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A Case Study of Excellence in Elite Sport: Motivational Climate in a World Champion Team
Abstract
This case study focused on the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team during the period from 2004 to 2011, when Graham Henry (head coach) and Wayne Smith (assistant coach) coached and managed the team. More specifically, this case study examined the motivational climate created by this coaching group that culminated in winning the Rugby World Cup in 2011. In-depth interviews were completed with Henry and Smith in March 2012. A collaborative thematic content analysis revealed eight themes, regarding motivational issues and the motivational climate for the 2004-2011 All Blacks team: (i) critical turning point, (ii) flexible and evolving, (iii) dual-management model, (iv) "Better People Make Better All Blacks," (v) responsibility, (vi) leadership, (vii) expectation of excellence, and (viii) team cohesion. These findings are discussed in light of autonomy-supportive coaching, emotionally intelligent coaching, and transformational leadership. Finally, practical recommendations are offered for coaches of elite sports teams.
... Furthermore, Kellerman (2004, p45) argued, "to assume all leaders are good people is to be wilfully blind to the reality of the human condition" and Binney et al. (2012) noted that leaders are ordinary (and sometimes flawed) people not mythical heroes. Others (Brearley, 2001;Grint, 2004;Heifetz and Linsky, 2002;Hodge et al., 2014;Hogan et al., 1994;Lebed and Eli-Bar, 2013) argued that the issue was less about being a good or perfect person but more about acting responsibly in the common good. While leadership may not be, theoretically, a moral concept, in practice it has an increasingly important moral dimension especially in the context of corporate governance and social responsibility in organisation, sport and rugby union settings (Lowther et al., 2016). ...
... Grint (2004) indicated that effectiveor trueleadership emphasised influence not coercion, Hogan et al. (1994) and Heifetz and Linsky (2002) that leadership was persuasion not domination and Brearley (2001) that team captaincy required the appropriate use of authority but not manipulative activities. Hodge et al. (2014) in their study of the New Zealand rugby union team noted the concept of "better people make better All ...
... Gould et al. (1996) and Eklund (1996) in Sparkes (1999) proposed that the subjective experience and expertise of researchers was a legitimate source of trustworthiness. More recently, Hodge et al. (2014) in a study of the New Zealand All ...
... 15,53 All but 3 of the 18 selected studies used a questionnaire to measure at least one of the three SDT fundamental needs. 51,54,55 In the 15 studies that did use a questionnaire, a total of 31 different tools were used with many in an integrated fashion to suit the purpose of the study. This included researchers combining several empirically verified tools and sub-scales into one multi-section questionnaire. ...
... 51,56 This trend was particularly evident in youth sport. 57,60 Furthermore, all three of the studies that examined coach-athlete interactions in elite sport, 52,54,59 highlight the performance benefits and increased self-perceived group connectedness that athletes reaped as a result of improved social relationships with both their coaches and team-mates alike. 54 ...
... 130,131 This approach also advocates the coach as a facilitator who empowers their athletes to solve problems and make decisions themselves through exploration. 28,54 Therefore, to improve decisionmaking, training sessions should recreate the interactions that a player will confront in the performance environment by including practice task information from boundary markings, pitch surface, team-mates and opponents. 96,101 NLP also advocates the importance of practitioners to use an external focus of attention, as shown in ELT, when guiding athletes to a particular movement outcome. ...
Coaching behaviours often derive from sporting traditions, instinct and previous experiences. Practitioners tend to follow traditional, inherited methods rather than adopt new evidence-based approaches associated with athlete development. This article reviews literature relating to theoretical constructs of a novel coach education framework (CEF) developed by the Irish Rugby Football Union. The three constructs included are: self-determination theory (SDT), explicit learning theories (ELT) and implicit learning theories (ILT). A total of 82 publications met the inclusion criteria (SDT: n = 18, ELT: n = 28, ILT: n = 36). This review supports the efficacy of these constructs in isolation for promoting effective coaching practices and provides a justification for future implementation of the framework and its evaluation. This framework may have the potential to address a shortfall in current coach education formats, which have traditionally focused on What content should be used for athlete development as opposed to How practitioners can coach more effectively.
... One of the first decisions made by the coaching staff was to organise a meeting with the senior players that had not travelled to South Africa, with the purpose of outlining a 'dual management' model (shared ownership) between the coaches and senior players on all aspects of game preparation [39]. This involved empowering senior players and giving them the responsibility to lead the group and provide input across both the on-pitch and off-pitch components of preparation. ...
... There was real sense of trust around and that brought a closeness". This approach is based on an approach employed by the All Blacks (New Zealand rugby team) as documented by Hodge et al. [39], and is consistent with the coaching philosophy of the academy coaches at Munster. Many of the principles associated with dual-management are consistent with autonomy-supportive coaching [40], and emotional leadership coaching [41]. ...
... Our findings support that the steps taken to connect the pathway by (a) aligning the key stakeholders from top to bottom, and (b) increasing coherence between different groups at various stages, were influential in navigating the significant challenges that were encountered. The importance of empowering players [39], creating a high-performing, positive, task-focused environment [37], utilising role models [53], and establishing trust, connections, and a deep purpose in a playing group, were all considered influential in achieving a successful outcome in the Wasps-Munster match at the centre of this study. ...
A wealth of literature examines the role of challenge from an individual psychological perspective, but research investigating how a talent development system can proactively support athletes to successfully meet the ever-increasing demands of top-level professional sport is less prevalent. This study takes advantage of a naturally occurring but highly atypical developmental challenge as a result of COVID-19 to examine factors influencing the efficacy and effectiveness of the talent development pathway at Munster Rugby. Players and staff (n = 12) took part in semi-structured interviews exploring their experiences of the build-up to the event, the game itself, and the impact post-event. The data were subsequently analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Players and coaches highlight the groundwork undertaken to establish alignment and coherence, both horizontally and vertically across the talent development environment, and how this contributed to navigating the challenge successfully. The findings support the necessity of both the player and the talent development system being prepared to enable players to perform at the highest level. The findings point to an overlap between the development and performance phases of a player’s journey and the need to integrate short- and long-term objectives within a talent development system.
... As such, there has been a recent shift towards athlete leadership models (Fransen et al., 2014); specifically where multiple athletes perform leadership roles by influencing their team to achieve a common goal . Accordingly, the growing use of leadership groups has been suggested as a way to improve overall leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Thomas et al., 2012). Some athletes are assigned formal leadership roles (e.g., captain and vice-captains), whereas other leaders emerge as informal leaders through interactions between teammates (e.g., cultural architects). ...
... A failure to explore contemporary models potentially represents a missed opportunity for cricket. Recent studies have revealed that many successful coaches in a variety of sports (e.g., football, basketball, rugby) have shifted towards more contemporary models of shared leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Manz et al., 2013). Indeed, coaches with an athlete-centred approach may be more likely to be receptive to adopting shared leadership models in their team (Hodge et al., 2014). ...
... Recent studies have revealed that many successful coaches in a variety of sports (e.g., football, basketball, rugby) have shifted towards more contemporary models of shared leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Manz et al., 2013). Indeed, coaches with an athlete-centred approach may be more likely to be receptive to adopting shared leadership models in their team (Hodge et al., 2014). An added benefit for coaches who empower their athletes to lead is that their athletes see their coaches as better leaders (Fransen, Mertens, et al., 2019). ...
