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Are Workplace Friendships a Mixed Blessing? Exploring Tradeoffs of Multiplex Relationships and their Associations with Job Performance
Personnel Psychology
Abstract
Theory and research note the ubiquity of multiplex workplace friendships—multifaceted relationships that superimpose friendship with work-focused interactions—but it is unclear how they compel or hinder job performance. In a study of insurance company employees (n = 168), we found that the number of multiplex workplace friendships in one’s social network is positively associated with supervisor ratings of job performance. However, we also found that there is a negative indirect effect on job performance through emotional exhaustion, which is offset, in part, through enhanced positive affect. Results of a second study of restaurant and retail sales employees (n = 182) provide greater insight into the positive and negative effects of multiplex workplace friendships. Specifically, these relationships enhanced job performance through trust, but detracted from job performance through maintenance difficulty. Collectively, our results illustrate that having a large number of multiplex friendships at work is a mixed blessing. Although the provision and restoration of resources fostered by multiplex relationships benefits employee job performance, these benefits are muted somewhat by the personal resources they deplete.
Supplementary resource (1)
... Organizational scholars and practitioners now study work spouse relationships extensively because this phenomenon stands as a distinct workplace connection pattern (Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018). Work spouse relationships consist of deep emotional connections between colleagues who demonstrate trust and mutual support while maintaining their professional boundaries (Methot et al., 2016). ...
... The idea of work partners having a "spousal" connection has existed since before modern times. The historical development of the "office wife" phenomenon started during the 1930s, according to Katz (1997), but its original meaning reflected distinct power structures and gendered workplace assumptions that differ from modern work spouse relationships (Methot et al., 2016). The workplace underwent changes in both gender dynamics and workplace norms, which evolved work relationships into equal partnerships between colleagues who share respect along with emotional and problem-solving collaboration (Ferris et al., 2009). ...
... The development of strong workplace relationships including work spouse bonds, leads to better employee engagement alongside decreased turnover intentions (Methot et al., 2016). The workplace emotional connections formed through these relationships strengthen organizational commitment according to Meyer and Allen (1991). ...
The article examines the various aspects of "work spouse" relationships that exist in contemporary professional environments. This research unites organizational behavior findings with social psychology data and management studies to develop an integrative conceptual framework that describes these specific workplace dyads. The study evaluates both positive effects (better collaboration, emotional support, and higher job satisfaction) and negative effects (perceptions of favoritism, boundary confusion, and team exclusion) of these workplace relationships based on Social Exchange Theory, Attachment Theory, and Role Theory. The research develops advanced knowledge of professional relationship impacts on organizational performance while presenting evidence-based organizational approaches to support beneficial work spouse relationships, while addressing potential risks. The research expands traditional workplace relationship studies by recognizing work spouse dynamics as unique professional bonds with unique origins and results, while delivering practical leadership guidelines to boost the workplace environment and performance.
... Many people do not work in isolation but are socially embedded in their workplace. Prior research shows that social networks are associated with relevant outcomes like salary (Markiewicz et al., 2000), performance (Methot et al., 2016) and promotions (Burt, 1998;Woehler et al., 2021). These social networks do not only consist of the formal, organizationprescribed relationships between job roles but men and women [1] also form informal, voluntary relationships, which foster collaboration, are central for organizational functioning and provide social support and inclusion (Morrison and Cooper-Thomas, 2017). ...
... Previous studies placed focus on the development of WPF (Sias and Cahill, 1998), potential tension experiences (Bridge and Baxter, 1992), gender differences in attitudes, as well as ideal and actual friendship experiences (Devine and Markiewicz, 1990;Sapadin, 1988). Management and sociology scholars often use social network analysis to investigate WPF (Hood et al., 2017;Methot et al., 2016;Tasselli and Kilduff, 2018). ...
... It is often assumed that having more WPF is advantageous, but this might not always be the case. On the one hand, while WPF are beneficial, they also require maintenance and are thus associated with costs (Methot et al., 2016). On the other hand, more WPF could be a strategy to ensure sufficient access to resources at work. ...
Purpose
The study investigates gender differences in workplace friendships, focusing on the number of friends, the gender of friends and the extent of same-gender friendships accounting for workplace characteristics shaping these differences.
Design/methodology/approach
We used three-level data (employees nested in departments and organizations) from six different sectors across nine countries and multilevel mixed-effects models to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The results indicate that women have more workplace friends than men. Given sufficient opportunities, both men and women prefer same-gender workplace friendships. Moreover, when having a manager of the same gender, not only men but also women have significantly more same-gender workplace friends.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the understanding of workplace friendships by employing unique data from 2,620 employees across various organizations and different sectors. Additionally, it provides insights into how organizational contexts can shape friendship networks among employees and gender dynamics therein.
... Specifically, emotional support provides a mechanism for minimizing distress (Methot et al., 2016). In a team that exhibits such features, team members listen carefully to each other's voices, understand others' concerns, and provide support and encouragement (Ebrahimi et al., 2016), thereby ultimately increasing the variety of responses that they can consider (Stoverink et al., 2020). ...
... Second, emotional support offsets negative emotions by enabling team members to share burdens with and seek comfort from other team members, thus alleviating the pressure caused by uncertainty (Frenzel et al., 2023;McLuckie et al., 2018). Therefore, team members should not feel easily exhausted or psychologically disengaged from their work but instead search for possible opportunities to invest and employ their resources optimally (Frenzel et al., 2023;Methot et al., 2016). Indeed, Ebrahimi et al. (2016) suggested that emotional support helps employees focus on their tasks, as they know that they are accepted and safely rooted in the team. ...
... Indeed, Ebrahimi et al. (2016) suggested that emotional support helps employees focus on their tasks, as they know that they are accepted and safely rooted in the team. Third, from the perspective of social exchange, employees who perceive that support is provided by their teammates are more likely to respond in similarly positive ways (Frenzel et al., 2023;Methot et al., 2016). When team members exhibit attachment, compassion, and reliance and confide in each other, a sense of unity can be cultivated among them. ...
We developed and tested a model that illustrates the benefits of team mindfulness with respect to helping teams resist and bounce back from adversity. Based on the literature on team dynamics and conservation of resources (COR) theory, we propose that team mindfulness can facilitate task‐ and emotion-related interpersonal interactions, thus laying a solid foundation for team members to employ and acquire additional resources to cope with adverse events. We also explore the role of team task interdependence in these processes. We conducted two studies in an automobile manufacturing enterprise that was undergoing a business transformation: (1) a multi-wave, multisource survey of 176 manufacturing teams and (2) a field experiment in which 84 sales teams were assigned to either a mindfulness intervention or a control condition. The results largely support our model. Team mindfulness increases team resilience via team emotional support and information sharing. Team task interdependence amplifies the positive effects of team mindfulness on emotional support and information sharing such that the indirect effect of team mindfulness on resilience is strengthened when the level of task interdependence is high (rather than low). Our research extends the mindfulness literature and provides useful insights into ways of cultivating resilient teams.
... For example, social connections at work can be characterized by an exchange of purely instrumental resources (e.g., advice, task-related information), purely affective resources (e.g., emotional support), or a combination of both (Lincoln & Miller, 1979;Methot et al., 2016). In addition, the same workplace relationship can involve different roles at different times (Sluss & Ashforth, 2007), combining functions such as colleague, mentor, friend, and boss. ...
... For example, Gallup lists "having a best friend at work" as one of its top criteria for enhancing employee engagement (Gallup, 2016). Studies have shown that multiplex ties are common in organizations (Gersick et al., 2000), and sometimes even more common (Methot et al., 2016) than pure-work or purefriendship ties. Spaces and events that blur the boundaries between work and personal life are increasingly common, especially with the rise of flexible work-from-home arrangements. ...
... This means that a single relationship or a single meeting, workday, or workweek can contain multiple, dynamic rules or expectations for interacting. Although a few challenges associated with multiplex sociality have been identified (Methot et al., 2016(Methot et al., , 2020Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018), it is generally accepted in research and in practice to be a net positive feature of work relationships, especially when skillfully navigated with strategic authenticity (i.e., balancing being true to oneself and professionally appropriate Pillemer, 2024). ...
Although much research has sought to understand how employees come to align themselves with the social norms and routines of their workgroups, management theory has largely overlooked the possibility that such alignment might be fundamentally at odds with what it means to be autistic. Autism, which accounts for a large share of organizational neurodiversity, is associated with seeing and processing the world differently from the non‐autistic societal norm. In the workplace, autistic employees often experience barriers to inclusion, in large part due fundamental dissimilarities in how they interact with and connect to others. To identify the barriers to autistic employees' workgroup inclusion, we develop a multilevel framework centered around relational incongruence, or differences in patterns of interrelating across (autistic and non‐autistic) neurotypes. We propose that non‐autistic workgroup norms (e.g., for the use of imprecise language) exacerbate relational incongruence, which in turn hinders experiences of authenticity and belonging for the autistic workgroup member. Finally, we identify managerial practices (e.g., relational job crafting) that are likely to protect against the negative consequences of relational incongruence, by fostering workgroup climates of normalized variance in patterns of interrelating and shared understandings across neurotypes.
... Prior research finds that positive relationship experiences between colleagues can promote work meaning (Colbert et al., 2016;Dutton & Ragins, 2017;Mao et al., 2012;Methot et al., 2016), especially shared reality between colleagues (Rossignac-Milon & Matz, 2023). However, no work to our knowledge has investigated whether people's relationships in their personal lives outside of work can affect their work experiences. ...
... Despite frontline health care workers struggling with an unprecedented work crisis, to the extent that their sense of shared reality with their partner helped them feel more certain about their work environment, they experienced a greater sense of meaning at work. This finding adds to the literature on how relationship experiences with coworkers can promote work meaning (Colbert et al., 2016;Dutton & Ragins, 2017;Mao et al., 2012;Methot et al., 2016;Rossignac-Milon & Matz, 2023) by showing that relationship experiences with one's romantic partner also influence work meaning. In addition, the results held controlling for relationship satisfaction, adding additional evidence for the robustness of the effect of shared reality on uncertainty and meaning beyond "relationship goodness." ...
... In addition, people spend a large amount of time at work (Pryce-Jones, 2010) and care deeply about establishing a sense of meaning at work (Pew Research Center, 2021). Despite prior work showing that relationships with colleagues (Colbert et al., 2016;Dutton & Ragins, 2017;Mao et al., 2012;Methot et al., 2016), and shared reality with colleagues specifically (Rossignac-Milon & Matz, 2023), promote meaning in work, the present research provides evidence that shared reality with one's romantic partner is strong enough to shape how people engage with their work. Specifically, shared reality promotes meaning in work, even in an unprecedented and highly stressful work context, such as the frontlines of the pandemic. ...
