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Introduction
The mixed martial arts (MMA) is among the sports with
higher spectators increase in the world. This fact can be
observed in growth of exposure on media and increased
num ber of practitioners and spectators [1]. This sport is com-
posed by combination of boxing, Muay Thai, karate, taek-
wondo, wrestling, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo and other disciplines
specific techniques. Nowadays, the MMA is practiced in vari-
ous countries being the sixth more popular sport in United
States of America [2]. Despite the notoriety achieved, few
studies aimed to investigate the different fields of this sport.
Among the studies that have been conducted involving MMA,
most focused on the injuries happened during combat [2-5].
In many sports, especially in combat sports, the athletes
are divided according to body mass. This strategy is adopted
to leave the disputes more balanced. However, it is common-
ly observed that athletes conduct some arrangements to
reduce large amounts of body mass to move to lighter cate-
gories, in an attempt to compete against smaller and weaker
opponents [6]. In fact, there are data indicating that boxers
[7,8], judokas [9,10], wrestlers [11], Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes
[9-12], taekwondo athletes [13,14] and karate athletes [9]
adopt methods to reduce the body mass prior to a competi-
tion, but no study has been conducted involving the MMA.
This practice can be harmful, because it negatively alters
the humor profile, sports performance and health, especially
when the magnitude of reduced mass is high [6,15]. It is not
difficult to find reports of combat sports athletes reducing a
large percentage of body mass. For example, in university
level Olympic wrestling (n = 63), 89% of the athletes reported
to be engaged in some procedure to reduce body mass prior
125
Weight loss in mixed martial arts
athletes
Leonardo Vidal Andreato1(A,C,D), Thaís Vidal Andreato2(B,D),
Jonatas Ferreira da Silva Santos1(C,D), João Victor Del Conti Esteves2(B,D),
Solange Marta Franzói de Moraes2(D,E), Emerson Franchini1(A,D)
1Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo,
São Paulo, Brazil
2Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Human Physiology Department, University State of Maringá, Maringá, Brazil
Key words: combat sports, blood lactate, weight loss, profile of mood states, osmolality
Summary
Introduction. The aim of this study was to analyze the magnitude and methods of weight loss among MMA fighters and the
influence of this practice in hydration and profile of mood state.
Material and methods. The sample was composed by eight MMA fighters during a professional MMA competition, but only
five athletes finished all procedures. To evaluate the weight loss prevalence, magnitude and methods it was applied the Rapid
Weight Loss Questionnaire adapted to MMA. Saliva samples were taken in the official weigh-in and one hour before of the com-
bats to estimate the salivary osmolality. To evaluate the profile of mood states the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) was applied.
Results. The results showed that all participants already had lost weight to take part in another event. The athletes reported
that they always adopted as method to lose weight: to make more exercise (50 %) and reduce food intake of liquids (37.5 %).
The dangers methods to health were cited by athletes in the following sequence: use of diuretics (37.5%), sauna (37.5%), train-
ing intentionally in heated training rooms (50 %) and use of diet pills (12.5%). In the competition analyzed 88% of athletes reduced
their body mass (4.5 ± 4.2 kg, 5.4 ± 4.3 %) to compete. The salivary osmolality did not show significant difference between weigh-
in (55.6 ± 30.7 mOsmol/kg H2O) and pre-match moment (40.2 ± 27.9 mOsmol/kg H2O). The profile of mood states did not change
between the weigh-in (tension: 1.2 ± 1.8, depression: 0 ± 0, anger: 1.2 ± 1.6, vigour: 14.0 ± 0.7, fatigue: 2.6 ± 5.3, confusion:
0.2 ± 0.4) and the pre-match moment (tension: 2.6 ± 2.2, depression: 0 ± 0, anger: 1.4 ± 1.9, vigour: 15.6 ± 0.5, fatigue: 0.0,
confusion: 2.8 ± 3.9).
Conclusions. The conclusion is that there is a great prevalence of weight loss in MMA athletes in this sample. Furthermore,
dangers methods to health are or were practiced to reduce the body mass to compete.