Many sports are shifting to shared leadership models, but cricket remains somewhat wedded to traditional models of leadership. Female cricket especially might challenge this traditional model. Understanding how players and coaches have similar, or differing, views can inform how to implement contemporary leadership models into cricket and extend conceptions of athlete leadership. Therefore, this study examined how the coach and players have similar or differing understandings of shared athlete leadership in their cricket team. An interpretative phenomenological analysis approach was adopted. Semistructured interviews were conducted with three female cricket players and their male coach. Results suggest that the coach and players value the social leadership skills of the captain more than the task leadership skills, whereas informal athlete leaders are relied on by the captain to provide tactical guidance. Nonetheless, there were different expectations regarding the role of athlete leaders. While the coach expected athlete leaders to deliver his message to the rest of the team, players wanted athlete leaders who maintained lines of communication among the players, and with the coach. Therefore, this study offers another perspective on leadership that is fluid and promotes collaboration to appoint and develop appropriate leaders who are accepted by all team members.
... (e.g., Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Elberse & Dye, 2012;Hodge et al., 2014;Urquhart et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005). Successful coaches possessed high emotional intelligence, had a deep desire for selfimprovement, carried an exceptional work ethic, and prioritized holistic athlete development (Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Heelis et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005. ...
... A number of studies in high-performance sport have demonstrated the importance of the coaches' vision for achieving team success (Elberse & Dye, 2012;Frontiera, 2010;Gavazzi, 2015;Hodge et al., 2014;Urquhart et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005Yukelson & Rose, 2014). In the present study, the General Managers immediately began to enact their vision. ...
... organizational members that are aligned with the leader's vision (Elberse & Dye, 2012;Frontiera, 2010;Heelis et al., 2020;Hodge et al., 2014;Kerr, 2013;Schroeder, 2010;Vallée & Bloom, 2005. The current General Managers were not afraid to make personnel changes, beginning with trading or deselecting players; interestingly, this included the star players. ...
... The value of positive coach-athlete relationships, and transparency in decision-making appears a similarly influential factor within elite sport settings. In one of the most successful international sport teams in recent history (the New Zealand All Blacks), an autonomy supportive environment was credited as being a central to their success in the lead up to their 2011 rugby union World Cup victory (Hodge et al., 2014). Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. ...
... In one of the most successful international sport teams in recent history (the New Zealand All Blacks), an autonomy supportive environment was credited as being a central to their success in the lead up to their 2011 rugby union World Cup victory (Hodge et al., 2014). Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. Drawing parallels between their dual-management model and the principles of SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2020), Hodge et al. (2014) suggested that the offering of choice, encouraging of initiative, and empowering performance feedback supported the transformation of the team and its culture, while simultaneously supporting of the player's BPN. ...
... Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. Drawing parallels between their dual-management model and the principles of SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2020), Hodge et al. (2014) suggested that the offering of choice, encouraging of initiative, and empowering performance feedback supported the transformation of the team and its culture, while simultaneously supporting of the player's BPN. Despite the necessity to win, the research endorses the integration of autonomy supportive features within competitive elite sport settings (Hodges et al., 2014;Keegan et al., 2014). ...
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... In recent years, there has been extensive research concerning organizational culture and sport (e.g., Champ 2017; Maitland, Hills, & Rhind, 2015). This work has largely affirmed the interdependent relationship between leadership and culture from a wide range of perspectives, including facilitating high-performing teams (Cole & Martin, 2018;Johnson, Martin, Palmer, Watson, & Ramsey, 2012), enhancing motivational climate (Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014), and enriching talent development environments (Henriksen, Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010. Results from a systematic review of organizational culture in sport (Maitland et al., 2015) indicated that among the multitude of definitions and approaches to exploring this topic, the work of Schein (1985Schein ( , 2017 was the most commonly adopted perspective. ...
... Similar to Hodge et al.'s (2014) examination of the All Black's culture, the participants in the Severn Stars indicated that a range of prosocial behaviors were important foundations. Hodge et al. (2014) reported that the coaching team maintained positivity, focused upon individualized goal setting, and developed social support within the peer group. Commensurately, Severn Stars coaches constructed group tasks where squad members evaluated peers' performance and also facilitated social evenings focused on celebrating the cultural diversity within the squads. ...
... The intention of giving this freedom was commensurate with Bass and Riggio's (2006) assertion that TFL, and specifically intellectual stimulation, facilitates creativity and innovation which incontrovertibly requires a degree of autonomy and choice. There is also considerable evidence in the field of organizational culture to support the importance of follower empowerment and establishing collective responsibility (Henriksen et al., 2011;Hodge et al., 2014;Hulme et al., 2019). Findings from this investigation related to this theme corresponded strongly with the overarching values of (c) mutual accountability and (e) avoiding micromanagement. ...
This Participatory and Appreciative Action and Reflection (PAAR) investigation illustrates a leader's first steps in a "values-to-action" journey. Drawing on the interface between transformational leadership and organizational culture, this study focused on the birth of the Severn Stars-a professional netball club in the United Kingdom. In particular, this PAAR investigation explored how the leader's values were operationalized through the club's inaugural year. Fourteen operational managers, coaches, and players were individually interviewed in order to gain an appreciative gaze and subsequently reframe their lived experience. Results demonstrated how transformational leadership was manifested through the pragmatic deployment of club values and how the organizational culture was, in part, characterized by individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, idealized influence, and inspirational motivation. These behaviors and the organizational culture were shown to enhance prosocial relationships and social connections across the club, the influence of the Super Stars, and stakeholders' perceptions of autonomy.
... Thus, the presence of a difficult team member who withholds effort, expresses negative emotions, breaks team rules, and/or mistreats teammates can negatively affect the team in terms of cohesion, satisfaction, and performance (Cope et al., 2010). Performance is a vital team outcome to achieve success in sport, while satisfaction is a critical outcome for most athletes (e.g., Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014). Therefore, understanding the processes that enhance both outcomes is of clear importance. ...
... Coaches consistently discussed their standards of excellence with their athletes and used deviant athlete behaviors as teaching opportunities for the team. These results were consistent with Hodge et al. (2014) who investigated the coaches' development of a championship culture in the New Zealand All Blacks men's rugby team. In their study, Hodge et al. (2014) found that coaches ingrained basic assumptions within the team's core values through the motto "Better People Make Better All Blacks" to prevent the manifestation of difficult athlete behaviors and to encourage athlete empowerment and autonomy. ...
... These results were consistent with Hodge et al. (2014) who investigated the coaches' development of a championship culture in the New Zealand All Blacks men's rugby team. In their study, Hodge et al. (2014) found that coaches ingrained basic assumptions within the team's core values through the motto "Better People Make Better All Blacks" to prevent the manifestation of difficult athlete behaviors and to encourage athlete empowerment and autonomy. Future research should further explore organizational contexts of adolescent athletes to better understand culture creation in this unique sport setting. ...
Although research on effective coaching strategies is well documented, researchers are still learning how coaches effectively manage problematic athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate how high-performance coaches managed difficult athletes. We interviewed eight experienced ice hockey coaches from the premiere development stream in Canada for athletes who aspire to play professionally. Through our analysis of the data, we found that these coaches identified problem athletes early, fostered relationships, provided clear expectations and roles, and transformed their behaviors to match the team culture (although this was not always possible). We also found that managing difficult athletes takes a great deal of patience, introspection, and emotional intelligence on the coach’s behalf. Our findings contribute to a limited understanding of the knowledge and strategies used by coaches to manage difficult athletes and maintain a positive team climate.
