sınırları içinde kaldığını ortaya koymuştur. Ancak, I. Kültepe ve II. Kültepe gibi çok tabakalı höyüklerde bu kültüre ait tabakalar aşırı derecede tahrip olduğundan stratigrafi konusunda bir sonuca varmak mümkün olmamıştır. Buna karşılık 1986 yılından beri Nahçıvan'da sürdürülen araştırmalar sonucunda bu kültüre ait birçok nekropol ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu çalışmalar ve özellikle de buluntular ise şimdiye kadar yeterince yayınlanmış ve söz konusu kültür hakkında doyurucu bilgi verilebilmiş değildir. Bu satırları kaleme almakta ki amacımız, Hocalı-Gedebey kültürü için karakteristik gri keramik, silah ve süs eşyaları veren Kolanı nekropolü buluntularını bilim dünyasına tanıtmaktır.
The rivers, including Aras, in the Mughan region played an important role in the formation of the prehistoric sites. The Mughan Plain has not received particular attention in terms of the archaeological investigations, as the extensive scientific activities concentrated on the Lake Urmia basin. Yataq-Tepesi is a prehistoric site in the city of Germi (Mughan Region) that became the subject of the scientific research. The main aim of this paper is to discuss the pottery traditions at the site and to determine the chronological sequence of the studied region. In view of further detailed studies on the cultural relations of Mughan population with other territories, and to establish its chronological sequence, two main questions are posed: how do we date Yataq-Tepesi on the basis of cultural information, including pottery traditions? The main hypothesis suggested here is that the site development took place during the Middle Chalcolithic and Late Chalcolithic periods, somewhere between 4500 and 3700 / 3600 BC. The second question relates to the geographical regions that Yataq-Tepesi was in contact with through cultural relations and trade with other regions of northwestern Iran, especially with the region of Qaradagh and the Lake Urmia basin, as well as with the Southern Caucasus.
In the wake of the Kura-Araxes horizon, a major cultural shift brake out with painted ware replacing the glossy black burnished pottery. Painted ware, also termed Urmia Ware, became widespread in Northwest Iran in the Middle Bronze Age. The same scenario is reflected at the archaeological mound of Barde Zard in the Little Zab Basin. Situated in Piranshahr city of West Azerbaijan Province, this settlement represents one of the several formed across the basin in prehistoric times. The fieldwork at the site was aimed at specifying the occupation sequence, the cultural interactions of its residents with neighboring regions, and the characteristics of the Middle Bronze Age there. The excavations at the mound brought to light a mid-Bronze structure associated with a burial. Also identified were cultural ties with the Urmia Lake Basin and inspirations from the Khabur tradition of Mesopotamia.
Iğdır Plain, located in the Aras Basin; It has the lowest altitude value of 780 meters in the region with an average altitude of 2000 meters. In addition, thanks to the volcanic Mount Ararat, the mineral-rich soil and the water source provided by a large river such as Aras provide the most suitable conditions for settlement. The region is also located on the historical Silk Road route, and thus its wealth continues exponentially with trade.
Studies have shown that; The earliest period in which the number of settlements and population increased in the region is the Early Iron Age. In this period, we encounter social stratification along with various cultural elements, religious and economic wealth in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Necropolises, which contain different cultural elements apart from the kurgan burial tradition, which is almost characteristic of the region, are beginning to emerge. Among the studies carried out so far are Ernis, Dilkaya, Karagündüz, Yoncatepe, Çatak in the Van Region; Erzurum and its surrounding Pulur Höyük, Güzelova; We can follow this process from settlements such as Belliahır, Civikan, Aşağı Marnuk, Alyar, Göztepe, Abo Höyük, Sarıpınar in and around Muş. However, there are insufficient studies on the Iğdır Plain, which is the most important plain of the Aras Basin. In this context, the Archaeological Survey of the Provinces of Ağrı and Iğdır, of which I am a team member, was carried out and as a result of the research, Early Iron Age areas and necropolises were determined. These results showed that the region is as important as the other regions of Eastern Anatolia in terms of settlement.
These necropolises consist of five centers, namely Yukarı Çarıkçı, Aşağı Çarıkçı, Küllük, Koruküstü and Karakoyunlu. The areas covered by the necropolises we identified from such settlements, their locations and grave types indicate the existence of various burial traditions in the region since the Early Iron Age, while at the same time revealing the existence of social status differences within the relevant society.