SHORT REPORT
Journal of Combat Sports and Martial Arts
© MEDSPORTPRESS, 2014; 2(2); Vol. 5, 125-131
DOI: 10.5604/20815735.1141986
to competition, and 41% of the athletes reported weight fluc-
tuations from 5.0 to 9.1 kg in an one week period [16].
Furthermore, attention should be given to the methods
used. Accordingly, a large portion adopts rapid weight loss,
using harmful methods such as dehydration, induced vomit-
ing, fasting (not eating all day), exercise with rubber/plastic
suits to increase sweating, sauna, diet pills, laxatives and diu re -
tics [10]. Extreme cases are reported among combat sports ath-
letes, like the death of three young North-American collegiate in
the same period because dehydration and hyperthermia [17].
Given this scenario, proposals arise to inhibit such prac-
tices [18]. Those include reducing the interval between weigh-
ing and the first match [18]. Since the MMA presents weight
categories and the time interval between the weighing and
the combat is long, commonly between 24 and 48 hours, this
study creates the possibility that athletes from this sport
decreased their body mass due to the prolonged time of
recovery, making use of one or more harmful methods to their
health. Based on the theorical framework presented prior, the
aim of this case study was to analyze the magnitude and
methods of weight loss among MMA fighters and the influ-
ence of this practice on hydration and profile of mood state in
a real competition setting.
Material and methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The subjects were evaluated during a MMA professional
competition period. The collected date happening in the first
day, when the athletes participated in weighing and the sali-
vary sample was obtained after the competitive day. The Bru -
nel Mood Scale and saliva samples were collected during the
official weigh-in, which occurred approximately 24 h before of
the fights and 1 h before the combats. The Rapid Weight Loss
Questionnaire was applied once after weighing.
Sample
The sample was composed by eight MMA fighters (age: 22
± 5 years old, body mass: 74.3 ± 8.1 kg, height: 1.77 ± 0.05 m).
They had 7.4 ± 5.1 years of experience in combat sports, but
only 3.4 ± 3.3 years of regular and systematic practice in MMA
and competed in this sport for 2.3 ± 2.8 years, with experience
in regional and national competitions. From the total sample,
five subjects (age: 23 ± 6 years old, body mass: 76.9 ± 7.7 kg,
height: 1.79 ± 0.03 m) answered a Brunel Mood Scale and had
their saliva collected during the official weigh-in, which occurred
24 h before the fights and 1 h before their combats. The data
were collected during a professional MMA competition. All sub-
jects were informed about the study procedures, and all signed
consent forms. This study was approved by the local ethics
committee and is in accordance with the declaration of Helsinki.
Procedures
Body mass. For this variable the measure obtained dur-
ing the official weigh-in, conducted in a portable balance, was
considered. The report given by the athletes was used to cal-
culate the weight lost.
Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire (RWLQ). To verify the
magnitude and methods used to rapid weight loss a ques-
tionnaire developed and validated to judo was applied [19],
after adaptation to MMA. The questionnaire contains 20 ques-
tions and is divided in three parts. In the first part the subjects
are characterized, in the second part the prevalence and the
magnitude to rapid weight loss are quantified, and in third part
the methods more often used to lose weight by MMA athletes
are described. With the aim of facilitate the comparison, it was
assigned a score to responses so that the greater the score
of the subject, more dangerous is their behavior for weight
loss. The point system was previously described [19].
Saliva collection and biochemical analysis. Samples were
collected using cotton to stimulate salivation, which was chew -
ed for about 1 min. The saliva samples were centrifuged at
3.000 rpm (4°C, 15 minutes) and stored in Eppendorf tubes
and frozen at -20°C until their analysis. The salivary osmolality
was estimated by duplicate in Wescor Vapro 5520®osmometer.
Profile of mood states. To evaluate the profile of mood states
of the athletes the Brunel Mood Scale (Brums) was applied [20].
Statistical Analysis
The data were statistically analyzed using GraphPad 3.0®
and SPSS 20®softwares and are presented as mean (M), stan-
dard deviation (SD), 95% confidence interval (CI 95%), range
(minimum and maximal values) and frequency (%). Normality
was accessed with the use of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. A
comparison across the different time points was performed by
conducting a Student’s t test or Wilcoxon test depending on the
normality or non-normality of the data, respectively. Kruskal-
Wallis test followed by Dunn post hoc was used to compare the
components of the profile of mood states (BRUMS).