... For example, there are only 176 head coaching positions in the highest levels of professional, major junior, and college men's ice hockey in North America. 1 While it can be argued that attaining a head coaching position at any of these four levels defines success, a coach can further distinguish himself as an exceptional member of this elite group by winning a championship, and even more so, by winning multiple championships. Consequently, some researchers have begun to study the knowledge and strategies used by coaches who have had attained success with their athletes and teams on the field of play by winning numerous championships (Bespomoshchnov & Caron, 2017;Donoso-Morales, Bloom, & Caron, 2017;Elberse & Dye, 2012;Gavazzi, 2015;Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014;Vallée & Bloom, 2005Yukelson & Rose, 2014). These highly successful coaches, known in the literature as serial winning coaches (SWC), have been defined as "coaches who have, repeatedly and over a sustained period of time, coached teams and athletes to gold medals at the highest level of competition such as the Olympic Games, the World Championships, or major professional leagues" (Mallett & Lara-Bercial, 2016, p. 294). ...
... Although there is some research that appears to use the terms coaching philosophy and coaching vision interchangeably (e.g., Bennie & O'Connor, 2010;Gould, Pierce, Cowburn, & Driska, 2017), this study adopted Vallée and Bloom's (2005) definition for coaching vision. To date, the majority of researchers examining coaching vision have focused on how coaches implemented their vision, which does not consider how they developed it (e.g., Elberse & Dye, 2012;Gavazzi, 2015;Hodge et al., 2014;Vallée & Bloom, 2016;Voight & Carroll, 2006;Yukelson & Rose, 2014). ...
... The myriad of factors that guide the articulation and implementation of a coaching vision for highly accomplished coaches has received increased attention in the literature (e.g., Gould et al., 2017;Hodge et al., 2014;Yukelson & Rose, 2014). Hodge et al. (2014) were one of the first groups to empirically investigate how SWC implemented their coaching vision. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the development, articulation, and implementation of a coaching vision and how this created and sustained a culture of excellence. Six multiple championship–winning men’s university ice hockey head coaches were interviewed. Their combined experience consisted of 20 national titles and over 4,100 wins at the university level. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The results indicated that these coaches established a vision that could be separated into three phases: development, articulation, and implementation. Notably, development included the life experiences, personal characteristics, and habits that assisted the development of the coaches’ vision, including apprenticing as an assistant coach. Articulation and implementation involved clearly communicating their vision to athletes, coaches, and personnel who then enacted the vision. Overall, these findings contribute to a better understanding of how championship-winning coaches organize, teach, and articulate their goals through their coaching vision.
... For instance, the players' previous antisocial binge drinking behaviours were no longer accepted (performance environment). The players were also empowered with leadership roles (internal processes and procedures) as well as agreeing to behaviours that demonstrated their expectation of excellence culture (Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014). The final theme within operational PM is debriefing, feedback and learning that identifies current performance levels and areas of improvement across both playing, coaching and support staff. ...
... I need you to work hard -this is how we potentially can get there, but I need your buy in (HoERP) The simplicity of the HoERP's vision was particularly significant for the ERP when considering the multinational makeup of the squad with the HoERP recognising the need for "all the guys to be on the same page, pulling in the same direction". The central hard work ethos in particular has been previously recognised as a foundational pillar in a number of other elite sports and TDEs (Fletcher & Streeter, 2016;Henriksen et al., 2011;Hodge et al., 2014) that according to Wagstaff (2019) should be prioritised ahead of relying too heavily on the myth of individualism. This was a critical step for the ERP in addressing its previously inhibiting organisational capital resource by explicitly identifying the non-negotiable behaviour of a professional culture. ...
Currently little is known about the development of high-performance cultures in emerging nations. This study is the first of its kind examining an emerging rugby nation’s transition from an amateur to a professional full-time fifteen-a-side programme. Eleven full-time professional male rugby union players, the Head of the Hong Kong Rugby Union’s (HKRU) Elite Rugby Programme(ERP) and the HKRU’s peripatetic sport psychologist were interviewed. Inductive thematic analysis of semi-structured interview data revealed four emerging themes, namely; 1) an amateur environment that required change; 2) ERP’s professional culture building blocks; 3) leadership strategy and managing key stake holders and 4) managing on-going challenges in the ERP’s professional culture. Theoretical and applied implications for practitioners and programme leaders responsible for driving cultural change in their respective environments are discussed.
... I could begin to see the individuals in the group focused on their own interests and desires, and this impacted the systems functioning when it came to collaboration and shared vision (Gibson & Groom, 2018). If the coaches had transferred more responsibility to the athletes, it may have helped empower them through ownership and accountability (Hodge et al., 2014). Without this, the squad suffered from a "them versus us" outgroup approach and lacked a sense of shared purpose and psychological safety. ...
... Ultimately, there existed a lack of congruence between athletes and coaches and no sense of shared purpose and identity. My hope that team values or a charter would provide the foundation to develop a bond through the squad was misplaced without other fundamental foundation stones, and the team struggled to develop any continuity, meaning, distinctiveness, and sense of belonging (Hodge et al., 2014). Working in this system felt like a "dynamic and fluid process of forging and reforging alliances and working relationships" (Cassidy et al., 2016, p. 60) and, as a neophyte practitioner, I found it difficult to read, initiate, and respond to the inescapably political demands of the sporting workplace. ...
This article provides a neophyte practitioner’s account of providing psychological support to a national team for the first time. The practitioner felt “caught in the headlights” due to his lack of preparation for the range of organizational issues he encountered. In this confessional tale, experiential knowledge gained by the practitioner is shared through the presentation of self-reflections from the 6-month period when he supported the squad. While the practitioner’s time with this national squad was limited, it gave him a sense of the micropolitical landscape of the sporting organization and illuminated some of the complexities and dilemmas that characterize applied sport psychology practice. These reflections are offered to guide other aspiring professionals during their initial training experiences.
... Decisions such as assigning dressing room seating or organising mentor opportunities are but several examples that demonstrate how coach behaviour can influence athlete interactions (e.g., Carron, Spink, & Prapavessis, 1997;Chelladurai, 2007). Similarly, decisions pertaining to athlete selection, team objectives, normative expectations, or the overemphasis on performance outcomes will all influence the general dynamics and functioning of a team (e.g., Cumming, Smoll, Smith, & Grossbard, 2007;Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014;Martin, Evans, & Spink, 2016). While it is clear that the role of the coach must be considered when examining team dynamics, every group represents a distinct collection of individuals who interact in novel ways (e.g., McGrath, 1964). ...
... Numerous researchers have investigated the degree to which coaches impact the aforementioned elements. For instance, athlete selection practices by coaches shape the general team environment (e.g., Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, & Chung, 2002;Hodge et al., 2014), and certain coach leadership styles can influence a team's structure pertaining to norms (e.g., Chen, Wang, Wang, & Huang, 2017), roles (e.g., Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, & Carron, 2005), and the formation of cliques (e.g., Martin et al., 2016). Further, coaches have been found to affect team processes such as moral behaviour (e.g., Bolter & Kipp, 2018) and emergent states including cohesion (e.g., McLaren, Eys, & Murray, 2015) and collective efficacy (e.g., Høigaard, De Cuyper, Fransen, Boen, & Peters, 2015). ...