We propose that, although deeply personal, meaning is facilitated by interpersonal processes. Namely, we theorize that experiencing a sense of shared reality with a close partner (i.e., perceiving an overlap in inner states about the world in general) reduces uncertainty about one’s environment, which in turn promotes meaning in work and life. In the current research, we test this hypothesis across five mixed-method studies (e.g., longitudinal, experimental). We find cross-sectional evidence for this association in a couples’ study (Study 1: N = 103 romantic dyads) and in ecologically rich samples of people experiencing highly uncertain situations, specifically Black people consistently facing racism in the United States (Study 2: N = 190 participants) and frontline health care workers directly treating COVID-19 patients during the height of the pandemic (Study 3: N = 139 participants). Further, we provide causal evidence for this association in two experiments (Studies 4 and 5: N4 = 364 participants, N5 = 389 participants). Taken together, this work suggests that shared reality with close partners has real-world benefits, reducing uncertainty and promoting meaning. In addition, we show that experimentally heightening shared reality, by reducing uncertainty, can promote a greater sense of meaning in life.
... This study highlights that employees have closer relationships with their colleagues than with their leaders (Hayton et al., 2012) and that workplace friendships lead to positive outcomes for the organization and some potentially negative effects. For example, workplace friendships may lead to the proliferation of informal groups within an organization (Methot et al., 2016). Therefore, we explore the potential dark side of workplace friendships by exploring the affective interactions between employees and their colleagues, aiming to bridge the gap in the existing literature and thus enrich the antecedent research on UPB. ...
... The positive effects of workplace friendships on organizations have been widely validated . However, workplace friendships can also contribute to the flooding of informal groups within organizations or the depletion of employee resources (Methot et al., 2016). When this occurs, workplace friendships may lead to negative employee behaviors (Zhuang et al., 2020). ...
... Workplace friendships help employees establish deep emotional ties with each other. They also help them build identification with the organization, improve their sense of belonging, and thus enhance their work performance (Methot et al., 2016). Therefore, managers can encourage employees to collaborate in work teams while appropriately increasing cross-team and cross-departmental communication and cooperation. ...
This study examines why employees in positive informal relationships may engage in unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB). Drawing on social exchange theory and social cognitive theory, we examined the potential relational mechanisms of workplace friendships on UPB with a sample of 431 new-generation employees from different Chinese companies. The results of the empirical study indicated that workplace friendship and affective commitment were significantly positively related to UPB, as was the indirect effect of workplace friendship on UPB through affective commitment, and that a caring ethical climate (CEC) strengthened the positive relationships between workplace friendship and affective commitment and between affective commitment and UPB. Furthermore, male, married, and basic supervisor/ middle management employees were likelier to participate in UPB than female, unmarried, and general staff. These findings suggest that workplace friendships, affective commitment, and CEC may have a previously unexplored dark side. This study deepens the understanding of the environmental and personal factors that influence employee participation in UPB and contributes to the literature on the potential negative consequences of positive factors. We also discuss essential theoretical and practical implications and future research directions.
... Our third objective is to examine the mechanisms and outcomes of friendship bonds between leaders and subordinates. Although the workplace relationships literature has begun to examine workplace friendships (e.g., Methot et al., 2016;Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018) and identified specific relational risks (e.g., favoritism, manipulation; Boyd & Taylor, 1998;Bridge & Baxter, 1992), subordinates' responses to these tensions and the full spectrum of the potential risks and benefits of forming a close relationship with a leader are still to be explored. ...
... Complementing these findings that centered on the fluctuations in LMX levels, we offer a depiction of the mechanisms that underlie shifts in LMX content. Third, our model contributes to the literature on multiplex ties (Bridge & Baxter, 1992;Haythornthwaite, 2001;Methot et al., 2016) by presenting a nuanced understanding of subordinates' responses to a blended friendship with the leader. Rather than examining the consequences of high LMX and friendship separately (e.g., Ramarajan et al., 2017), we examine both the bright (i.e., role enhancement) and dark (i.e., role conflicts) sides of role co-activation (Ramarajan et al., 2017) in the context of leadersubordinate blended friendships. ...
... For example, regardless of how close the leader and subordinate may be, the power asymmetry between them persists such that true equality can never be reached. Thus, though high LMX members may become more intimate and develop friendship-like relationships (Styhre, 2000), we argue that such relationships should not be viewed as friendships per se, but rather as blended friendships (Ashforth & Sluss, 2006;Bridge & Baxter, 1992;Haythornthwaite, 2001;Methot et al., 2016). ...
Plain Language Summary
For decades, the leadership literature has emphasized the importance of leader–subordinate relationships, providing abundant evidence that high-quality relationships between leaders and subordinates lead to a host of positive outcomes. Yet, significant confusion persists about the configurations of high-quality leader-subordinate relationships. How such relationships overlap and differ from personal friendships between leaders and subordinates, how they may morph into friendships, and what the outcomes of such relational change are remain unclear. This paper offers a theoretical framework that brings clarity to these issues. We examine the fundamental differences between high quality leader-subordinate relationships and friendships. We argue that when leaders and subordinates involved in a high-quality relationship get closer, their relationship may not turn into a friendship, but into a blended friendship, in which each partner must concomitantly behave as a friend and as a leader/subordinate. We examine how such relational shift may occur and identify key precipitating factors. We then explain how a blended friendship between a leader and a subordinate may lead to both positive and negative outcomes due to either enrichment or conflict between the friend's and the worker's role. The proposed framework clarifies the position of leaders and subordinates within their relationships with reference to friendship and sheds light on the dynamic nature of these relationships.
... both advice and friendship characteristics (Methot et al., 2016;Shah et al., 2017). Multiplex ties are more intricate compared to uniplex advice ties, fostering greater interaction (Shah et al., 2017) and trust (Park et al., 2020). ...
... Prior research has suggested that advice networks embedded within multiplex ties foster trust and durability more than uniplex advice networks (Ingram and Zou, 2008). For instance, Methot et al. (2016) demonstrated that multiplex ties based on the trust of friends facilitate the acquisition of social support from advice ties, thus fostering innovative work behavior. However, several studies have highlighted the potential drawbacks of advice networks in multiplex ties settings, such as increased attention consumption and psychological strain (Shah et al., 2017). ...
... On the other hand, employees are more inclined to seek advice from and ask questions of friends among their coworkers (Casciaro and Lobo, 2008). Those relationships that capture advice and friendship have been defined as "workplace friendship" (Ingram and Zou, 2008;Methot et al., 2016) or "multiplex ties" (Clarke et al., 2022;Park et al., 2020;Shah et al., 2017). Following the study by Clarke et al. (2022), we define multiplex network embeddedness as the degree to which multiplex ties are embedded in advice networks at a focal actor's level. ...
Purpose
To achieve innovation outcomes, employees often leverage advice networks to access valuable knowledge resources. However, the increasing integration of friendship ties into these advice networks creates multiplex ties that significantly affect employees’ innovative work behavior, yielding both benefits (i.e. increased trust) and costs (i.e. attention depletion). This study aims to provide a consistent picture of these effects by examining the relationship between advice network centrality and employees’ innovative work behavior as moderated by multiplex network embeddedness.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 273 R&D employees in the scientific research and technology service industry. Multiple hierarchical regression analysis and bootstrap analysis techniques were employed to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The results showed that advice network centrality is positively associated with idea implementation through idea generation. Moreover, multiplex network embeddedness moderates these relationships: it weakens the positive effect of advice network centrality on idea generation but strengthens the positive relationship between idea generation and idea implementation.
Originality/value
To our knowledge, this is the first study that differentiates the various phases of innovative work behavior to uncover the innovation benefits of advice networks and how multiplex network embeddedness influences these benefits. It contributes to social networks and innovation research by providing insight into establishing advice networks that efficiently support innovative work behavior.
... Friendship is one of humanity's fundamental values (Wright, 1984) and it spans various social domains including the workplace (Methot, Lepine, Podsakoff, & Christian, 2016). Friendship at work describes close and informal interpersonal relations based on mutual Friendship and social support at work interest and reciprocated instrumental and emotional support (Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018). ...
... To date, literature has chiefly focused on the resource provision role of friendship and ignored the resource depletion associated with engaging in and maintaining such close social relationships at work, especially in military settings. A growing body of research identified the downsides of workplace friendship in terms of employee job-related attitudes and behaviors (Berman, West, & Richter, 2002;Sias, Heath, Perry, Silva, & Fix, 2004;Ingram & Zou, 2008;Methot et al., 2016;Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018). ...
... Friendship at work is a source of instrumental and emotional support. Thus, it ultimately fosters job performance (Colbert, Bono, & Purvanova, 2016;Methot et al., 2016). In military settings, comradery is an important relational value (Siebold, 2007;Verweij, 2007;Du Preez et al., 2012) and we expected friendship to be an important relational resource for military employees. ...
Purpose
We grounded this study in the Too-Much-of-a-Good-Thing (TMGT) meta-theoretical framework to disentangle the costs and benefits associated with workplace friendship in a military setting.
Design/methodology/approach
We collected data cross-sectionally through self-reports from 287 employees from the Romanian Air Force.
Findings
The number of friends had an inverted U-shaped association with perceived social support. Our results show that as the number of friends increases from 9 to 10, so does the social support. However, as the number of friends further increases above 10, social support tends to decrease rather than increase. Furthermore, we found that social support and all dimensions of mental well-being (emotional, social and psychological well-being) were positively associated. Moreover, social support mediated the relationship between the number of friends and the three dimensions of mental well-being.
Research limitations/implications
Our findings can help human resources policies in military organizations foster an organizational climate that cultivates friendship ties between employees, which is crucial for their social support and overall mental well-being.
Originality/value
This work provides additional information about the specific mechanisms through which the effects of workplace friendships on mental well-being occur.
... after marriage, individuals are expected to assume additional obligations within the family, such as the teaching of the children and home chores. therefore, married professionals hinder the development of workplace friendships by having to devote a large portion of their resources to their families and are less likely to continue interacting with coworkers after work (Methot et al., 2016). Furthermore, marriage is an exclusive relationship, in contrast to friendships. ...
... Due to the fact that married and single people might interact with others to differing degrees depending on their stage of life, marital status may not always be a reliable indicator of social engagement levels. consequently, it refutes the theory that married employees are compelled to devote a large portion of their resources to their families and are less likely to stay in touch with coworkers after work, impeding the forming of workplace friendships (Methot et al., 2016). the non-significant nature of the marital status in the context is supported by some previous studies (Mao et al., 2009). ...