To evaluate the magnitude of difference the Cohen´s
effect size was calculated. Threshold values to determine the
effect size were <0.2 (small), >0.2 and <0.8 (moderate) and
>0.8 (large) [21]. Pearson´s or Spearman’s correlations coef-
ficients were calculated in order to study the relationship be -
tween weight loss, rapid weight loss questionnaire and osmo-
lality, depending on the normality or non-normality of the data,
respectively. The α level was set previously at 5%.
Results
All athletes already had reduced weight to previous com-
petitions (Table 1). During the competition analyzed, seven
athletes (88%) reduced the body mass to compete (4.5 ± 4.2
kg, 5.4 ± 4.3 %).
The methods to weight loss reported by athletes are show
in table 2. Among the methods utilized some are considered
dangerous to health.
The figure 1 presents the salivary osmolality during the
weighing and before MMA combats.
There was no statistical difference between weigh-in (55.6
± 30.7 mOsmol/kg H2O) and pre-match (40.2 ± 27.9 mOsmol/
Andreato L.V. et al. Weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes: a case study
126
Andreato L.V. et al. Weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes: a case study
127
Fig. 1. Grouped (panel A) and individual (panel B) salivary osmolality responses during weight-in and one hour before the mixed martial arts competition (n=5)
Tab. 1. Weight loss history reported by the mixed martial arts athletes (n=8)
Tab. 2. Frequency analysis of the weight loss methods reported by the mixed martial arts fighters (n=8)
kg H2O) (t = 0.80, p = 0.47, effect size = 0.53), probably be cause
a h
igh variation was observed among the athletes investigated.
The figure 2 presents the correlation between absolute
(kg) and relative (%) weight loss with the salivary osmolality
(mOsmol/kg H2O).
The correlation between osmolality and weight loss was
not significant for both absolute and relative weight lost.
The figure 3 presents the profile of mood of MMA athletes
during official weighing before competition.
Concerning the profile of mood during the weighing, the
athletes presented higher scores for vigor than for tension (p
< 0.05), depression (p < 0.001) and angry (p < 0.05). The ath-
letes presented the “iceberg” profile with higher values in ten-
sion. No significant difference was found between weigh-in (ten -
sion
: 1.2 ± 1.8, depression: 0 ± 0, anger: 1.2 ± 1.6, vigour: 14.0
± 0.7, fatigue: 2.6 ± 5.3, confusion: 0.2 ± 0.4) and pre-match
(tension: 2.6 ± 2.2, depression: 0 ± 0, anger: 1.4 ± 1.9, vi gour:
15.6 ± 0.5, fatigue: 0.0, confusion: 2.8 ± 3.9). No correlations
were found between profile of mood and weigth loss.
Discussion
The results indicated that all professional MMA athletes
taking part in this competition already reduced their body
mass to compete, while seven athletes (88%) did the same
for this competition. However, the salivary osmolality showed
no significant difference between the weight and pre-match,
probably because there was a high variation in the response
for the different athletes or because the time between weight-
ing and competition was long enough for recovery of this vari-
able. The profile of mood did not change between the time of
weighing and pre-match. The methods used predominantly
among athletes was to increase the amount of exercise and
reduce the liquid ingest. Different harmful methods to health
were cited by athletes, whose the following were the most
reported: taking diuretics, staying in saunas, training inten-
tionally in heated training rooms and taking diet pills.
Although our sample was quite small, the percentage of
athletes reducing body mass observed in this study was similar
to that described by Steen e Brownell [16], in research with
American college wrestlers (n = 63), in which it was pointed out
that 89% of athletes already reduced body mass. In judo,
research conducted with 607 men and 215 women reported
that 86% of the sample had reduced body mass to compete,
and when heavyweight category (category no weight limit,
>100kg) was excluded this percentage rose to 89% [10].