Although extensive sport research has been dedicated to understanding coach effectiveness, this work has largely explored how coaches’ behaviours influence individual athletes rather than considering the total team. Accordingly, we sought to examine the breadth of existing research involving the influence of coaches on team dynamics. Adhering to PRISMA for Scoping Review guidelines, 9,454 peer–reviewed studies were identified using four electronic databases, with 82 ultimately meeting inclusion criteria. Studies were grouped based on interpersonal, intrapersonal, and professional coach behaviours. Within these groups, team dynamics frameworks were used to explore the team–level variables. The results demonstrated that the majority of research has focused on coaches’ interpersonal behaviours on teams’ emergent states, while largely overlooking the influence of coaches’ intrapersonal or professional behaviours on teams’ structures or processes. We advocate for the diversification of methodologies employed and targeted investigations guided by established frameworks to better understand coaches’ influence on team dynamics.
... (In Romanos, 2007, p. 87) Furthermore, the ABs coaches worked with the players on the meaning and significance of the haka (Hodge, Henry and Smith, 2014) to develop relatedness and social inclusion. Wayne Smith, an early adopter of GS (Kidman, 2005) and Henry's long-serving assistant coach, acknowledged that: ...
... (Cited in Johnson et al., 2014, p. 203) Moreover, Hodge et al.'s (2014) case study examined the motivational climate of the ABs using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and revealed three key elements which reflected a GS approach: (i) Offering choice (e.g., ownership and accountability for decision-making), (ii) encouraging athletes to take initiative (e.g., leadership group, responsibility) and (iii) using empowering performance feedback (e.g., feedback on improving strengths, not just reducing weaknesses). These examples indicated significant 'culture change' towards inclusive cultural diversity within elite, professional rugby in NZ at Super Rugby level (Hapeta and Palmer, 2014) and ABs' level (Hodge et al., 2014). These GS-aligned social inclusion ideas, however, are not always reflected in rugby for non-European players. ...
The title ‘Ako (culturally preferred pedagogy) and Indigenous athletes’ refers to the preferred learning styles for Māori (Indigenous people of Aotearoa, New Zealand) athletes, particularly (but not exclusively) when adopting a ‘culturally inclusive’ pedagogy in sport. Throughout this chapter we respond to the question: How can sport coaches who adopt a Game Sense (GS) approach cater to the learning needs of Māori (and other Indigenous) athletes? In response, we outline core GS elements and explore the application of principles underpinning
Kaupapa Māori (KM) theory, practices and methodologies that align with GS pedagogy. Our intention is to augment the GS approach in order to be more responsive to cross-cultural nuances that can create a sense of belonging for all team members, including Indigenous athletes.
In considering the interrelationships between KM principles and GS
elements, we propose an alternative model for pedagogues to apply, especially when engaging with Māori and Indigenous athletes. The ensuing discussion argues for a culturally nuanced approach to other options, such as Bunker and Thorpe’s (1982) Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) model and New Zealand Rugby’s (NZR) ‘Player Development’ model (see Russell, Otis and Cox, 2016). The proposed culturally informed approach is advantageous given large numbers of Māori and Pacific Island’s individuals participate in New Zealand sport.
Finally, we conclude by casting an eye to the future as we look beyond past and present pedagogical approaches, and suggest possible research directions for GS practitioners and/or academics to explore given the model suggested might better satisfy the learning styles of Māori (and other Indigenous) athletes, in more inclusive and holistic ways (Kidman, 2010; Light, Evans, Harvey and Hassanin, 2015).
... When considering what leadership style is best suited for the challenges coaches face in elite rugby, a study by Hodge, Henry and Smith (2014) revealed the transformational leadership style which had been implemented by the coaches of the New Zealand All Blacks (New Zealand national rugby side) had been instrumental to their success in winning the 2011 Rugby World Cup. As such, transformational leadership is regarded as the most effective leadership style to be adopted by elite rugby coaches. ...
... These aspects may be significantly improved without having to invest large amounts of scarce resources through the application of more effective leadership, both from the board and CEO of SARU. In this regard, the transformational leadership style appeared to be best suited as it has been found to be particularly effective in elite sporting environments (Hamza & Abdelmonem, 2018;Hodge et al., 2014). ...
Orientation: As the leaders of teams that compete at the highest level, elite South African rugby coaches face constant pressures to consistently lead their teams to successful on-field performances. An understanding of the leadership challenges they face may highlight actions that could equip them to achieve this more effectively.
Research purpose: To investigate the leadership challenges experienced by the head coaches of elite South African rugby teams that compete on an international level.
Motivation for the study: The leadership challenges faced by elite South African coaches could become clearly known only through investigation, and subsequently they could be properly addressed.
Research approach/design and method: A qualitative approach with a phenomenological design was utilised, which collected data by means of in-depth interviews with the head coaches of elite South African rugby teams. Eleven teams were considered to be elite South African rugby teams for this study given that they competed on an international level. Ultimately, six participants were included, representing 54.5% of the total population. The general systems theory was also used as a theoretical basis to present findings.
Main findings: The data revealed three main themes, namely environmental, relationships and personal leadership challenges. The data revealed that these coaches experience significant leadership challenges, some of which are unique to the South African context.
Practical/managerial implications: It is believed that the implementation of suggested recommendations will assist in ensuring both the economic survival and overall leadership improvement of coaches and the teams they lead.
Contribution/value add: Theoretically the study added to the limited literature on leadership in elite South African sport and practically it provided recommendations to address the findings as well as for further research.
... ALGs became formalised in the early 2000s when The Sydney Swans AFL team in Australia and the All Blacks Rugby team in New Zealand adopted the approach (Johnson et al., 2012;Leading Teams, n.d.). The sustained success of teams such as the All Blacks, the Sydney Swans and the Melbourne Storm have been attributed to the culture of the team, directed by their approach to shared leadership (Hodge et al., 2014). ...
... However, coaches in high performance environments have been shown to replicate practices of other successful coaches in their pursuit of competitive advantage (Nash & Sproule, 2009). Given this, it might be surmised that the prevalence of ALGs in the Australian and New Zealand professional football leagues reflects coaches' attempts to replicate the successful approaches adopted by teams like New Zealand's All Blacks (National Rugby Union), who have achieved widely using this model (Hodge et al., 2014). There is also evidence that leaders tend to respond to culturally endorsed leadership expectations, hence coaches' use of this shared approach may be perceived to align with Australia and New Zealand's recognised egalitarian principals (Trevor-Roberts, 2003), relatively low power distance (i.e. the extent to which members of an organization or society expect and agree that power should be unequally shared), and preference for participative decision-making (House et al., 2004). ...
Objectives
Athlete Leadership Groups (ALGs) are increasingly being employed in professional football teams and whilst there is a growing body of quantitative research focussed on athlete leadership in other contexts, qualitative studies at the professional level are scant. The purpose of this study is to explore coaches' adoption of formal ALGs in professional football teams and what influences their decisions about the degree to which players are given leadership responsibilities and roles.
Design
Qualitative- Inductive.
Method
16 head coaches from 16 professional football teams, across four leagues (Super Rugby n = 4, National Rugby League n = 5, A League n = 3 and Australian Football League n = 4), participated in semi-structured interviews investigating why coaches are increasingly using ALGs in this environment and what influences the extent to which these ALGs are empowered.