During the Iron Age (1500 - 550 BC) extensive migrations and socio-political conflicts have taken place, especially in southwest Asia. Probably the main reason for these movements was related to the 3200 BP (1200 BC) and the 2800 BP (800 BC) climatic events. This study attempts to investigate the influential climatic events during the Iron Age in southwest Asia, based on paleoclimate research of the late Holocene. The main question is what (possibly) link has there been between climate change and Iron Age socio-political change in the region? It is assumed that the escalation of arid climatic conditions has severely strained human societies. In this study, historical documents and archaeological evidence of southwest Asia belonging to the Iron Age, along with the results of paleoclimate research of the late Holocene from the region, the North Atlantic, and Greenland have been examined. According to paleoclimate studies, several climatic oscillations are identified during the Iron Age: about 1500 - 1250 BC a wet period (Iron I), about 1250 - 950 BC a very dry period (the 3200 BP event), and about 950 - 850 BC a relatively wet period (Iron II), about 850 - 750 BC a dry period (the 2800 BP event) and about 750 - 550 BC an unstable wet-dry period (Iron III). The results of this study show that periods of increasing violence and widespread human migrations during the Iron Age overlapped with times of climatic anomalies. It is also emphasized that the survival of most Iron Age societies in Iran during difficult periods of climate change has certainly been compatible with a kind of subsistence system that can probably be described as pastoral nomadism and hunting; A system adapted by the environmental potentials of many regions of Iran, which has been also continued during historical and Islamic periods.
پس از تحولات دوره مفرغ جدید در فلات ایران، دوره جدیدی بهنام عصر آهن ظهور پیدا کرد. فرهنگهای عصر آهنی منطقه شمال شرق ایران بهطور کامل با نظریات تحولی و شاخصههای فرهنگ عصر آهن مناطق شمال غربی ایران، همچنین رویکردهای تحولی این دوره در دیگر نقاط فرهنگی فلات ایران متفاوت است. فرهنگهای عصر آهنی شمال شرق ایران بهویژه خراسان، شامل دو فرهنگ کاملاً متفاوت از نظر مواد فرهنگی و شاکلههای زیستی هستند که فرهنگهای یاز و داهستان نام دارند. در پژوهش حاضر، علاوه بر تشریح مؤلفههای فرهنگی یاز، تلاش میشود حوزههای نفوذ و مرزهای مشترک این دو نظام فرهنگی تبیین و سپس برحسب مطالعات اخیر، شاکلههای زیستی فرهنگ عصر آهنی یاز در خراسان ارزیابی شود. درنهایت نیز کوشش میشود تا حد امکان مؤلفههای سفالی فرهنگ یازIII در خصوص فرهنگ هخامنشی خراسان، بررسی شود. نتایج حاصل از پژوهش بیانگر حوزه نفوذ فرهنگ یاز در شرق خراسان و فرهنگ داهستان در غرب خراسان تا دشت گرگان است. برحسب مطالعات اخیر و دانش فعلی، دشت بجنورد در حوضه اترک و دشت جاجرم در حوضه کال شور مرزهای مشترک این دو فرهنگ(در استان خراسان شمالی) محسوب میشود. در شرق خراسان مؤلفههای فرهنگ عصر آهنی، همخوانی نزدیکی با فرهنگ یاز در آسیای مرکزی دارد و برخی مؤلفههای محلی نیز مشهود است. علاوه بر این دوره یاز III از لحاظ گاهشناختی مقارن با حکومت هخامنشیان است که در تقسیمبندی زمانی یاز؛ یعنی از 500 – 300ق.م نادیده انگاشته شده که با توجه به گونههای سفالی، تا حدی میتوان مؤلفههای دوره هخامنشی در خراسان را پیگیری کرد.
Van Gölü havzasındaki Çavuştepe Kalesi, Van Kalesi Höyüğü ve Karagündüz Höyüğü kazılarından elde edilen arkeolojik veriler ışığında Urartu Krallığı'nın yıkılışı sonrasında gelenek görenek ve materyal kültürde kimi yenilikler ortaya çıkmıştır. Çavuştepe Kalesi'nin yıkılış sonrasındaki ilkel kullanım evresine ilişkin kanıtların yanı sıra Van Kalesi ve Karagündüz höyüklerinde Urartu tabakası üzerine kurulmuş mezarlıklarda saptanan yeni arkeolojik bulgular bir değişim-geçiş sürecinin başlamış olduğunu belgelemektedir. Urartu Krallığı ile daha sonraki "triangle ware" denen boya bezemeli çanak çömlek evresi arasındaki bu geçiş süreci "post-Urartu" olarak tanımlanabilir. Yeni çanak çömlek biçimleri Çavuştepe'nin, İÖ. 653 ya da 645 yılında tahrip edildiği benimsenen Ayanis Kalesi'nden daha uzun ömür sürdüğünü ortaya koymakta ve Urartu Krallığı'nın yıkılış tarihinin İÖ. 7. yüzyılın ortalarından daha sonra olduğuna işaret etmektedir.