The study controlled for the moderating influences of age, gender, and marital status among University of Cape Coast staff members. It empirically investigated the relationship between psychosocial career pre-occupation and friendship prevalence and opportunity. Two hundred and eighty-eight (288) University of Cape Coast working staff received structured questionnaires using the explanatory research design. The hypotheses were analyzed and tested using Smart PLS’s structural equation modeling. The study revealed that psychosocial career pre-occupation predicts some positive, statistically significant, but small changes in friendship opportunity and prevalence. Age range, gender, and married status are a few personal traits that did not moderate the predictive link between workplace friendships and psychosocial-career preoccupation. Based on these findings, employees should follow the guidelines for career establishment, work-life balance, and career adaptation. By doing so, they may strengthen their bonds with coworkers in terms of friendship prevalence and opportunities. Furthermore, the study demonstrated how psychosocial-career preoccupation explains the form of workplace friendships among employees in higher education contexts, notably a university and an emerging economy in sub-Saharan Africa, and it supports the social exchange theory.
... Using AI for emotional support: We measured using AI for emotional support with five items adapted from Methot et al. (2016). Cronbach's alpha was 0.94. ...
... Her research interests include digital transformation, human-AI interaction, leadership. Methot et al. (2016) Job insecurity 1. I think that AI will replace me in the future. ...
... (Huang, 2016;Zarankin & Kunkel, 2019). Studies show that workplace friendship has positive effects on employees' job satisfaction, organizational commitment and overall job performance (Methot et al., 2016;Morrison, 2009a;Potgieter et al., 2019;Riordan & Griffeth, 1995). Friendship relationships enable employees to feel more trust in each other, while at the same time strengthening social support mechanisms in the workplace (Sias et al., 2012). ...
... Moreover, Berman et al. (2002) emphasise that workplace friendship can lead to gossip and disloyalty. Therefore, it can be stated that workplace friendship is a concept with a complex relationship dynamic that can have both positive and negative consequences (Methot et al., 2016). ...
In recent years, there has been a rise in research on workplace friendship; however, no study has been found in the literature that specifically evaluating workplace friendship related studies based on certain criteria in terms of content. In this context, the purpose of this study is to examine articles related workplace friendship by using content analysis method. For this purpose, total of 106 articles on workplace friendship were found in the web of science core collection database. These articles were examined and analyzed in terms of content. In the findings, it was determined that the "Frontiers in Psychology" was the most widely published journal, and most studied variables together with workplace friendship were gender, organizational commitment, and turnover intention. As a variable type, workplace friendship was used predominantly as an independent variable and moderator variable in the articles. Also, the findings reflect that the majority of the studies were conducted in the China, the most preferred article type was the quantitative method article and the most preferred data collection tool was the survey technique. The sample size between 251-500 was preferred in the majority of the studies and the finance&banking, education, information technology sectors were the most preferred sectors in the studies. Finally, the scale developed by Nielsen et al. (2000) was mostly preffered scale to measure workplace friendship in the articles.
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Son yıllarda işyeri arkadaşlığı üzerine yapılan araştırmalarda bir artış olmasına rağmen, literatürde belirli ölçütlere göre işyeri arkadaşlığı ile ilgili çalışmaları içeriksel olarak değerlendiren bir çalışmaya rastlanılmamıştır. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışmanın amacı, içerik analizi yöntemi kullanarak işyeri arkadaşlığı ile ilgili makaleleri incelemektir. Bu amaçla, Web of Science Core Collection veritabanında işyeri arkadaşlığı ile ilgili toplam 106 makale bulunmuştur. Bu makaleler içeriksel açıdan incelenmiş ve analiz edilmiştir. Bulgularda, en çok yayın yapılan derginin "Frontiers in Psychology" olduğu, işyeri arkadaşlığı ile birlikte en çok çalışılan değişkenlerin cinsiyet, örgütsel bağlılık ve işten ayrılma niyeti olduğu belirlenmiştir. Makalelerde değişken türü olarak işyeri arkadaşlığı, ağırlıklı olarak bağımsız değişken ve moderatör değişken rolünde kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca bulgular, çalışmaların çoğunlukla Çin'de yapıldığını, en çok tercih edilen makale türünün nicel yöntemli makale türü olduğunu ve en çok tercih edilen veri toplama aracının anket tekniği olduğunu yansıtmaktadır. Çalışmaların çoğunluğunda örneklem büyüklüğü olarak 251-500 arasında bir örneklem büyüklüğü tercih edilmiştir. İşyeri arkadaşlığı ile ilgili yapılan çalışmaların en çok hangi sektörlerde yapıldığı incelendiğinde, finans&bankacılık sektörünün, eğitim sektörünün, bilgi teknolojileri sektörünün en çok tercih edilen sektörler arasında olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Son olarak, işyeri arkadaşlığını ölçmek için çalışmaların çoğunda Nielsen vd. (2000) tarafından geliştirilen ölçeğin kullanıldığı saptanmıştır.
... The tension between authenticity and sincerity may be particularly pertinent in multiplex ties, which describe relationships that superimpose multiple connections between people, such as colleagues who are also friends (Ingram and Zou 2008;Kuwabara, Luo, and Sheldon 2010;Methot et al. 2016;Ollier-Malaterre, Rothbard, and Berg 2013;Schinoff, Ashforth, and Corley 2020). On the one hand, such ties can offer various benefits that are less available from unitary ties, such as emotional support, a sense of belonging, or sensitive information. ...
... For instance, personal ties may demand authenticity while professional ties may value sincerity, creating potentially incompatible expectations. For this reason, many people avoid mixing "work and play," preferring to keep their colleagues at emotional distance (Ingram and Zou 2008;Methot et al. 2016;Pillemer and Rothbard 2018). We hope to see future research examine how individuals successfully navigate the complexities of authenticity in these multifaceted relationships. ...
From finding ideas and opportunities to landing new jobs or getting promoted, so much depends on “who you know.” Despite these benefits, many people struggle with the act and the idea of networking. Much of the angst around networking can be traced to concerns about authenticity, including the need to be authentic, to be seen as authentic, to find authentic partners, and to build authentic relationships. In this paper, we review the literature on networking and authenticity to consider how different individuals might experience authenticity challenges in different forms of networking. We then describe three strategies for overcoming concerns about authenticity—ignore it, embrace it, and transcend it—and discuss the key merits and limitations of each approach. We advocate for transcending authenticity through cognitive reappraisals, which entails shifting the focus from the self to others by adopting a growth mindset. We conclude with future directions for promoting authenticity in networking.
... Coworkers rely on one another to complete tasks, unlock career opportunities, and provide social support (Colbert, Bono & Purvanova, 2016;Ferris, Liden, Munyon, Summers, Basik & Buckley, 2009). While investing in relationships with coworkers is important, employees have limited resources to do so (Methot, Lepine, Podsakoff & Christian, 2016). Given the importance of employees' relational investment and trends in where and how employees work (e.g., remote work relationships require higher levels of intentionality and engagement to flourish; Schinoff et al., 2020), it is critical to understand what can motivate employees to invest more in their relationships with their coworkers. ...
... We suggest that how an employee learns about a coworker (vividness and perceived unintentionality) and what they learn (nonwork-related information) will impact their investment in their relationship with that coworker because they see that coworker as more authentic, trustworthy, and human. Given that nonwork and work worlds are increasingly colliding (Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013), and that individuals' personal relationships with coworkers greatly affect their work relationships with those same coworkers (Casciaro & Lobo, 2008), we consider investment in a multiplex relationship, which accounts for both a task-based, professional connection and a non-task-based, personal connection (Methot et al., 2016;Schinoff et al., 2020). In line with social penetration theory, we suggest that the three learning dimensions previously theorized differentially influence perceptions of a coworker's authenticity, trustworthiness, and humanness, which, in turn, motivate employees to invest in both their personal and professional relationship with that coworker. ...
... The premise of the exchange paradigm reveals that all social life consists of actors who exchange rewards and resources (Cropanzano et al., 2017), and social change and stability are a process of negotiated exchange between parties (Methot et al., 2016) In the social exchange process, a return is expected; the voters may decide to vote because of material rewards from the political leaders or because of a great expectation of improved living conditions. On the one hand, candidates provide voters with material inducements to increase their chances of winning an election, especially when there is competition between political parties or political actors. ...
... Then we devised a means to find out the following: i) how many of these incentives really follow the reciprocal advantages of voters' turnout, ii) how did these incentives meet up with the new dimensions of vote-buying in the 2023 elections. A large number of research studies have established that when transactions in relationships are not reciprocal, there is a tendency for discontinuity(Methot et al., 2016;Cooper-Thomas & Morrison, 2019). Social exchange theory investigates the reciprocal advantages (mainly materialistic) that individuals enjoy in their exchanges and transactions. ...
Studies have established that giving incentives for votes is extremely widespread in many democracies; however, only little is known about the new dimension of vote-buying in Nigeria's 2023 elections. The study utilized qualitative tools to select four states, 32 interviewees, and 12 discussants. The study revealed that vote-buying increased the voters' turnout and became institutionalized and rampant with ruling parties and general elections rather than off-cycle elections. Voters were enticed with branded materials, financial incentives in kangaroo inducement activities (funeral/birthday/idol ceremonies, cooperative/artisan societies), and temporary social incentives (camouflage community, aged/less privileged assistance, age-grade social competitions). Other dimensions were the payment of salaries to parties' executives and fake committees, the use of community leaders in pretentious social care, and the welfare of their subjects mainly for the exchange of their votes. There is a need for electoral acts to capture these new dimensions and improve the activities of law enforcement agents.
... We measured task performance with a five-item scale developed by Methot et al. (2016) (e.g., I can fully fulfill the assigned duties). The Cronbach's α is 0.86. ...
In the current organizational context, it has become far more prevalent for employees to engage in multiple teams simultaneously. Drawing on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model and Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, we examine the “double-edged sword” effect of multiple team membership (MTM) on employees’ job performance, with thriving at work and job burnout serving as mediators, and organizational tenure acting as a moderator. By analyzing the time- lagged survey data collected from 214 employees, empirical results indicate that MTM can positively affect job performance by promoting employees’ thriving at work. However, it can also negatively influence job performance by triggering job burnout. Additionally, organizational tenure significantly strengthens the positive influence of MTM on employees’ thriving at work, further strengthening its positive effect on job performance via thriving at work. At the same time, organizational tenure also moderates the negative impact of MTM on job burnout. These empirical findings provide important insights into the intricate effect of MTM and have practical implications for team leaders to effectively manage MTM in organizational environments.
... Task performance was measured by a five-item scale developed by Methot et al. (2016) and responded on a seven-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). Sample items included "Adequately completes assigned duties." ...