Results
An inductive thematic analysis indicated coaches' initial decisions to adopt an ALG model were influenced by a range of perceived benefits (team management, team functioning and performance) underpinned by personal factors (past experience, coaching philosophy, interpersonal style and understanding of social influence) and their appraisal of situational considerations (readiness, expectations and commitment), which influenced their ALG implementation decisions (how and to what extent players were empowered and leadership responsibilities delegated).
Conclusions
Overall, the coaches' decision to use ALGs in the professional football environment was influenced by a belief that player ownership and autonomy, coupled with the influence of peer leadership underpins performance benefits on and off-field and plays a key role in team culture. However, findings suggest that coaches contemplating adopting an ALG model should take an individually tailored approach. For this approach to be effective, coaches consider and address a range of situational factors, and ensure the leadership model adopted reflects their personal beliefs and the capacity and context of the team.
... Suki's list of behaviors are consistent with research investigating effective culture in elite sport teams in terms of, for example, avoiding the deleterious effect of mavericks and demonstrating respect for their opponents, although they do not demonstrate the commitment to autonomy-supportive behaviors also advocated in such studies (Hodge et al., 2014). A further interrelated mechanism between professional behaviors as a component of club structure and relationships was evident in the selection policy implemented throughout the pathway. ...
The personal assets framework offers a lens to better understand the relationship between leadership in sport environments and the resultant (athlete) developmental outcomes. This investigation aimed to explore how leadership behaviors and the broader environment of a Super League netball club represented an effective context for athletes to flourish by exploring the interrelations between the personal assets framework’s dynamic elements, namely (a) quality social dynamics, (b) appropriate settings, and (c) personal engagement in activities. Twenty-eight stakeholders were interviewed either individually or in small groups. The results revealed that the environment constructed was shaped by many interrelated mechanisms, and all stakeholders influenced how the dynamic elements intersected with one another. Key leadership behaviors driving the positive environment of the club were related to individualization and generating perceptions of value. The stakeholders’ desire to understand the relationship between their individual contribution and Super League netball was also crucial.
... The present pilot study expectedly suffers from sample size limitations inherent to single case designs, but the comprehensive understanding of skill acquisition is important (e.g., Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014), and investigating the neural correlates of an elite expert athlete provides fruitful information on his/her uniqueness that cannot be collected from novices or confirmed athletes (Budnik-Przybylska et al., 2021). While it is inappropriate to offer definitive recommendations, case-studies can provide helpful insights for the understanding of the neurophysiological processes mediating mental practice and the study of excellence in sport. ...
Brain activations elicited during motor imagery (MI) in experts are typically reduced compared to novices, which is interpreted as a neurophysiological correlate of increased neural efficiency. However, the modulatory effects of MI speed on expertise-related differences in brain activation remains largely unknown. In the present pilot study, we compared the magnetoencephalographic (MEG) correlates of MI in an Olympic medallist and an amateur athlete under conditions of slow, real-time and fast MI. Data revealed event-related changes in the time course of alpha (8-12 Hz) power of MEG oscillations, for all timing conditions. We found that slow MI was associated with a corollary increase in neural synchronization, in both participants. Sensor-level and source-level analyses however disclosed differences between the two expertise levels. The Olympic medallist achieved greater activation of cortical sensorimotor networks than the amateur athlete, particularly during fast MI. Fast MI elicited the strongest event-related desynchronization of alpha oscillations, which was generated from cortical sensorimotor sources in the Olympic medallist, but not in the amateur athlete. Taken together, data suggest that fast MI is a particularly demanding form of motor cognition, putting a specific emphasis on cortical sensorimotor networks to achieve the formation of accurate motor representations under demanding timing constraints.
... Verschiedene Studien haben sich mit den Umfeldbedingungen von Athlet:innen beschäftigt (Arnold et al., 2012;De Bosscher et al., 2008;de Bosscher et al., 2009;de Bosscher et al., 2015;de Zeeuw et al., 2017;Gowthorp et al., 2017;Green & Houlihan, 2005;Hodge et al., 2014;Houlihan & Green, 2008;Smolianov et al., 2014; SPLISS-Studie (de Bosscher et al., 2015). ...
In view of the historically poor performance of Germany as a sporting nation at the 2021 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, the question arises as to how top-level sport in Germany can be put back on the road to success. A necessary first step in this direction is likely to be a systematic analysis of the causes. For this reason, the German Sports Aid Foundation commissioned the Institute for Sports Economics and Sports Management at the German Sport University Cologne to conduct an analysis of the environment from the athletes' point of view.
A total of 1,122 athletes supported by Deutsche Sporthilfe took part in the online survey between September 24, 2021 and October 18, 2021. This corresponds to a response rate of 28.9%. The Olympic and Paralympic squads were disproportionately well represented.
The study shows that mental presence at the season's climax is a key issue. 29.2% of the Olympic and Paralympic squads were not fully mentally present at their season peak. Mental presence significantly increases the probability of participating in the final.
Two thirds of the athletes say that their income situation enables them to concentrate sufficiently on their sport. 82% even believe that their athletic career can be sufficiently combined with a dual career. Although it could be shown that the support services for a dual career are rated as good by the athletes, they are hardly used overall. The personal competencies required for a dual career can also be developed, according to the results.
The athletes are quite satisfied with parts of the training environment. 80% confirm that they have sufficient access to high-quality training facilities and high-quality training equipment. However, other aspects of the training environment could be improved. Less than half of the athletes had individually tailored training plans based on performance diagnostics. Only two thirds of the athletes had signed an athlete agreement with the top association, and in only 65% of the cases was there a regular competition analysis. Often, the training environment was also characterized by an insufficiently innovation-oriented organizational culture. In only 69% of the cases was the training environment characterized by personal freedom and the promotion of creativity. And only 72% of the athletes surveyed confirmed that the people in the respective training environment were held together by a joy in innovation and development.
The situation of the trainers is still a big challenge. Only two thirds of the athletes interviewed stated that Germany has world-class coaches in their discipline. Satisfaction with their own coaches was very high in terms of their accessibility, but significantly lower in terms of their expertise and especially their leadership style.
The study also showed that the athletes did not feel sufficiently valued and supported, especially by politicians and the media.
In order to mobilize the world-class potential that certainly exists among German athletes, better support is needed, focusing on the following things, among others:
1. greater material security, during and after the athletic career,
2. a consistent use of the (qualitatively good) support services in the case of the dual career,
3. the development of personal skills in self-management and resilience,
4. improved individual training plans based on performance diagnostics,
5. investments in qualification, further education and remuneration of the national coaches along international world class level,
6. social recognition of "performance" by competitive athletes as role models for our society and international ambassadors of our country,
7. to focus more on aspects of personal freedom and innovation and development in the training environment.
... By anticipating these subgroup differences and adapting their strategy, the leaders gave sub-group members agency and ownership over their own change which allowed silos to maintain important practices, traditions, and customs essential to their identities (Geertz, 1973;McGuire et al., 2021). Similar approaches to creating and empowering devolved leadership structures have contributed to creating effective climates in centralised elite sport organisations (e.g., Hodge et al., 2014), while Cruickshank and Collins (2015) suggest that leader-led cultural change must involve important cultural architects as "buy-in" from these socially influential individuals is integral to implementing and driving change. Further, Martindale et al. (2005;2012) argue that it is important for an organisation to develop guiding principles of practice, but to allow for these principles to be enacted differently within different contexts (see also Feddersen et al., 2021). ...