One of possible cause that encourage athletes to reduce
their body mass is the relatively long time between the weigh-
Andreato L.V. et al. Weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes: a case study
128
Fig. 3. Profile of mood of mixed martial arts athletes (n = 5) during the weighing (n = 8; panel A) and (B) during the weighing and before match (panel B)
Fig. 2. Correlations (n = 8) between absolute weight lost (kg) and salivary osmolality (mOsmol/kg H2O) (panel A) and relative weight lost (%) and salivary osmo-
lality (mOsmol/kg H2O) (panel B)
ing and the combat. To inhibit this practice a simple organiza-
tional action is to reduce this time interval [18]. In a fact, the
recovery time between the weighing and competition is rela-
tively long in many combat sports. In judo, during state com-
petition the interval varied between 2.5 to 5 hour [22] and in
taekwondo between 16 to 20 hours [13]. In MMA, although
there are no surveys published, it is observed that the inter-
vals are typically between 24 to 48 hours.
This hypothesis that the decreased recovery interval time
can inhibit the practice of weight loss among athletes can be
sustained given the data obtained in one study conducted
with 120 (14 women and 106 men) Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes
Brazilian, in which the weight loss prevalence reported was
only 29% [23]. However, subsequent research has found that
among national and international level athletes the preva-
lence was higher (50%), while for regional level Brazilian jiu-
jitsu athletes it was 62.5% [9]. This prevalence presented by
Brazilian jiu-jittsu is lower than previously reported in other
combat sports, probably because the time interval between
weigh in and competition is shorter in Brazilian jiu-jitsu. In
taekwondo it was evidenced that adolescent athletes recov-
ered 1kg between the weighing and the start to combats,
which ranged from 16 to 20 hours [13]. However, when the
recovery time after weighing is long, the deleterious effects
from weight loss in performance appear to be deleted [24,25].
In this study, it was observed a 5.4 ± 4.3% body mass’
reduction. These results are slightly higher than observed in
judo, where the athletes reduce 2.5 ± 2.3%, although it has
been reported reductions of up to 16% of body mass [10].
However, these results are similar to the 5.0 to 9.1 kg reduc-
tion during one week period in wrestlers [16].
The subjects of this study started the process for rapid
weight loss 12 days before the start of competition. This
reduction process was longer than reported among athletes
of other grappling sports such as judo, in which athletes have
reduced most of their body mass in one week [10]. It is known
that the rapid weight loss tends to be detrimental to perform-
ance and health [6,26].
The average age that the athletes of this study started the
weight loss practice to competition was approximately 19
years. However, it has been related in the literature that in
many combat sports the athletes begin this practice earlier in
their careers. In judo, approximately 60% of the athletes be -
gan to lose weight between 12 and 15 years [10]. A similar
trend was observed in wrestlers [11], who started to lose
weight at 15.5±2.4 years. The age when the weight loss prac-
tice is initiated is an important factor to be considered,
because sooner the athletes begin this practice more they
tend to adopt more dangerous methods when adults [10], and
these practices during adolescence can negatively affect ath-
lete’s growth and development [27].
Among the methods adopted by MMA athletes we found
increased exercise practice and reduced liquid ingestion.
Other harmful methods to health were mentioned, because
the athletes sometimes take diuretics, stay long periods in
sauna, train in heated rooms and take diet pills. All these
methods can result in hypohydration and were mentioned by
the subjects who took part in our research.
Corroborating with the present research, a study with over
400 wrestling practitioners reported that dangerous methods
to lose weight, including restricting fluids ingestion, food re -
striction, use of laxatives and diuretics, were also observed
[16]. These results are similar to those observed among box-
ers that tend to reduce the weight at the expense of restrict-
ing fluid and food intake in the week before competition [7].
Additionally, the practice observed to lose weight and
consequently the dehydration affects directly the physical
capacity of athletes [28], presenting reduction in capacity of
redistribution of blood flux to periphery, lower hypothalamic
sensibility to sweating and lower aerobic capacity to a debt
heart determined [29,30]. Additionally, in combat sports can
occur a rapid increase of body mass after weighing [31], fact
this that can generate a state of overhydration. This state of
overhydration can be detrimental to performance, since it can
cause gastric discomfort and lead to hyponatremia [32,33].