With the rapid development of Internet technology and the full coverage of smart devices in the workplace, employees can use the Internet for non-work-related activities, that is, cyberloafing. Although most studies have focused on the negative consequences of cyberloafing for organizations and employees, cyberloafing may help employees get a relaxing break after a heavy workload. This study draws on the ego-depletion theory to construct a framework for understanding the recovery effects of cyberloafing. Study 1 confirmed that cyberloafing can mitigate the ego-depletion effect but is less effective than sitting still through a laboratory experiment. Study 2 further showed that participants who used a music app for cyberloafing had better recovery effects than those who used a shopping app for cyberloafing. Through a survey of employees, Study 3 re-confirmed that cyberloafing can mitigate the effects of ego depletion, and greater levels of cyberloafing during a 10-minute micro-break yielded a better recovery effect. Overall, these findings suggest that cyberloafing has a positive side that can help recover, but at a cost. To ensure that cyberloafing has a recovery effect, organizations and employees should be aware of the cyberloafing content and avoid high-cognitive-load cyberloafing.
... Job stress occurs when job-related issues impair employees' mental health [99]. Job performance is defined as the quality and quantity of a person's or team's effort outputs [100]. Sørlie et al. [101] described job performance as the amount of effort an individual will exert in his or her work. ...
... Work performance in this study was measured using the scale developed by Methot et al. (2016), which includes five items designed to assess how well employees fulfill their job roles and responsibilities. The scale has demonstrated good reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.84. ...
Understanding the dynamics of Career Advancement and Work Performance in the textile industry is crucial for addressing evolving workforce needs. This study analyzes cross-sectional data from 968 managers in Jiangsu province, China, to examine how career advancement impacts work performance through mediating factors such as work-family practices and recognition. Key findings reveal that career advancement enhances work performance, with Achievement Recognition and Work-Family Practices serving as significant mediators. Gender moderates both the direct and indirect effects, indicating disparities in how males and females benefit from career advancement opportunities. Notably, females gain less from organizational politics compared to males, highlighting critical equity issues. These results underscore the importance of integrating family-supportive practices and equitable recognition systems into organizational strategies, offering actionable insights for improving performance and gender inclusivity in the textile sector.
... those who communicate and create connections with many individuals -can access a wider range of resources, such as information, knowledge, and experience. These resources lead to more innovative ideas (Burt, 2004), better work performance (Burt, 1992;Carboni & Ehrlich, 2013;Methot et al., 2016), greater job satisfaction (Ommen et al., 2009), and work engagement (Clausen et al., 2019). ...
Social scientists have traditionally relied on surveys to study the impacts of social capital. However, survey methods have several limitations, including the partial reliability of self-reported behavioral measures. To overcome these limits, we analyzed the email archive of 1,149 members of a leading Italian bank during Covid-19 outbreak, integrating this with data collected from surveys and performance evaluations. Using social network analysis metrics, we calculated the communication behavior of employees. Our findings indicate that social capital is positively related to individuals' work performance, work engagement, and job satisfaction, with significant differences among the constructs. We also found that, while centrality promote these variables, there is a threshold beyond which further digital communication stops bringing improvements. A proper tradeoff should thus be found between enhancing connectivity on the one hand and limiting excessive communication volume on the other. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Task performance was measured using the 5-item scale developed by Methot et al. (2016). A sample item was "I can adequately complete assigned duties" (Cronbach's alpha = 0.91). ...
Drawing from the self-affirmation theory, this research delves into the dynamics of why and how leadership development opportunity can boost Asian employees’ job performance in Western contexts. Specifically, we hypothesize that leadership development opportunity is positively related to Asian employees’ self-affirmation of core values, which further predicts higher task performance and the workplace helping behavior of these employees. Meanwhile, we propose that ethical identification strengthens the positive relationship between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values. A pilot study ( N = 101) is conducted in Australia to uncover the positive association between leadership development opportunity and self-affirmation of core values among Asian employees. In our main study, using multi-wave (i.e. three time points) data focusing on full-time Asian–Australian employees ( N = 436), we replicate the findings of the pilot study and find support for the full model. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
JEL Code: M12
... Affect, a fundamental component of workplace relationships, has been widely examined, with these relationships typically conceptualized along a continuum ranging from positive to negative. However, existing studies have primarily focused on its influence on job satisfaction and performance, with limited exploration of its role in workplace creativity, which this study aims to address, as highlighted by Methot et al. (2016). Positive and negative affect-often characterized as liking and disliking, respectively-are well-established concepts in psychology (Rivera et al., 2024) and organizational studies (Casciaro & Lobo, 2008). ...
This study examines the underexplored intersection of emotional valence and perspective-taking in workplace creativity, and how job characteristics like interdependence and autonomy moderate these relationships. Participants (N = 307; 41% women) recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk platform and employed across various U.S. companies completed an experimental study where they were randomly assigned to recall either positive or negative workplace relationships. Through this manipulation, the participants identified specific colleagues with whom they had direct working experience and reported their emotional valence toward these relationships before completing questionnaires on perspective-taking, creativity, autonomy, and interdependence. Integrating emotional valence and perspective-taking into a moderated mediation model yielded insights into how these variables shape creativity within organizations. The findings demonstrate that positive emotional states significantly enhance creativity through perspective-taking, especially in environments that promote collaboration and independent decision-making. This research broadens workplace dynamics by illuminating the roles of emotional and contextual factors in fostering creativity. It provides practical implications for organizations, recommending positive emotional climates and roles that balance interdependence with autonomy to maximize employee creativity. This study’s comprehensive approach provides a holistic understanding of conditions that foster creativity in organizational environments, expanding on existing frameworks.
... Researches in literature demonstrates that workplaces with high perceptions of organizational justice tend to foster stronger workplace friendships. These friendships, in turn, contribute positively to various organizational outcomes, including the development of an innovative organizational climate, increased productivity, enhanced job satisfaction, the achievement of organizational goals, improved performance, and more effective knowledge sharing (Song, 2006;Mao et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2013;Methot et al., 2016;Sias & Shin, 2019;He & Wei, 2022). Considering these findings, the third hypothesis of this research is proposed as follows: ...
This study was designed to determine the effects of social groups and relationships, which are among the basic subjects of sociology, on management science. In this context, the relationship between knowledge hiding, organizational justice, workplace friendship and job interdependence was investigated. This research, using quantitative analysis techniques, was conducted in a public institution operating in the transportation sector. Data were collected with the help of survey forms and at this stage, a simple random sampling method was preferred without any restrictions. Data obtained from 274 employees working in TR1, TR2, TR5, TR7 and TRB regions were analyzed with traditional statistical methods and structural equation modeling (SEM). According to the findings, the tendency to hide knowledge increases in environments where organizational justice is low, the friendship bonds of employees with a high perception of organizational justice are stronger, and this reduces their knowledge hiding behaviors. The study also found that the perception of organizational justice is higher in individuals with higher work experience, organizational justice and knowledge hiding behaviors do not differ according to gender, and the tendency to hide information in blue-collar employees is much lower than in white and gray collar employees.
... By contrast, our approach excluded one-off interactions, such as serendipitous encounters (relational events), or relationships that involve only limited tacit or codified knowledge provision, where knowledge interdependence for the purposes of coordination is assumed to be lower. [7] Similar dichotomization of valued network data is frequently applied Borgatti and Quintane, 2018) and is currently the standard approach for studying multiplex networks (e.g., Methot et al., 2016;Zagenczyk et al., 2015). ...
This study takes a network approach to investigate coordination among knowledge workers as grounded in both formal and informal organization. We first derive hypotheses regarding patterns of knowledge‐sharing relationships by which workers pass on and exchange tacit and codified knowledge within and across organizational hierarchies to address the challenges that underpin contemporary knowledge work. We use survey data and apply exponential random graph models to test our hypotheses. We then extend the quantitative network analysis with insights from qualitative interviews and demonstrate that the identified knowledge‐sharing patterns are the micro‐foundational traces of collective coordination resulting from two underlying coordination mechanisms which we label ‘invisible iterations’ and ‘bringing in the big guns’. These mechanisms and, by extension, the associated knowledge‐sharing patterns enable knowledge workers to perform in a setting that is characterized by complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity. Our research contributes to theory on the interplay between formal and informal organization for coordination by showing how self‐directed, informal action is supported by the formal organizational hierarchy. In doing so, it also extends understanding of the role that hierarchy plays for knowledge‐intensive work. Finally, it establishes the collective need to coordinate work as a previously overlooked driver of knowledge network relationships and network patterns.
... In-role performance: The 5-item task performance scale from Methot et al. (Methot et al., 2016) was used to measure in-role performance, with items such as "I can fully complete the duties assigned to me". The scale demonstrated high reliability, with a Cronbach's α of 0.896. ...
To address the challenges posed by AI technologies, an increasing number of organizations encourage or require employees to integrate AI into their work processes. Despite the extensive research that has explored AI applications in the workplace, limited attention has been paid to the role of AI awareness in shaping employees’ cognition, interaction behaviors with AI, and subsequent impacts. Drawing on self-construal theory, this study investigates how AI awareness influences employees’ in-role and extra-role performance. A multi-time-point analysis of data from 353 questionnaires reveals that employees’ AI awareness affects their perceived overqualification, which subsequently influences reflection on AI usage and dependence on AI usage, ultimately shaping their in-role and extra-role performance. Furthermore, employee–AI collaboration moderates the relationship between AI awareness and perceived overqualification. This study elucidates the mechanisms and boundary conditions through which AI awareness impacts employees’ performance, offering a more comprehensive perspective on AI awareness research and providing practical implications for promoting its positive effects while mitigating its negative consequences.
... Methot et al. [39] argued that multiple relationships in the workplace create strong emotional bonds that enhance mutual trust. Trust has a significant impact on performance, drawing on Mayer and Gavin's [40] scale to construct a trust scale, which had an internal consistency coefficient of 0.80. ...
Objective
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of perceived organizational fairness, organizational identity, and trust on the intrinsic motivation for the professional development of university teachers. In addition, this study aims to verify the mediating role of organizational identity and trust.
Method
This study adopts a quantitative research methodology to investigate the relationship between perceived organizational fairness, organizational identity, trust, and intrinsic motivation in the professional development of university teachers by constructing and validating a structural equation model.
Result
The study shows that perceived organizational fairness has a significant positive effect on the intrinsic motivation for the professional development of university teachers. Moreover, it validates the mediating effects of organizational identity and trust in the relationship between perceived organizational fairness and intrinsic motivation for teachers’ professional development, shedding light on the psychological mechanisms underlying teachers’ professional development motivation.
Conclusion
Organizational identity and trust not only directly influence teachers’ intrinsic motivation for professional development but also serve as mediators in the relationship between perceived organizational fairness and intrinsic motivation. These findings have important implications for university management in promoting teachers’ professional development and enhancing educational quality.
... This study is expected to contribute to the literature, policymakers in higher education administration, university senior management, academics, and researchers. (Sias & Cahill, 1998) and provides emotional support (Methot et al., 2016). In this context, the network of professional relationships established by lecturers at the university in terms of workplace friendship is vital for their performance. ...