Objectives
The aims of this study were to explore the features of the athletic environment that influence thriving within a British Olympic and Paralympic sport organisation and to understand the interconnectedness of these factors across a range of individuals and contexts. These aims were pursued within a decentralised organisation that was undergoing a leader-led cultural change strategy.
Method
To develop an understanding of the environmental factors that facilitate athlete thriving, a 16-month ethnography was conducted. Data analysis consisted of reflexive thematic analysis of observational notes, reflexive diaries, and interview transcripts. The findings are presented in an ethnographic tale.
Results
Alongside the complexities of implementing a culture change strategy across a decentralised organisation, the ethnographic tale details three key features of the athletic environment targeted by senior leadership to successfully influence the athletes’ ability to thrive within their silos. Underpinning these factors are three interconnected themes of understanding, openness, and trust.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates how empowering devolved leadership was impactful for organisational culture by reducing the homogeneity of leader-centric change initiatives. Further, harnessing an organisation-wide commitment to promoting relationships founded on understanding, openness, and trust can create athletic environments that facilitate thriving. Therefore, while a decentralised structure may present challenges for promoting a duty of care, it is possible to create an environment that supports athletes to thrive.
... Qualitative studies have contributed new understandings of basic psychological needs satisfaction and self-determined motivation in various contexts, including in postsecondary education (Hodge et al., 2014;Nagpaul & Chen, 2019;Wisniewski et al., 2018). Given the strong correlations between the three needs and their statistical tendency to converge in quantitative approaches, such as factor analyses, qualitative approaches may be particularly apt to examine the interdependency of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, in addition to helping "in identifying concrete manifestations and themes underlying experiences of need satisfaction and frustration" (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020, p. 6). ...
Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a cross-cultural, empirical framework for exploring what world (i.e., "foreign") language educators can do to support the satisfaction of their learners' basic psychological needs and, in turn, their autonomous motivation and well-being. Despite this, the identification of approaches to world language pedagogy and curriculum development that are supportive of learners' simultaneous and interdependent-rather than individual and isolated-basic needs satisfaction has been limited. To this end, this study sought to examine the characteristics of postsecondary world language learning environments that were supportive of the balanced, simultaneous satisfactions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as beneficence, a candidate need. Participants in the study included thirteen undergraduate world language learners at a large public university in the United States. Semi-structured interviews were analyzed through a qualitative approach involving multiple rounds of deductive coding and two stages of inductive thematic analysis. Results of the analysis identified six themes representing the characteristics of world language learning environments that students perceived to support their autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence. Further, the analysis identified textual evidence for the interdependent satisfaction of students' basic psychological needs via the multidirectional influences of each need on the others. Recommendations for world language teachers and implications for theory and methodology are discussed.
... 425). Significant samples are those who are different and possibly even extraordinary (Hodge et al., 2014) and can often be characterized as "critical cases" (Flyvbjerg, 2006) that offer valuable and exceptionally rare insight for others. The repeated interview design adopted here offered access to one of the world's leading coaches and members of his support team throughout the first 21-months of his tenure as national coach in the build-up to the World Cup. ...
In this study, we provide a novel account of the selection and development of a staff team for the Swedish national men’s football team for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. A total of 37 interviews took place at six time points over a 21-month period to track the values-based steps taken by the national Head Coach to build his support team. The sample was employed in a variety of roles including Head Coach, Assistant Head Coach, Goalkeeping Coach, Mentor to the Head Coach, Performance Analyst, Sports Psychologist, three Scouts, and a Team Manager. The data are presented in a temporal manner and organized according to three core values which were espoused by and later adopted as a value system by the support team: candor, humility, community. The data provide novel insight into the recruitment, formation, and development of the support team underpinned by a value system promoted by the Head Coach using candor, humility, and community. The presentation of longitudinal reflections from the Head Coach and members of the staff team during their build-up to, and excellent performance at the World Cup finals offer a significant contribution to knowledge regarding how a values-led approach was experienced in elite sport. The findings offer salient implications for research and practice.
Lay summary: This is a case study of the selection, formation, and development of a support team for the Swedish national football team over 21 months before the men’s 2018 FIFA World Cup. We explored the values-led leadership approach of the Head Coach across this period, presenting data from interviews over time-related to the impact of this values-led approach on the “team behind the team” in the build-up to and during the World Cup.
• Applied implications
• Psychologists and coaches might benefit from adopting a values-led approach to recruitment and ways of working.
• The values of candor, humility, and community were effectively articulated and role modeled by the leader and subsequently adopted by members of the support team. Although the specific values may not be suitable, the processes and critical moments that defined this adoption process might be valuable for others to reflect on.
• Values systems might benefit from “stress testing” over a period of time that is characterized by the relative stability of personnel and consistency of value messaging.
... In a rugby match, there are 15 players on the field from each team, and each team has eight substitutes. A match at senior level is usually 80 min in duration (Quarrie et al., 2001) which is split into two halves with no time outs and a short half-time period of fifteen minutes (Hodge et al., 2014). There is a range of different playing positions, each with its own set of demands. ...
To overcome the challenges associated with navigating the talent development pathway to professional rugby, players must possess certain psychological skills and characteristics (PSCs), e.g., motivation, confidence, and coping skills. It is essential to understand the PSCs that assist players in successfully transitioning through a talent development pathway and at the professional level, as that knowledge could be applied to enhancing psychological support. The goal of this narrative review was to synthesise research examining the PSCs that contribute to rugby players overcoming challenges to optimise their performance. To ensure objectivity within this review, a systematic approach was taken to the literature search and selection process of papers. Four databases were searched, and the key search terms used were “rugby” “psych*” “mental” and various combinations of these terms. From this process, ten relevant papers were identified. The review revealed that players need to possess a range of PSCs, notably motivation, commitment, coping skills, confidence, focus and self-regulation to navigate the talent development pathway in rugby successfully. It is suggested that players should be taught a wide range of psychological skills so they can develop the skills and characteristics to enable them to deal with the challenges they face and to optimise their performance. Future research should examine whether a training programme based on the PSCs identified would have positive effects on players navigating the talent development pathway to professional rugby.
... Hence, our findings provide further evidence of the benefit of an perceived athlete leadership quality approach in team sports settings. A possible explanation for this relationship is that leaders' inspirational motivation for their followers, who accept their leaders' collective view, is likely to promote these positive behaviors (e.g., commitment; Hodge et al., 2014;Fransen et al., 2017) and engage the teammates, correlating with high inside sacrifices (Cronin et al., 2015). Therefore, when athletes perceive their teammates as good leaders, they will probably sacrifice more to achieve team goals. ...
The study aimed to analyze the relationship between athletes' perceptions of athlete leadership quality, team identification, inside sacrifice, and performance. A total of 299 players of collective sports (soccer, beach soccer, basketball, volleyball; M age 19.05, SD = 5.10) participated through a cross-sectional design survey. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results highlight the positive relationships between perceived quality of athlete leaders, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance, and between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. Furthermore, inside sacrifice perceived by the athletes was a positive mediator between perceived athlete leadership quality and perceived performance. Also, team identification was a positive mediator in the association between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. These findings extend knowledge about the athlete leadership quality context. These results can also be useful for further research and implications in team sports' performance, as coaches and sports psychologists would have more information about their teams' perceptions of leadership quality to achieve positive outcomes in players' inside sacrifice and performance. The findings also highlight the importance of developing team identification to improve the relationships between perceived athlete leadership quality, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance.