Several methods are used to measure body dehydration,
including bioelectrical impedance, plasma osmolality, urine
tests, among others [34]. Many studies have pointed out that
the salivary osmolality as a good method to identify the hydra-
tion status, especially because it is noninvasive and presents
strong correlation with plasma osmolality [35,36]. In the pres-
ent case study no significant change was found, but a high
variability was observed among the athletes.
Although previous studies have pointed out the negative
effect of rapid weight loss on mood [37,38], in the present
study there was no difference in humor profile components
(tension, depression, anger, vigour, fatigue and confusion) be -
tween the weighing and one hour pre-match moments.
Conclusions
1. The conclusion is that there is a great prevalence of
weight loss in MMA athletes in this sample. Furthermore,
dangers methods to health are or were practiced to redu-
ce the body mass to compete.
2. Although this case study brings some evidence concerning
the harmful methods used by MMA athletes during the rapid
weight loss process, new research are needed to confirm
this behavior, especially with a large number of subjects.
Furthermore, studies comparing athletes from different
competitive levels may help to better understand the effects
of this process on the competitive performance.
Acknowledgements
The researchers Leonardo Vidal Andreato and Jonatas
Ferreira da Silva Santos thank the CNPq agency for their
scholarship. The researcher João Victor Del Conti Esteves
thanks the FAPESP agency for his scholarship.
Andreato L.V. et al. Weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes: a case study
129
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Address for correspondence:
Leonardo Vidal Andreato
School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo (USP)
Av. Prof. Mello Morais, 65, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, Zip Code: 05508-900
Phone: 55-11-3091-2124, e-mail address: vidal.leo@hotmail.com
Received: 17.04.2014
Accepted: 21.12.2014
Andreato L.V. et al. Weight loss in mixed martial arts athletes: a case study
131
... Annual WL times: For the mean number of pre-competition WL activities in the past 12 months, most of the studies reported two or three times. Six studies reported both the number of competitions participated and times of WL of participants in the past year [12,13,16,19,52,53], and five found that the mean times of WL was lower than the mean number of competitions participated in [12,16,19]. This seems to indicate that most athletes do not lose weight before every competition, especially those with a lot of competitions; rather, according to the specific situation (such as the importance of the competition, the interval between competitions, and their physical condition), athletes decide whether to lose weight. ...
... In addition, athletes will also decide how much weight to lose according to the specific circumstances. All studies showed that the maximum WL of athletes is greater than the habitual WL [3,6,7,12,13,16,[18][19][20]34,39,[51][52][53][54], and two studies showed a very large difference in this regard (10% vs. 4% of BW) [3,7]. ...
... Days allocated to WL before competition: Almost all studies that provided mean days (13/17) reported that the mean number of days allocated to WL before competition was between 7 and 14 days [3,4,6,7,12,15,16,[18][19][20]34,39,44,52,54]. However, it should be pointed out that there are some limitations in using the mean value to show this metric, because 7 is already close to the minimum value of WL days, and the maximum value may be 30-60 days or even more, which is misleading to some extent. ...
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The aim of this systematic review is to comprehensively assess the weight loss (WL) practices in different combat sports (CS). The review protocol was preregistered with PROSPERO [CRD42023487196]. Three databases were searched (Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and PubMed) until 8 December 2023. Eligible studies had to meet five criteria: they must have been (a) written in English, (b) published in a peer-reviewed journal, (c) used a survey design to investigate the WL practices of CS athletes, and (d) reported the WL methods used by athletes using a five-point scale. Twenty-six studies (3994 participants from 14 CS) were included. This review found that (1) WL is highly prevalent in CS athletes; (2) many CS athletes started losing weight for competition as teenagers two to three times a year; (3) CS athletes usually lose <5% body weight in 7–14 days before competition; (4) increasing exercise and gradually dieting are the most commonly used WL methods; and (5) the influence of scientific practitioners on athletes is negligible. The habitual practices of CS athletes may be relatively harmless, but in some special cases, CS athletes also perform extreme WL practices. Scientific practitioners have little influence on their WL practices, which may form a vicious cycle of non-qualified influence.
... In this study, the prevalence among Wushu Sanda athletes was 71.8%, very close to Karate. In MMA, a mixed-orientation modality, just like Wushu Sanda, data about RWL magnitude and prevalence is lacking; however, in a study using the RWLQ, it was pointed that MMA athletes use to lose 5 ± 3.3 kg of body mass to compete [15]. Highlights that, among the previously cited modalities, only Wushu, MMA, and Jiujitsu are not in the Olympic Games. ...