In the study, which was carried out to compare the perception of organizational power distance of the academic staff working at the university with the social networks they established with their colleagues at the university, the quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis processes were carried out simultaneously using the Convergent Parallel Design, one of the mixed methods research designs, and the results of the data analysis were integrated. This research compares the organizational power distance perceptions of the faculty members working at A University, a public university in Turkey, with the social networks they have established with their colleagues at the university. In the quantitative dimension of the research carried out with the mixed method, the research population consists of 1848 academic staff working at A University, one of the public universities in Turkey, in the 2020-2021 academic year. The research sample consists of 319 academic staff. 385 academic staff from 30 academic units, 14 faculties, and 16 colleges/vocational schools, were included in the research. In the qualitative dimension of the research, 27 of 34 academic staff working in the C Department of the B Faculty of the A University were included in the study group. Convergent Parallel Design was used in the research; within this context, the quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis processes were carried out simultaneously and the data analysis results were integrated. The quantitative data were analyzed with the SPSS 21 program, the participants' views on organizational power distance were analyzed with the MAXQDA 2022 program, and social network analysis data were analyzed with the UCINET 6.0 program. According to the research findings' conclusion, the academic staff 's general social network tendencies in the quantitative dimension were high, and the participants had the highest perception of "liking to connect. " It was determined that the academic staff 's general organizational power distance perceptions were at a moderate level, and the participants had the highest perception of "acquiescence of power. " Another conclusion was that the social network tendencies of academic staff did not differ according to the academic title variable. However, the organizational power distance differed significantly in favor of research assistants. It was revealed that there was no statistically significant relationship between the general social network tendencies of the academic staff and their perception of organizational power distance. In the qualitative dimension of the study, it was observed that the participants expressed their opinions on organizational power distance mostly in terms of accepting power and least in terms of consenting to power. Social network analysis revealed that the professional network had a denser structure than the friendship network, but the friendship network had more structured and stronger ties. In social networks, professors and research assistants were found to be at the center of the network. The study observed that the results of quantitative and qualitative data analysis confirmed each other at many points. This study is expected to contribute to the literature, policymakers in higher education management, university senior management, academics, and researchers.
... Employees who are deeply committed to their organization are more likely to adhere to ethical standards, as they align their personal values with the organization's values. A strong sense of commitment fosters a sense of responsibility and integrity, encouraging employees to act ethically even under pressure [18]. Organizations that successfully build commitment through supportive practices, recognition, and alignment with organizational goals are likely to see improved ethical behavior among their employees. ...
This study investigates the interplay between workplace fun, organizational commitment, and ethics in customer service, and their collective impact on employee performance. In customer service environments, where employee engagement and performance are critical, understanding how these factors interact can provide insights into improving both job satisfaction and overall service quality. Workplace fun encompasses activities and practices designed to create a positive and enjoyable work environment. It is increasingly recognized for its potential to boost employee morale, reduce stress, and enhance job satisfaction. This research examines how incorporating fun into the workplace influences employees' attitudes and behaviors, and how it interacts with organizational commitment to affect performance outcomes. Organizational commitment refers to the emotional attachment and dedication employees have towards their organization. High levels of organizational commitment are associated with increased job performance, reduced turnover, and greater alignment with organizational goals. This study explores how workplace fun and organizational commitment interact to enhance employee performance, highlighting the role of a supportive and engaging work environment in fostering commitment and driving performance. Ethics in customer service involves adhering to moral principles and standards in interactions with customers. Ethical behavior is crucial for maintaining trust, building customer loyalty, and ensuring positive brand reputation. This research investigates how ethical considerations in customer service are influenced by workplace fun and organizational commitment, and how these factors collectively impact employee performance. By analyzing these dynamics, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how integrating fun, commitment, and ethics can improve employee performance in customer service settings. The findings offer valuable insights for organizations seeking to enhance their customer service operations and create a more effective and positive work environment.
... The relationship between abusive leadership and emotional exhaustion is known (Hypothesis 1), but the author is now examining what this relationship will be when workplace friendship is high or low. According to the COR theory, workplace friendship reduces exhaustion, by its positive influence on the personal and organizational aspects; many researchers have investigated the impact of workplace friendship on relieving stress, increasing job satisfaction and supporting creativity, motivation and job engagement (Lee et al., 2022;Lu et al., 2017;Methot et al., 2016), while subordinates who have limited relationships and few opportunities to interact with friends will not be able to expand their social resources and maintain informal relationships (Rai and Agarwal, 2018a, b). ...
Purpose
This study uses the Conservation of Resource theory to examine the influence of abusive supervision on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) via emotional exhaustion, using a moderated mediation framework.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire was adapted to collect data from 212 full-time employees in 22 private health centers in Nineveh governorate in Iraq in two waves. Hypotheses were tested using hierarchical regression and bootstrapping analyses.
Findings
This study suggests that workplace friendship reduces the positive relationship between abusive supervision and emotional exhaustion of employees and reduces the negative indirect effect of abusive supervision on OCB.
Originality/value
First, this study provides academicians with a better understanding of the moderating effect of workplace friendship on the relationship between abusive supervision and emotional exhaustion and then its impact on OCB. Second, the paper is one of the few studies that dealt with the abusive supervision in the health sector using data from the Middle East in Iraq, while most leadership research is conducted in the western part of the world.
The current literature recognizes the important influence of corporate social responsibility (CSR) on individuals. However, the underlying process through which perceived external and internal CSR influences employee performance remains unclear. Drawing on cognitive appraisal theory, how perceived CSR influences employee job performance through work meaningfulness and organizational pride was analyzed. Also, the moderating effect of employee emotional exhaustion on the effectiveness of organizational pride was investigated. A two‐stage survey of 321 service employees in hotels in China found that external and internal corporate social responsibility positively affects job performance through work meaningfulness and organizational pride sequentially. Emotional exhaustion weakens the positive influences of organizational pride on employee performance.
The existing literature on job performance has largely neglected its effects on focal employees' behaviours. Taking an actor‐centric perspective and drawing upon self‐perception theory, this study explores whether, how, and when employee performance relates to unethical behaviour. Across two studies—a scenario‐based experiment (Study 1) and a multi‐wave field study (Study 2)—we test hypotheses (Study 2) and establish causality (Study 1). Specifically, the results reveal that employee job performance is positively related to psychological entitlement, which in turn triggers unethical behaviour. Furthermore, the relationship is stronger when employee agreeableness is low rather than high. Our findings offer important theoretical and practical implications.
This study aims to examine the influence of interpersonal relationships and leadership on employee retention, with work motivation as a mediating variable. Data were collected from 100 employees in the banking sector in Tulang Bawang Barat regency through Google Forms. The measurement method used was Structural Equation Modelling-Partial Least Square (SEM-PLS) using SmartPLS application. The findings of the study show that interpersonal relationships and leadership influence employee retention. In term of direct effects, interpersonal relationships significantly impact employee retention, whilst leadership showed an insignificant influence on employee retention. The output of the mediation analysis showed that work motivation significantly mediates the influence between interpersonal relationships and employee retention, whereas it showed an insignificant relationship between leadership and employee retention. As a recommendation, an open communication system should be implemented through weekly or monthly meeting involving all employees, where they are encouraged to express their opinions openly. Furthermore, the existing code of ethics need to be enforced, shared, and upheld through a system of sanctions for violations. Additionally, a formal support for the employees should be provided by recruiting an in-house counsellor. This study fills a gap in the literature, as no similar research has been conducted in banking sector located in a regency area. Moreover, it offers practical value to the industry in enhancing efforts to retain employee.
Despite resource-based theories espousing the virtues of supervisory family support (SFS), we question the definitiveness of an oversimplified assumption that receiving SFS is a beneficial, positive experience. We develop a model based on appraisal theories of emotion, with results from two experimental studies and a multi-wave survey study supporting our notion of the need for a more balanced view. First, SFS is positively linked to employees’ feelings of gratitude (a positive emotion) and indebtedness (a negative emotion). Second, gratitude mediates the link between SFS and approach job crafting. Yet—arguing that a key feature of SFS is that it empowers employees to temporarily disengage or withdraw from some work-related tasks—we also find that indebtedness mediates the link between SFS and avoidance job crafting. Third, considering employees’ work-family conflict (WFC) as a contextual factor that moderates the effects of SFS, we find that WFC conditions the indirect effect of SFS on avoidance job crafting via indebtedness. With these insights, our balanced view of SFS offers a more comprehensive assessment of employees’ lived experiences associated with the receipt of SFS.
Universities are known for their unique, intellectually stimulating culture, where leadership actions significantly shape the learning environment. This study examines the impact of academic leaders’ friendships on faculty members’ psychological well-being within public, private, and semigovernment universities in Pakistan. This research also investigates the roles of bullying behaviors by leaders’ friends and perceived ostracism among faculty members, alongside the moderating effects of resilience. Employing a quantitative research approach, a survey was designed by adopting validated scales from authentic sources. The questionnaire was distributed among approximately 200 faculty members of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Pakistan. Findings reveal that while bullying by leaders’ friends severely impacts faculty well-being, workplace ostracism does not show a similar effect. Furthermore, resilience does not moderate these negative consequences, offering intriguing insights into the complex dynamics of leadership and social interactions within Pakistani universities. The study recommends implementing policies to curb favoritism and bullying while introducing training programs to promote equitable leadership. However, its findings are limited by the cross-sectional design and lack of representation from some regions of Pakistan, suggesting a need for future research to include more diverse samples and explore qualitative insights into faculty experiences.
Social capital—the resources and goodwill of network contacts—can be activated to enhance employees’ performance, leadership effectiveness, careers, and overall organizational functioning. Despite years of research highlighting the role of networks in addressing business challenges, organizational solutions still overwhelmingly focus on enhancing individual knowledge and skills or changing formal organizational structures and processes. Shifts in the business environment make adding a social capital lens to the historical human capital lens no longer just “nice to do,” but an imperative. Employees and organizations will benefit from carefully considering network connections and intentional efforts to foster their development and use. By prioritizing intentional connections, organizations can create a virtuous cycle of opportunities and prevent a vicious cycle of overwhelm. This book guides practitioners in revealing novel insights using network analysis and creating impact by developing and leveraging organizational networks. The opening section provides readers with a strong foundation in network science. The remainder of the book includes review chapters and case studies in strategic application areas. Review chapters provide readers with a strong scientific grounding explaining why networks are important for each application area and the likely implications of revealing, developing, and leveraging networks. Cases provide inspiration and opportunities to learn from real-life experiences. Case authors share challenges faced, actions taken, and lessons learned from applying network science within organizations. This book aims to provide clearer links between the insights, actions, and outcomes practitioners can expect when revealing, developing, and leveraging organizational networks, demonstrating the powerful perspective that a social capital lens adds.