... Prior to the interviews, trust and rapport were built in order that participants would provide truthful and exhaustive data for precise and valid analysis (Hodge et al., 2014). In addition, the researchers also ensured that the questions in the interview guide were open-ended and non-leading (Patton, 2002). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of an educational game to enhance student learning effectiveness. This study consisted of 56 college students majoring in physical education and recreation management (32 men, 24 women, age M = 21 years, SD = 1.72). Students used the educational computer game “PaGamO” to study the motor learning and development course. Students received rewards based on their individual and group “PaGamO” scores. Regression analysis indicated that “PaGamO” score was a significant ( p < 0.01) predictor of multiple choice (MC) score in the final examination, there was a medium positive correlation (β = 0.354). The R ² suggests that 12.6% of MC score was explained by “PaGamO” score. Quantitative and qualitative mixed-method approach was used to gain insights into students’ perceptions and experiences of the educational game. The top three statements of a modified questionnaire from Riemer and Schrader (2015) are: (1) “ In my opinion, the use of ‘PaGamO’ enables me to better prepare for the final examination ” ( M = 5.04, SD = 1.41 ), (2) “ In my opinion, the use of ‘PaGamO’ enables me to understand learning contents ” ( M = 4.8, SD = 1.19 ), (3) “ In my opinion, the use of ‘PaGamO’ allows me to apply knowledge ” ( M = 4.75, SD = 1.08 ). The top three motives to play “PaGamO” were “fun,” “self-learning,” and “want to get a higher grade in the final examination.” By using gamification as a tool for learning and studying, students did find “PaGamO” effective for their learning experience. Both intrinsic and extrinsic participation motives are reasons why students play “PaGamO.” Furthermore, due to its convenience, using mobile devices to play “PaGamO” is more popular than using computers and tablet devices. In conclusion, the combination of gamification and traditional learning methods can enhance students’ learning outcomes.
... High performance contexts invariably include a range of personnel forming the support team such as assistant and specialist coaches, sport scientists, manager, medical staff and performance director as well as other key stakeholders including media, agents, and athletes' families. Another key finding from our review was that managing the team that supports the athletes was consider by coaches and athletes as crucial to ensuring conditions were favourable for athletes to thrive Din et al., 2015;Fletcher & Streeter, 2016;Gomes, et al., 2018;Hodge, et al., They also found that coaches were decisive 'conductors', managing and leading the group of athletes, sport scientists and support staff to become a unified team and 'bring the best out of everyone'. ...
This chapter provides a review of the recent research examining coaching high performance athletes. We first explore who are the athletes and coaches and what are the contexts that comprise this coaching domain. Recognising the diversity within this domain and diversity of approaches researchers have adopted our review attempts to span disciplinary boundaries and develop themes that represent commonalities in the process and practices of coaching high performance athletes. The research findings are discussed under five themes: vision, philosophy, quality relationships, high performing culture and coaching strategies. We offer our views on these findings and areas for further development through research. The chapter then turns to the implications for coaches and researchers. Here we offer an integrated framework that may provide some structure through which to navigate the complex and dynamic process and practices of coaching high performance athletes and connect disciplinary-based theory and concepts to understand the realities of coaching in this domain.
... For example, team cohesion and culture have been linked to the sporting success of both the individual and team in professional rugby. [11] Taylor and Bruner [12] found a negative relationship between psychological need satisfaction and social exclusion in elite youth soccer players of black-and white-English ethnic origin. A team environment in which all players can feel comfortable to express themselves both on and off the field, and believing that they have the support of the team leadership, can only enhance both individual and team performance. ...
Background: The small number of black African (BA) cricket players progressing through the talent development pathways to the elite level has been a constant concern for Cricket South Africa (CSA). Previous attempts to accelerate the development of BA players have not produced the desired results. A description of the barriers to development is imperative for appropriate interventions. Objectives: To understand the career progression of BA cricketers in South Africa by investigating their and other key informants' perceptions, and identifying factors that may influence progress to the elite level. Methods: A qualitative study consisting of 23 semi-structured interviews with BA players who had succeeded at the senior level (n = 11), and key informants (n = 12), was conducted. Content analysis of the data identified 92 themes, which were then aggregated into 12 categories. Results: Five enablers (exposure to the game, education, facilities and equipment, coaching and support networks), and five barriers (team environment, quality opportunities to compete, socioeconomic factors, cricket player development pathways and leadership) were identified. Two further factors (intrapersonal attributes and targets) were identified, but the differing opinions of the interviewees on the influence of these variables made it difficult to classify them. Whilst all categories were perceived to contribute in the progress of BA players to the elite level, education, support networks, quality opportunities to compete, team environment and socioeconomic factors were believed to be the most important. Conclusion: The sustainable transformation of South African cricket appears to be not only about ensuring demographically representative teams, but also about addressing barriers affecting progress that may be experienced by all players. This study highlighted the key factors that are perceived to be specific to BA cricketers.
... As it pertains to sport, divergent perspectives regarding smaller groupings within a superordinate team have been described. Specifically, subgroups have been situated as divisions in a team that produce conflict and should be avoided (e.g., Yukelson, 1997) or as potential assets for advancing teams' productivity and leadership effectiveness (e.g., Hodge et al., 2014). For instance, researchers have indicated that subgroups could be linked to intragroup conflict (Paradis et al., 2014), a lack of cohesion (Eys et al., 2009), and athlete stress (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003), while other researchers have noted how formal athlete leader subgroups can promote accountability and shared responsibility (e.g., Fransen et al., 2020). ...
The purpose of this research was to develop a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms that shape athletes’ perceptions and experiences of subgroups, with the purview of advancing a sport subgroup conceptualisation. We employed a four-phase qualitative design grounded in critical realism, whereby we: (1) conducted six focus group interviews (n = 28 interuniversity athletes), (2) proposed a preliminary conceptualisation based on relevant theory and themes from Phase 1, (3) undertook a conceptualisation review process with group dynamics scholars (n = 5), and (4) reengaged six athletes from Phase 1 for individual reflection interviews. Our resulting conceptualisation suggests that experiences with subgroups are based on the extent to which athletes recognise their presence (i.e., observability) and the associated behaviours (i.e., behavioural) demonstrated by the observed subgroups. These two dimensions subsequently inform athlete affective, behavioural, and cognitive outcomes. We advocate for a nuanced approach to exploring subgroups in sport and provide suggestions for future research and practical advancements.
... Research has demonstrated that successful coaches offer their athletes more choices and accept the athletes' input throughout the training process (115,170). Autonomy-supportive coaching behaviors include (a) free time during the session to allow the athlete to practice self-determined areas of strengths or weaknesses, (b) empowering the athlete to choose a training activity from a coach selected list of activities, (c) providing an objective of the session and reasoning why this will happen in the session, at the start of each session, (d) having a practitioner with the emotional intelligence to listen to the athlete's feedback and implement athlete feedback in future sessions, and (e) avoiding controlling and humiliating behaviors that coerce or shame the athlete into performing a skill or task particular way (8, 64,76,93,132). When an autonomous-supportive environment is created, 3 fundamental psychological needs are met, including (a) the need for choice and autonomy, (b) the need to learn and feel competent, and (c) the need to feel connected and ability to relate to others (24). ...