Son Tunç Çağı (STÇ) ve Demir Çağı'nın (DÇ) başlarında yani M.Ö. II. binyılın ikinci yarısı içinde Van bölgesindeki sosyal ve kültürel gelişmeler ile bunların nedenleri hakkında bilinenler oldukça yetersizdir. Bu yüzden de M.Ö. IX. yüzyılın ortalarından VII. yüzyılın ortalarına değin büyük bir devlet olma başarısını göstermiş Urartular'ın kökenleri bile hâlâ aydınlatılabilmiş değildir. Tam anlamıyla yerleşik karakterli bu merkezi devletin kuruluşunu hazırlayan dinamikler nelerdi ? Pastoral yönü ağır basan bir aşiret düzeninden bunun tam tersi gelişmiş bürokratik bir devlet sistemine nasıl geçilebilmişti ? Bu geçişin aşamaları nasıl olmuştu ?
İ.Ö. 1. Binyılı Orta Anadolu'sunda ana tanrıça kültü ile ilgili 2 grup çanak-çömlek görülmektedir. Birinci grubu, üzerinde ana tanrıça figürü olarak değerlendirilmiş kadın figürleri bulunan ve Geç Demir Çağı'na (İ.Ö. 650/600 - İ.Ö. 450/400) tarihlendirilenler, ikinci grubu ise, kabartma olarak yapılmış bir çift meme bezeği ile bir kadının göğüslerini yansıtarak büyük olasılıkla ana tarıçayı simgeleyen ve Hellenistik Çağ'a (İ.Ö. 4 - 1. yüzyıllar) tarihlendirilenler oluşturur.
اشیا به دست آمده از محوطه های باستانی، معمولاً از جنس مواد آلی و مواد معدنی هستند. اشیایی که بر پایه ی مواد آلی شکل داده شدهاند، موضوع اصلی این پژوهش بوده که ترکیبات آنها بر پایه ی کربن است. شمال غرب ایران در عصر آهن، یکی از مناطق مهمی است که این اشیا در آنها یافت شده و بیشترین داده های مرتبط با این اشیاء، در محوطه های استقراری این منطقه بوده است. با توجه به اهمیت این اشیا از نظر تکنیکی، کاربردی، تزئینی، تجاری و اقتصادی -اجتماعی، و تأثیر آنها در جامعه ی عصر آهن و زندگی مردمان آن دوره، این پژوهش در نظر دارد تا با بررسی آنها، به پرسش های ذیل پاسخ دهد که نقش و اهمیت تجارت فرامنطقه ای در ساخت و گسترش اشیاء ساخته شده از مواد آلی چه بوده است؟ و ساخت این اشیاء چه تأثیری در ساختار اقتصادی-اجتماعی آن دوره داشته است؟
در نتیجه این پژوهش که با استناد به منابع کتابخانه ای و روش تحلیلی صورت پذیرفته، اشیا ساخته شده از مواد آلی مانند صدف، عاج و برخی از انواع چوب ها، چه به صورت ماده خام، یا نیمه تولیدی یا محصول نهایی، توسط واسطه هایی تجاری مانند آشوری ها (از مسیر غرب به شرق)، و مردمانی در منطقه ی لرستان (از مسیر جنوب به شمال)، به منطقه ی شمال غرب وارد می شدند که نشان دهنده ی ارتباطات فرامنطقهای بین آنها است. البته احتمال وجود ارتباطات تجاری درون منطقهای بین حسنلو و دیگر محوطه های شمال غرب نیز، دور از ذهن نیست. همچنین احتمال انتقال فناوری به لحاظ تکنیکی و مشابهت نقوش با محوطه های دیگری در ایران (پشتکوه، فلات مرکزی) و خارج از ایران (بین النهرین، ترکیه و غیره) نیز وجود دارد. برخی اشیا نیز مانند عاج، صدف و برخی انواع چوب از کالاهای مصرفی افراد ثروتمند در جامعه بوده و برخی نیز مانند استخوان، صدف و چوب های موجود در منطقه مورد استفاده افراد ضعیف تر بوده است.