Social capital—the resources and goodwill of network contacts—can be activated to enhance employees’ performance, leadership effectiveness, careers, and overall organizational functioning. Despite years of research highlighting the role of networks in addressing business challenges, organizational solutions still overwhelmingly focus on enhancing individual knowledge and skills or changing formal organizational structures and processes. Shifts in the business environment make adding a social capital lens to the historical human capital lens no longer just “nice to do,” but an imperative. Employees and organizations will benefit from carefully considering network connections and intentional efforts to foster their development and use. By prioritizing intentional connections, organizations can create a virtuous cycle of opportunities and prevent a vicious cycle of overwhelm. This book guides practitioners in revealing novel insights using network analysis and creating impact by developing and leveraging organizational networks. The opening section provides readers with a strong foundation in network science. The remainder of the book includes review chapters and case studies in strategic application areas. Review chapters provide readers with a strong scientific grounding explaining why networks are important for each application area and the likely implications of revealing, developing, and leveraging networks. Cases provide inspiration and opportunities to learn from real-life experiences. Case authors share challenges faced, actions taken, and lessons learned from applying network science within organizations. This book aims to provide clearer links between the insights, actions, and outcomes practitioners can expect when revealing, developing, and leveraging organizational networks, demonstrating the powerful perspective that a social capital lens adds.
Social capital—the resources and goodwill of network contacts—can be activated to enhance employees’ performance, leadership effectiveness, careers, and overall organizational functioning. Despite years of research highlighting the role of networks in addressing business challenges, organizational solutions still overwhelmingly focus on enhancing individual knowledge and skills or changing formal organizational structures and processes. Shifts in the business environment make adding a social capital lens to the historical human capital lens no longer just “nice to do,” but an imperative. Employees and organizations will benefit from carefully considering network connections and intentional efforts to foster their development and use. By prioritizing intentional connections, organizations can create a virtuous cycle of opportunities and prevent a vicious cycle of overwhelm. This book guides practitioners in revealing novel insights using network analysis and creating impact by developing and leveraging organizational networks. The opening section provides readers with a strong foundation in network science. The remainder of the book includes review chapters and case studies in strategic application areas. Review chapters provide readers with a strong scientific grounding explaining why networks are important for each application area and the likely implications of revealing, developing, and leveraging networks. Cases provide inspiration and opportunities to learn from real-life experiences. Case authors share challenges faced, actions taken, and lessons learned from applying network science within organizations. This book aims to provide clearer links between the insights, actions, and outcomes practitioners can expect when revealing, developing, and leveraging organizational networks, demonstrating the powerful perspective that a social capital lens adds.
Attaining mutual trust between humans and agents is considered pivotal in designing effective human-AI interaction methodologies. This research aims to develop and validate a questionnaire to measure people’s perception of AI agents’ trust in them. Two studies with 1373 participants were conducted. Study 1 focused on human-vehicle cooperation, using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to develop the Perception of Being Trusted (PBT) scale, and the mediation analyses were performed to explore the mediation effect between the human’s propensity to trust and trust in the agent by PBT. Study 2 extended the scenario to human-AI cooperation, using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to validate the structure of PBT scale and path analysis were performed to explore the impact of PBT on behavioral intentions toward AI agents. Results confirm the PBT scale’s validity and predictive power, offering valuable insights into human psychological responses and promoting mutual trust in human-AI relationships.
Workplace relationships are a necessary and critical component of being able to perform one’s job and advance in one’s career. The personal and professional resources required for navigating relationships with dissimilar work colleagues can be particularly costly for those in minority groups who are most often different from their relational partners. Drawing from interviews conducted with Black women executives, we examined how these women experience relational triggers that emphasize their differences from others because of their limited numbers at their level. Our findings indicate that Black women executives respond to these relational triggers by engaging in perspective-taking and status reflexivity to understand others’, and their own, perspectives on the identity and status differentials present in the interaction. Through an introspective process, these women assess and address gaps in how they believe their partners see them and how they see themselves, which prompts them to either reduce or maintain perceived gaps depending on the importance of the interaction partner. We also explore how reducing or maintaining the perceived gap ultimately influences how Black women think, feel, or behave toward their relational partner (i.e., relational valence) in ways that may shape how they interpret future interactions. This study advances workplace relationships research by integrating intersectionality literature and by considering how minority perspective-taking and status reflexivity can be useful in navigating relationships across difference.
This study examines the daily relations among workplace anger, coping strategies, work outcomes, and employee dispositions using a conceptual framework based on affective events theory and cognitive perspectives on emotions. A sample of 214 full-time employees took part in a two-week study, contributing 1,611 daily observations through an experience sampling approach. Contrary to the assumption that workplace anger always detrimentally relates to work outcomes, the results showed a nonsignificant relation between workplace anger and workplace resource depletion, as well as a positive link between workplace anger and goal achievement. These relations were dependent on the coping strategies used by employees in response to anger-inducing situations, as well as their attitudes toward workplace affiliation. These findings suggest the need to expand affective events theory to include coping strategies as a mediator between affective responses and work outcomes. They also highlight the importance of integrating employee-level factors into organizational research models.
Purpose
Digital platform work monitored by algorithms is increasingly supplementing or substituting standard employment. Though gig workers are faced with the vulnerable, fragile and precarious digital platform work environment, the reason why gig workers remain highly willing to show good task performance has been so far unexamined. Building upon the reciprocity of the social exchange theory, this study aims to explore the antecedents and boundary condition of facilitating gig workers’ task performance.
Design/methodology/approach
First, to minimize common method variance, decline spurious mood effects and ensure data robustness, we conducted a two-wave time-lagged survey and collected 269 survey responses from gig workers on different gig platforms in China (e.g. Meituan, Eleme, Didi, Credamo, Zaihang) at two time nodes. Second, abiding by two stage procedures of the PLS-SEM (partial least square structural equation model) approach, we analyzed a moderated mediation model in the digital platform work context.
Findings
Results present that both platform work remuneration and flexibility help gig platforms develop an affective trust relationship with gig workers, thus encouraging them to repay the platform by performing platform tasks well. Algorithmic monitoring shows a “double-edged sword” moderating role since it weakens the indirectly positive relationship between platform work remuneration and task performance via affective trust but enhances the indirectly positive relationship between platform work flexibility and task performance via affective trust.
Practical implications
Understanding the importance of remuneration and flexibility in developing affective trust can help platforms design effective human resource management (HRM) strategies that enhance worker motivation of maintaining high engagement and performance under precarious working conditions. Additionally, optimizing the “double-edged sword” moderating role of algorithmic monitoring makes it more humanized, enhancing the efficiency with these HRM strategies and making both workers and platforms beneficial.
Originality/value
These findings offer an affective trust-based explanation for the mechanism of maintaining high work performance motivation in the nonstandard and precarious employment from the social exchange perspective, while understanding the (de)humanized aspect of algorithmic monitoring by revealing its “double-edged sword” moderating role.
In the digital age, online learning platforms utilizing advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence can provide more diverse and abundant educational resources compared to offline learning environments. However, online learners still face emotional expression and inertia trap problems. Knowledge co-creation virtual teachers (KCVTs) can solve the aforementioned difficulties, because they can increase the emotional interaction between learners and teachers and encourage learners to reduce inertia. But whether the above characteristics of KCVTs can affect learner creativity remains to be studied. Therefore, this study innovatively analyzes the impact of the technical characteristics of KCVTs, including the expertise of resource recommendation (ERR), familiarity with learners’ learning processes (FLLP) and heuristic interaction (HI), on learner creativity from a social facilitation perspective. Meanwhile, the mediating role of internal drive, namely perceived personalization (PP) and intrinsic motivation (IM), as well as the moderating effects of emotional support (ES) and incentive (IN), are considered. Ultimately, the proposed model is empirically tested using a sample of 296 users from existing learning communities. We find: (1) As the Social Facilitation theory suggests, the group factors of KCVTs influence creativity through different mechanisms: the ERR and HI of KCVTs stimulate learners’ creativity (R² = 0.46) through their PP (R² = 0.59) and IM (R² = 0.43), while the FLLP provided by KCVTs fosters learner creativity (R² = 0.46) through their PP (R² = 0.59) in online learning communities. (2) The interactive atmosphere and learning evaluation methods in online communities’ impact creativity. The ES (R² =0.333) provided by KCVTs and the IN (R² =0.348) from online learning communities enhance learners’ spontaneity in generating intrinsic motivation to overcome barriers, thereby fostering creativity. This study extends the social facilitation theory to the context of online learning, enriches the theoretical framework of individual creativity influence mechanisms and offers practical implications for the design and optimization of KCVTs in online learning platforms.
This study deduces the empowerment alignment in project governance through examining the roles of (in)congruence between empowering leadership and psychological empowerment in informal leadership emergence, creativity, and performance outcomes. Using the data from 210 members from 69 cross-functional project teams, the results of polynomial regression and response surface analyses indicate that the high congruence between empowering leadership and perceived empowerment enhances informal leadership emergence, then promotes creativity to facilitate performance outcomes eventually. Informal leadership emerged under the insufficient empowerment condition with higher psychological empowerment rather than the excessive empowerment condition with higher empowering leadership. The study added to the project governance body of knowledge by confirming the promoting mechanism for project performance from the congruence perspective of leader-given and subordinate-perceived empowerment.
Despite the widespread acceptance of executive coaching as a relational phenomenon, how these relationships play out in practice tends to be overlooked and under-researched. In this conceptual paper, we argue that the “caring, yet professionally distant” clinical approach to executive coaching is unrealistic. Challenging this approach, we propose a relational communication
perspective on coach-client friendship development, which we situate within the larger relational triad of coaches, leader-clients, and organizational sponsors/decision-makers/superiors. Adopting
micro and macro perspectives, we detail the forces that spark and sustain these friendships, including coaches' relational communication, the sincerity and instrumentality of coaches' relationship motives, and coaching's occupational characteristics. We consider the web of multiple relationships within which executive coaching occurs. Along the way, we discuss challenges to the practice of executive coaching as it relates to personal workplace relationships, and we discuss the ethical implications of these relationships. We conclude with provocative questions to guide future research and practice in both executive coaching and personal workplace relationship arenas.
We develop and test a more comprehensive theory of the sources and effects of workplace favoritism by drawing on a large, agency-wide sample of U.S. Federal Aviation Administration employees. We report how members of various underrepresented groups differ in their perceptions of a variety of sources of favoritism. We find that their perceptions of friendship favoritism are an important source of perception of workplace favoritism for all employees. We show that perceptions of favoritism are negatively associated with employee trust in their organizations and coworkers, commitment to their organizations, willingness to speak up, and pay satisfaction, with friendship favoritism significantly dominating over most other sources. Further, we find that team leaders, supervisors, managers, and executives, with their greater knowledge of organizational processes, report less favoritism. This and previous research provide practical guidance on how greater transparency may reduce employee perceptions of favoritism in the federal workforce while avoiding discredited formalistic constraints.