... Regarding the percentage of body weight usually lost, Brito et al. [7] stated that the prevalence of athletes losing more than 5% of their body weight to compete was 43.4% in judo, 27.2% in jiujitsu, 29.2% in karate and 28.7% in taekwondo. In MMA, athletes use to lose 6.6 ± 6.8% of their body mass to compete [15]. In this study, 43.94% of the Wushu Sanda athletes lost more than 5% of their body mass, very close to judo athletes [7]. ...
... Regarding the number of days before competition in which athletes lose weight, judo athletes usually lose weight in 14.5 ± 6.0 days, jiujitsu athletes in 21.5 ± 14.4 days, karate athletes in 14.8 ± 7.0 days and taekwondo athletes in 9.7 ± 5.2 days [7]. MMA athletes usually lose weight in 12.0 ± 13.0 days [15]. In this study, Wushu athletes reported usually start losing weight 19.3 ± 17.95 days before competing. ...
... The highest WL for senior boxers in this study was similar to that of athletes previously reported in judo (visually impaired) (10.0%), 40 sambo (10.6%), 37 and sanda (10.3%), 26 but lower than that of athletes in MMA (10.2-17.5%), 25,28,54 and muay Thai (13.9%). 29 However, it was higher than that athletes in judo (4.7-6.0%), ...
... in most previous studies in other combat sports, including kickboxing (100%),6 muay Thai (100%), 29 mixed martial arts (MMA) (97%-100%),24,25,28,38,54 judo (67-100%), 4,7,39-41 sanda (90%), 26 sambo (87-90%), ...
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... The process of RWL usually starts one/two weeks before competition, and the athletes lose 2-10% of their BM [54,55]. The prevalence of RWL among MMA athletes is between 88% [56] and 95% [57], with greater predominance among professional athletes compared to amateurs [58]. In contrast to grappling modalities, such as judo, Malliaropoulos et al. [59] reported in their study with British judo athletes a prevalence of RWL of 84%. ...
... Many methods were self-reported by the athletes to induce RWL. For instance, Andreato et al. [56] found the use of diuretics, saunas, and exercise in hot rooms as main methods used to cut weight, while Santos-Junior et al. [60] reported the use of a combination of gradual diet (64.2%), restricting fluid intake (62.6%), and sweat suits (55.9%). Moreover, athletes reported the use of more aggressive methods such as diuretics (~49%) and laxatives (~32%) [60]. ...
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This review aimed to analyze the findings in the literature related to Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) through an exploratory systematic review and to present the state of the art from a multifactorial perspective. The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement, with a search performed in the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Participants were competitive athletes (amateurs or professionals) of regional, national, or international levels. Of the 2763 registries identified, 112 studies met the eligibility criteria. The pooled sample size and age were 20,784 participants, with a mean age of 27.7 ± 6 years for male and 28.9 ± 3 years for female, with the vast majority of athletes being male (94.9%). MMA athletes were 17.2% amateurs, 73.8% professionals, and 9% were not reported. The scientific literature related to MMA reported injuries (n = 28), weight loss (n = 21), technical and tactical analysis (n = 23), physical fitness (n = 8), physiological responses and training characteristics (n = 13), psychobiological parameters (n = 12), and interventions applied to MMA athletes (n = 7). Therefore, this exploratory systematic review presents practitioners and researchers with seven broad summaries of each facet of performance of importance in this population of athletes.
... In combat sports, there are numerous strategies for rapid reduction of total body mass (TBM), such as water restriction, use of laxatives, immersion in hot water baths, sauna sessions, increased quantity and duration of training sessions, and performing exercises with heavy clothing and/or plastic suits [1]. However, these strategies can lead to detrimental effects on athletic performance, including muscle mass reduction, decreased overall and specific endurance, impaired training adaptations, decreased concentration capacity, difficulty in decision-making, mood alterations such as increased irritability and demotivation, and increased discomfort and subjective perception of effort following training sessions [2]. ...
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