واژگان کلیدی: شمال غرب ایران، فرهنگ عصرآهن، مواد آلی، تجارت، اقتصاد.
This paper explores the possibility to evaluate the intensity of an alleged ‘Achaemenid impact’ on South-eastern Iran in the light of researches on local material culture and settlement pattern. The focus of the paper is mainly represented by areas in Kerman Province and in Sistan (Sistan and Baluchestan Province) by virtue of a greater amount of information at disposal for these territories.
MÖ XIII. ve IX. yüzyıllar arası Uruatri-Nairi beylikler dönemi olmak üzere Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde kurulup MÖ IX. ve VI. yüzyıllar arasında hüküm süren Urartu Devleti genişleme politikaları doğrultusunda ülkesinin dört bir yanına askeri seferler düzenlemiştir. Bu seferlerin önemli bir bölümü Kuzeybatı İran toprakları üzerine yapılmıştır. Burası yaşam için elverişli iklimi, akarsuları, yer altı ve yer üstü zenginliklerinin yanında stratejik öneme sahip olan yol güzergahları nedeniyle Urartu krallarının ilgi odağında bulunan bir coğrafyadır. Özellikle Urartu’nun güney komşusu olan Asur Devletinin de yoğun ilgilendiği bu bölge bu iki büyük güç arasında birçok mücadelelere sahne olmuştur. Urartu kralları bu bölge üzerinde kalıcı olmak adına çeşitli faaliyetler yürütmüşlerdir. Bu faaliyetlerin bir yönünü yazıtlar aracılığıyla yapılan propaganda faaliyetleri oluşturmaktadır. Urartu krallarının Kuzeybatı İran coğrafyasının farklı yerlerine bıraktıkları yazıtlar içerik bakımından birçok propaganda ifadesi içermektedir. Bir nevi bölge hakimiyetinin tapusu niteliğinde olan bu yazıtlarda tanrısal gücün çatısı altında kralın erdemleri, faaliyetleri ve haklı kral olduğu vurgusu yapılarak bölge hakimiyeti tescillenmek istenmiştir.
in: Afarinnameh; maghalehaye bastanshenasi dar nekudasht-e ostad Mehdi Rahbar; Edited by: Yousef Moradi
This is a synthesis essay on the Iron Age of Iran between 1500 BC to the Achaemenid period discussing Iron Age material culture in a vast territory including Hyrcania, Khorasan, Iran and Afghan Sistan, Makran and Kerman.
Bell-shaped column bases are common finds from the Achaemenid Empire centers. These centers were governed either by Persians or local administrators who were dependent on Persia. Two bell-shaped column bases were found in the village of Mawan, 32 km from Şemdinli district of Hakkâri province in Turkey. These column bases are the first Achaemenid finds from the Hakkâri province. Mawan is situated at an important transit point between north-western Iran, eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq. At this point, it is necessary to draw attention to a widespread garrison network of the Achaemenid Empire in the region. Therefore, it is possible to consider the location of the Mawan column bases as the site of a garrison rather than an administrative center.
This date list includes those series of samples completed in this laboratory as of November 1969. The b.p. ages are based upon a.d. 1950, and are calculated with a half-life value of 5568 yr. All samples were counted at least twice for periods of not less than 1000 minutes each. Errors quoted are derived from measurement of samples, background, and modern-age calibration, but do not include any half-life error. All samples were pretreated with 3N HCl, and some, where noted, were given additional pretreatment with 2% NaOH for the removal of possible humic contaminants.
Pottery is one of the cultural evidences that its developments in different times are important archaeological indicators. Pottery can be viewed from different aspects. Appearance features such as form, shape, color, decoration and pottery production technology have changed over time. In this research, with the study of the technology of the pottery obtained from the excavation of the Sagzabad Tepe in Qazvin plain, which is one of the important areas of excavation in the central plateau of Iran, the period of the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age has been investigated. In this study, with focus on the pottery in this region, new information on the production of pottery has been obtained. To determine the chemical composition of the potteries, a series of excavated objects consisting of a selection of potteries from each period were analyzed using the ICP-OES method and a statistical comparison of the data obtained from the measurement of 40 elements was performed consisting of the major, minor and trace ones. The correlation coefficient of the analyzed samples also was studied. Comparing the results obtained from the analysis of potteries according to the hypothesis suggests that all potteries are probably local productions and it is possible that they have been produced in the same region (clay sources) in different periods.is possible that they have been produced in the same region (clay sources) in different periods.
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