The history of cohesion introduction is refer to famous janowits and shills article about cohesion and rupture. This article was published in 1948. According to them, cohesion is a unique form of combat motivation that provides by interpersonal relationship and cohesion is means motivation. The purpose of this study is exploring and identifying factors providing group cohesion in military forces according to Imam Ali (p) statements in Nahj-Albalagheh. The study type is application and for extract factors and confirmation of them, mix method was used. In qualitative section, with coding of Imam Ali (p) statements, 31 main code for creating group cohesion was identified and in quantitative section with regard to the qualitative sections data, 243 respondents was completed the researcher made questionnaire. To determine the sample size, Cochran formula was used. Questionnaire validation was confirmed by content and structure methods with structural equation modelling. Questionnaire reliability was confirmed by cronbach alpha. Results show that inter-organizational and out of organization factors creating the group cohesion. Governor, administrator and people is about out of organization factors and commanders, military personnel and staffing system is about inter-organizational factors. Among them, commanders have the most effect and people has the least effect on creation group cohesion.
Keywords
Group cohesion Nahj-albajagheh Military forces
Sport Management provides an insightful overview of the sport management discipline. The collection includes influential articles and chapters from leading scholars in the field, covering a wide array of issues. In adopting a multilevel approach, this volume explores this topical field and addresses sport management issues at the societal, organisational and individual level.
Along with a new and original introduction, this essential single volume is an indispensable tool for scholars and practitioners alike.
To better understand the role of affect in organizational task-related networks, we developed a theory of affective primacy that identifies cognitive and motivational mechanisms through which the affective value of a social relationship (a feeling of positive affect from interactions with a colleague) operates as an antecedent of perceived instrumental value (a subjective evaluation of a relationship's contribution to accomplishing assigned tasks). We tested this theory with full-network data collected over three years from employees in a small functional-form organization, which we analyzed with a methodology drawing from the social relations model of interpersonal perception and Bayesian models for social network analysis. We found that, over time, the affective value of social relationships influences both perceptions of instrumental value and the formation of task-related ties through multiple paths not accounted for by either perceived instrumental value or formal-structural requirements. We also show that the emergence of task-related networks rests primarily on high-activation positive emotions, such as excitement (a subjective state of feeling energized) rather than positive emotions with lower levels of activation, such as pleasantness (a subjective state of feeling gratified). We discuss implications of these findings for organizational theory and managerial practice.
Purpose We examine the bi-directional nature of role segmentation preferences—preferences to protect the home domain from work intrusions, and to protect the work domain from home intrusions—and hypothesize that the dimensions independently prompt individuals to manage their boundaries in ways that complement their preferences. Design and Methodological Approach In a series of three studies, we investigate whether segmentation preferences vary on two dimensions, how they reflect enactive and proactive boundary management, and their association with domain-specific satisfaction and performance. Findings In Study 1 (field design, n = 314), we confirmed that segmentation preferences comprise two distinct dimensions, and individuals experience fewer intrusions into the domain they desired to protect. In Study 2 (experimental design, n = 1253), we found that participants who prefer to protect their home domain are less inclined to accept jobs in scenarios where their significant other is employed in the same organization, and participants who prefer to protect their work domain are less inclined to initiate a romantic relationship in scenarios that involve a coworker. In Study 3 (field design, n = 65), we found that individuals who prefer to protect their work or home domain report greater satisfaction with the preferred domain, and whereas the preference to protect the work domain is not associated with higher supervisor ratings of job performance, preference to protect the home domain is associated with higher significant-other ratings of non-work performance. Implications Understanding employees’ proclivities to blur boundaries can inform recruitment and selection of employees to anticipate organizational fit, diagnose sources of misfit, structure individualized policies to ameliorate employee strain, and decrease turnover costs. Originality/Value This synthesis provides a unique investigation of segmentation preference dimensions’ differential functioning and reinforces the validity of the role segmentation preferences concept.
Recent models of unethical behavior have begun to examine the combination of characteristics of individuals, issues, and organizations. We extend this examination by addressing a largely ignored perspective that focuses on the relationships among actors. Drawing on social network analysis, we generate propositions concerning types of relationships (strength, multiplexity, asymmetry, and status) and the structure of relationships (structural holes, centrality, and density). We also consider the combination of the type and structure of relationships and how this embeddedness perspective relates to social contagion and conspiracies.
In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.
We introduce social networks theory and methods as a way of understanding mentoring in the current career context. We first introduce a typology of "developmental networks" using core concepts from social networks theory-network diversity and tie strength-to view mentoring as a multiple relationship phenomenon. We then propose a framework illustrating factors that shape developmental network structures and offer propositions focusing on the developmental consequences for individuals having different types of developmental networks in their careers. We conclude with strategies both for testing our propositions and for researching multiple developmental relationships further.
We explore the structure and content of developmental networks depicted in 62
National Baseball Hall of Fame induction speeches to identify which developers and
what support mattered most to inductees’ career achievement. Our analysis illustrates
two new support subfunctions (“freedom and opportunity for skill development” and
“inspiration and motivation”) and shows that first-ballot inductees had larger, more
diverse developmental networks featuring greater multiplexity and more single-function
ties, plus greater supplementary psychosocial and complementary career support
from a wider range of core and peripheral career communities, than later-ballot
inductees. We conclude with a theoretical model of extraordinary career achievement.
In two studies, we develop and test theory about the relationship between speaking up, one type of organizational citizenship behavior, and unit performance by accounting for where employee voice is flowing. Results from a qualitative study of managers and professionals across a variety of industries suggest that voice to targets at different formal power levels (peers or superiors) and locations in the organization (inside or outside a focal unit) differs systematically in terms of its usefulness in generating actions to a unit’s benefit on the issues raised and in the likely information value of the ideas expressed. We then theorize how distinct voice flows should be differentially related to unit performance based on these core characteristics and test our hypotheses using time-lagged field data from 801 employees and their managers in 93 units across nine North American credit unions. Results demonstrate that voice flows are positively related to a unit’s effectiveness when they are targeted at the focal leader of that unit—who should be able to take action—whether from that leader’s own subordinates or those in other units, and negatively related to a unit’s effectiveness when they are targeted at coworkers who have little power to effect change. Together, these studies provide a structural framework for studying the nature and impact of multiple voice flows, some along formal reporting lines and others that reflect the informal communication structure within organizations. This research demonstrates that understanding the potential performance benefits and costs of voice for leaders and their units requires attention to the structure and complexity of multiple voice flows rather than to an undifferentiated amount of voice.
In-depth interviews with business school faculty members suggest that work relationships are more than strategically chosen means to career mobility. Relationships are career-defining ends as well, and negative relationships may be as consequential as helpful ties. Findings also showed significant gender differences: women, more than men, told stories about harm; men, more than women, told stories about help. Workplace relationships may play different roles for professionals and managers, and men's and women's different relational experiences may foster different career logics, or ways of striving for success.
This study seeks to identify workplace conditions that influence the degree to which employees feel worn out, tired, or on edge attributed to engaging in organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and also how this phenomenon, which we refer to as citizenship fatigue, is associated with future occurrences of OCB. Using data collected from 273 employees and their peers at multiple points in time, we found that the relationship between OCB and citizenship fatigue depends on levels of perceived organizational support, quality of team-member exchange relationships, and pressure to engage in OCB. Specifically, the relationship between OCB and citizenship fatigue is significantly stronger and positive when perceived organizational support is low, and it is significantly stronger and negative when the quality of team-member exchange is high and pressure to engage in OCB is low. Our results also indicate that citizenship fatigue is negatively related to subsequent acts of OCB. Finally, supplemental analyses reveal that the relationship between OCB and citizenship fatigue may vary as a function of the specific facet of OCB. We conclude with a discussion of the key theoretical and practical implications of our findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Our knowledge economy operates on the complexities of connections. All individuals, teams, communities, systems, and other business assets are massively interconnected in an evolving economic ecosystem. In the connected economy, each network actor is embedded in a larger eco- nomic web that affects each participant and, in return, is influenced by that participant. In such a connected system we can no longer focus on the performance of individual actors – we must focus on system outcomes. The key is per- formance of the connected whole.
Acritical omission in the coworker influence literature is how a coworker influences a closely related (focal) employee's job performance behaviors and whether this influence is contingent on that coworker's own behaviors. By integrating social information processing and social cognitive theories with social exchange and role theories, we hypothesize that there are, at least, three distinct types of coworker dyadic influence. Accordingly, we developed and tested a moderated mediation model to explicate such influence. Two multisource, field-design studies conducted in Hong Kong support the modeled relationships in that employee role ambiguity partially mediated the relationships between coworker-employee exchange and two types of employee job performance behaviors-task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Furthermore, coworker OCB fostered employee job performance behavior both directly and interactively, acting as a moderator to weaken the relationships between employee role ambiguity and the two types of job performance behaviors.
Using a resource allocation framework, I propose that the time individuals allocate to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) may come at the expense of task performance. Because most reward systems favor task performance, individuals may unintentionally hurt their careers by helping the organization. The question then becomes how individuals can engage in OCB and still have positive career outcomes. I explore a number of organizational, situational, and individual variables that may moderate this relationship and suggest implications and future research directions.
An examination of the literature on conflict between work and family roles suggests that work-family conflict exists when: (a) time devoted to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements
of another; (b) strain from participation in one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; and (c) specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another. A model of work-family conflict is proposed, and a series of research propositions is presented.
Scholars of the theory of the firm have begun to emphasize the sources and conditions of what has been described as “the organizational advantage,” rather than focus on the causes and consequences of market failure. Typically, researchers see such organizational advantage as accruing from the particular capabilities organizations have for creating and sharing knowledge. In this article we seek to contribute to this body of work by developing the following arguments: (1) social capital facilitates the creation of new intellectual capital; (2) organizations, as institutional settings, are conducive to the development of high levels of social capital; and (3) it is because of their more dense social capital that firms, within certain limits, have an advantage over markets in creating and sharing intellectual capital. We present a model that incorporates this overall argument in the form of a series of hypothesized relationships between different dimensions of social capital and the main mechanisms and processes necessary for the creation of intellectual capital.
Examines the psychological processes involved in answering different types of survey questions. The book proposes a theory about how respondents answer questions in surveys, reviews the relevant psychological and survey literatures, and traces out the implications of the theories and findings for survey practice. Individual chapters cover the comprehension of questions, recall of autobiographical memories, event dating, questions about behavioral frequency, retrieval and judgment for attitude questions, the translation of judgments into responses, special processes relevant to the questions about sensitive topics, and models of data collection. The text is intended for: (1) social psychologists, political scientists, and others who study public opinion or who use data from public opinion surveys; (2) cognitive psychologists and other researchers who are interested in everyday memory and judgment processes; and (3) survey researchers, methodologists, and statisticians who are involved in designing and carrying out surveys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Theories of team processes have focused on content and temporal relevance, while largely ignoring implications of structure. We apply social network concepts to propose theory that articulates structural configurations of taskwork and teamwork processes in terms of closure, centralization, and subgrouping. Our theory challenges the conventional view that increases in team processes are inherently and uniformly beneficial and explains how structural configurations involve trade-offs that must be acknowledged in our research and practice.
This paper examines the overlap between competition and friendship in networks, an instance of multiplexity that we call the grand duality. We show that managers differ systematically in whether they perceive their friends as competitors. Structure matters, in that managers are more likely to see friends who are the same sex, in the same work unit, of the same rank, and share many common friends, as competitors. Recognition of the grand duality matters for networkers, as those who see more competitor friends at work gain more useful information for better performance and report higher job satisfaction.
Researchers for decades have believed that trust increases performance, but empirical evidence of this has been sparse. This study investigates the relationship between an employee’s trust in the plant manager and in the top management team with the employee’s in-role performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). Results support a fully mediated model in which trust in both management referents was positively related to focus of attention, which, in turn, was positively related to performance. The results raise questions about appropriate levels of analysis for outcome variables. Trust is mandatory for optimization of a system.... Without trust, each component will protect its own immediate interests to its own long-term detriment, and to the detriment of the entire system.- W. Edwards Deming (1994) Over three decades ago, Argyris (1964) proposed that trust in management is important for organizational performance. Recognition of the importance of trust in organizational relationships has grown rapidly in recent years, evidenced by a large number of publications on the topic addressing both academic and practitioner audiences (e.g., Annison & Wilford, 1998; Fukuyama, 1995; Mishra, 1996; Shaw, 1997). In spite of this interest, difficulties in defining and operationalizing trust have hampered the empirical study of its relationship with performance.
This study began with the premise that people can use varying degrees of their selves. physically. cognitively. and emotionally. in work role performances. which has implications for both their work and experi ences. Two qualitative. theory-generating studies of summer camp counselors and members of an architecture firm were conducted to explore the conditions at work in which people personally engage. or express and employ their personal selves. and disengage. or withdraw and defend their personal selves. This article describes and illustrates three psychological conditions-meaningfulness. safety. and availabil ity-and their individual and contextual sources. These psychological conditions are linked to existing theoretical concepts. and directions for future research are described. People occupy roles at work; they are the occupants of the houses that roles provide. These events are relatively well understood; researchers have focused on "role sending" and "receiving" (Katz & Kahn. 1978). role sets (Merton. 1957). role taking and socialization (Van Maanen. 1976), and on how people and their roles shape each other (Graen. 1976). Researchers have given less attention to how people occupy roles to varying degrees-to how fully they are psychologically present during particular moments of role performances. People can use varying degrees of their selves. physically, cognitively, and emotionally. in the roles they perform. even as they main tain the integrity of the boundaries between who they are and the roles they occupy. Presumably, the more people draw on their selves to perform their roles within those boundaries. the more stirring are their performances and the more content they are with the fit of the costumes they don. The research reported here was designed to generate a theoretical frame work within which to understand these "self-in-role" processes and to sug gest directions for future research. My specific concern was the moments in which people bring themselves into or remove themselves from particular task behaviors, My guiding assumption was that people are constantly bring ing in and leaving out various depths of their selves during the course of The guidance and support of David Berg, Richard Hackman, and Seymour Sarason in the research described here are gratefully acknowledged. I also greatly appreciated the personal engagements of this journal's two anonymous reviewers in their roles, as well as the comments on an earlier draft of Tim Hall, Kathy Kram, and Vicky Parker.
In this volume, William K. Rawlins traces and investigates the varieties, tensions, and functions of friendship for males and females throughout the life course: how they are managed communicatively, and how they infl uence and refl ect their participants' continually evolving senses of self, relationships, and community. He argues that friendship inherently involves certain dialectical tensions within the larger culture, between friends, and within and across the stages of the life cycle. He also examines notions and meanings of friendship: ethical, civic, romantic, utilitarian, and mundane.
Drawing on an episodic perspective of work, I argue that there is unaccounted-for variability in the nature of a caregiver's client interactions such that some are experienced as more restorative than depleting. This paper outlines the foundations of such variability through simultaneous consideration of the extent to which a given interaction is 1) depleting of regulatory resources; and 2) generative of three particular resources (positive affect, perceived prosocial impact, and self-affirmation) that have been shown to compensate for the effects of ego depletion. Beyond the depleting interactions that have been the focus of research to-date, the resulting typology reveals two restorative interaction types (replenishing and breakthrough) that are theorized to positively shape compassionate care provision in both the short- and long-term, with related implications for caregiver burnout. Replenishing interactions primarily serve as a regulatory break with momentary effects on caregivers' subsequent ability to self-regulate, while breakthrough interactions have a more lasting effect on caregivers' positive professional identity. This framework provides new insights around work recovery processes by articulating how restorative experiences may be concurrent with the accomplishment of work. It also suggests a more nuanced alternative to the long-held view of client interactions as solely a source of caregiver depletion.
Research on burnout has considered client interactions solely as depleting, with work recovery possible only while employees are off the job. Drawing on an episodic perspective of work, I argue that there is unaccounted for variability in the nature of a caregiver's client interactions such that some are actually restorative rather than depleting. I outline the foundations of such variability through simultaneous consideration of the extent to which a given interaction is (1) depleting of regulatory resources and (2) generative of three particular resources shown to compensate for the effects of ego depletion. Beyond the depleting interactions that have been the focus of research to date, the resulting typology reveals two restorative interaction types (replenishing and breakthrough) that I theorize positively shape compassionate care provision in both the short and long term. Replenishing interactions primarily serve as a regulatory break with momentary effects on caregivers' subsequent ability to self regulate, while breakthrough interactions have a more lasting effect on caregivers' positive professional identity. This framework articulates how restorative experiences may be concurrent with the accomplishment of work and provides a more nuanced alternative to the long-held view of client interactions as a source of caregiver depletion.
This study examines the effects of five attributes - authority, education, sex, race, and branch assignment - on the proximities among the members of five professional organizations in networks of instrumental and primary relations. Sex and race are found to have greater influence on primary ties than instrumental ties. While there is some evidence in two organizations that authority and education affect instrumental ties more than primary ties, the data as a whole favor the hypothesis that these two attributes, which are associated with position in the formal division of labor, give rise to both instrumental and primary ties. These attributes generally serve to place high status persons in central network positions. In one organization where these attributes prove to have little predictive power, we examine the effects on network form of a conflict which led to the disintegration of the organization shortly after it was surveyed. The factions into which the organization was divided are readily apparent in a spatial representation of the network. In conclusion we review the implications for organizational theory and research of the attribute analysis in conjunction with the case study findings.
In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.
The decomposition of effects in structural equation models has been of considerable interest to social scientists. Finite-sample or asymptotic results for the sampling distribution of estimators of direct effects are widely available. Statistical inferences about indirect effects have relied exclusively on asymptotic methods which assume that the limiting distribution of the estimator is normal, with a standard error derived from the delta method. We examine bootstrap procedures as another way to generate standard errors and confidence intervals and to estimate the sampling distributions of estimators of direct and indirect effects. We illustrate the classical and the bootstrap methods with three empirical examples. We find that in a moderately large sample, the bootstrap distribution of an estimator is close to that assumed with the classical and delta methods but that in small samples, there are some differences. Bootstrap methods provide a check on the classical and delta methods when the latter are applied under less than ideal conditions.
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
“Multiplexity” is the overlap of roles, exchanges, or affiliations in a social relationship. In two cities, adult friendship
dyads are examined for multiplexity in three affiliations: kin, neighbor, and coworker. Several factors are proposed to account
for multiplex ties: limited opportunities for social contact; preference for the special similarities that kin, neighbors,
and coworkers have; and preference for holistic and diffuse friendships. Two structural features are discovered: repetition
of multiplexity, and segregation of affiliations. These mean that if multiplexity appears in one friendship, it tends to be
repeated in others. But the categories kin, neighbor, and coworker seldom appear in the same friendship. Repetition and segregation
are demonstrated by comparing observed friendships with expectations from a random-choice model. When social and demographic
differentials in multiplexity are examined, they confirm the importance of both opportunities and preferences in motivating
multiplex friendships. Consequences of multiplexity for friendship behavior are hypothesized, and one consequence (contact
frequency) is analyzed. Neighbor multiplexity increases friendship contact, a reflection of high opportunities for contact
among neighbor friends. Kin and coworker multiplexity do not increase friendship contact.
Although foundational organization theory recognized the role of both formal and informal elements, for the past two decades scholarship appears to have primarily attended to the role of informal social structures (i.e. social networks) in explaining organizational functioning. This trend, however, has left a disconnect between the literatures on formal organization and informal social structure such that crucial questions and problems at the intersection of the two streams of research have been neglected. In this essay, we make the case for rediscovering the inherent interplay between formal organization and informal social structure given their common basis of interactions in organizations. We argue that by bridging the gap between formal organization and informal social structure scholarship we can advance our understanding of both the origins and evolution of social networks and the design and effective functioning of organizations. As a first step towards achieving greater integration of research on formal organization and informal social structure we: consolidate existing scholarly understanding in this area, profile the few studies that have begun to bridge the disconnect between formal and informal elements, identify conceptual logics for linking formal and informal elements, and propose an agenda for future research.
An extensive body of knowledge exists on network outcomes and on how network structures may contribute to the creation of outcomes at different levels of analysis, but less attention has been paid to understanding how and why organizational networks emerge, evolve, and change. Improved understanding of network dynamics is important for several reasons, perhaps the most critical being that the understanding of network outcomes is only partial without an appreciation of the genesis of the network structures that resulted in such outcomes. To provide a context for the papers in this special issue, and with the broader goal of furthering network dynamics research, we present a framework that begins by discussing the meaning and role of network dynamics and goes on to identify the drivers and key dimensions of network change as well as the role of time in this process. We conclude with theoretical and methodological issues that researchers need to address in this domain.
1. Introduction 2. Respondents' understanding of survey questions 3. The role of memory in survey responding 4. Answering questions about date and durations 5. Attitude questions 6. Factual judgments and numerical estimates 7. Attitude judgments and context effects 8. Mapping and formatting 9. Survey reporting of sensitive topics 10. Mode of data collection 11. Impact of the application of cognitive models to survey measurement.