Youth athletic development is an important quality for sports performance and most importantly in lifelong participation in sport and physical activity. The physical development of children and adolescents must be considered when programming different bio-motor qualities of physical training. The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) and participation in Gaelic sports is an integral part of children and adolescents' informative years in Ireland with clubs
... Importantly, coaches who develop a task-oriented climate may be fostering positive athlete outcomes. Coaches who believe in building a strong team vision and establishing a sport culture have been successful (Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014). For instance, this may lead to increased perceptions of similarity and social identity in a group (Kramer & Lewicki, 2010). ...
Coaches play an important role in fostering a positive social environment in youth sport. Research has explored the social environment from the perspective of athletes engaged in interdependent sport, but less is known about coaches’ perceptions, especially for sport types that differ along the continuum of task interdependence. The purpose of this study was to explore coaches’ perceptions of the social environment in integrated and contrient recreational sports. Seven gymnastics and seven ice hockey coaches participated in semi-structured interviews, and transcripts were analyzed thematically. All coaches perceived a positive social environment to consist of supportive teammates, which encouraged athletes’ sport commitment. Interestingly, coaches had not received any formal education on facilitating athlete relationships within a team. Additionally, whereas gymnastics coaches described the development of a caring climate, ice hockey coaches focused on performance— both with intentions of improving athlete experiences. Future directions and implications for coach education are offered.
... Every developmental stage presents different challenges and the games must be designed, taught and assessed accordingly. The tactical meaning of a small-sided game is best perceived by expert players, who can figure out the activity's ultimate purpose (Hodge, Henry & Smith, 2014). Recent interventions with beginners highlight the players' technical fragilities as a limit to the full exploitation of the pedagogical value of games (Santos & Morgan, 2019). ...
... The current study identified that world-class coaches develop a robust and collaborative relationship with their athletes when developing psychological resilience for long-term achievement. Research by Mallett and Lara-Bercial (2016) recognized that while collaborative coach-athlete relationships have been reported in elite sport (Hodge, Henry, & Smith 2014), this style of leadership has not been frequently cited when considering successful performance under pressure at the world-class level. Coaches also identified that creating a facilitative environment enhanced the athletes' ability to withstand stressors. ...
Although there is burgeoning research on resilience in elite athletes, there has been no empirical investigation of resilience in elite coaches. The purpose of this study was to explore psychological resilience in world-class coaches and how they develop resilience in athletes. A longitudinal qualitative design was adopted due to the dynamic and temporal nature of resilience. Five Olympic medal–winning coaches (four males and one female) were interviewed twice over a 12-month swimming season. Reflexive thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data. Findings revealed 14 higher order themes, which were categorized into the following three general dimensions: coach stressors (managing the Olympic environment, preparation for major events, coach personal well-being, directing an organization); coach protective factors (progressive coaching, coaching support network, maintaining work/life balance, secure working environment, durable motivation, effective decision making); and enhancing resilience in athletes (developing a strong coach–athlete relationship, creating a facilitative environment, developing a resilience process, athlete individual factors). The results are presented to demonstrate the interplay between coach stressors and protective factors over time, which offers an original and significant contribution to the resilience literature by providing a unique insight into the dynamic and temporal nature of resilience in Olympic medal–winning coaches.
... Moreover, an autonomy-supportive coaching style can facilitate the relationship between coaches and their athletes (e.g., Gilchrist & Mallett, 2016;Occhino, Mallett, Rynne, & Carlisle, 2014). Additionally, such a coaching style also benefits the overall performance environment (e.g., Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014;Mallett, 2005). Creating a positive, supportive, and engaging working environment in which athletes and coaches feel a sense of belonging also helps to prevent dysfunctional conflict from taking place. ...
Örgütler küreselleşmeyle birlikte değişen rekabet koşullarına ve çevre koşularına uyum sağlamak,kaynaklarını etkin kullanılabilmeye yönelik küçülme stratejisi ortaya koyabilmektedir. Örgütsel küçülme stratejisi, insan kaynağının etkin şekilde yönetilmesi gerekliliğini beraberinde getirmektedir. Uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları örgütsel değerler, yaklaşım ve istihdam politikalarının belirlenmesi, örgüt çalışan ve yöneticilerinin nasıl davranması gerektiğini ortaya koyan kurumsal
değerin oluşmasına katkı sağlayan unsurları içermektedir. Bu doğrultuda bu çalışma ile küçülme sürecinde uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları ve yöneticilerinin algıları arasında nasıl bir ilişki olduğunu ve küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkileri nitel bir araştırma yöntemiyle ortaya konulmak istenmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucuna göre çıkan kodlar küçülme süreci ve yönetici algıları arasında adil ve şeffaf olma, faydacı ve geride kalan çalışanlara yönelik plan ve program yapmadır. Ayrıca, çıkan sonuçlar küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkilerini örgütsel bağlılığın ve güvenin azaldığını, motivasyon sorununun ve psikolojik iş baskısı olduğunu göstermektedir.
High-performance sport is still not appropriately addressing issues that perpetuate women's underrepresentation in elite sport coaching and leadership. Therefore, it is also unlikely representation for other minority groups in high-performance sport will be achieved any time soon. For high-performance sport to progress, there is an opportunity to create environments that foster a variety of coaching styles with diverse racial, ethnic and gender identities. This paper points to statistics from elite football and Olympic sports to highlight the issue of the underrepresentation of women coaches in high-performance sport and draws upon a range of literature to inform an evidence-based and strategic approach to designing development in the context of increasing coach and leader gender diversity in these settings. It explores leadership in high-performance sport, learning and development, and high-performance sport environments. We argue future focused development should prepare high-performance sport leaders to intervene at an environmental level where they provide leadership, facilitate performance enablers, and engage athletes and performance staff to shape cultural change
Compared to the performance of individuals, groups and teams perform surprisingly well in some situations and surprisingly poorly in others. Therefore, this chapter aims to clarify under which circumstances one or the other applies and which phenomena and processes play a role in sport contexts. First, important definitions and theories concerning the area of groups and teams are presented. Second, the phenomenon of social loafing, which leads to a loss of performance within groups, is discussed. In contrast, the focus of the third section is performance gains in groups, followed by theoretical explanations regarding both aspects. Fourth, group-related phenomena that have a scientifically supported effect on group performance are presented. Finally, validated instruments are demonstrated, which can be used to measure important group-related constructs.KeywordsTeam performanceDyadGroup tasksSocial loafingSocial compensationMotivational climateEmpowering climateLeadershipTeam rolesSocial identityTeam identificationGroup cohesionCollective efficacyTeam trustTeam diagnostics
The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives of elite professional football coaches when their team has experienced a “losing streak” of at least three consecutive matches. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 elite coaches from the National Rugby League, Australian Football League, and Super Rugby or international-level Rugby Union. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the development of six themes, which were organized under a practical three-phase framework. The “pre” phase included (a) team environment; the “during” phase included (b) context of the streak influences strategy, (c) coach approach with the team, (d) disruption in the team dynamic, (e) the coaches’ personal response; and the “post” phase included (f) poststreak reflection. These coaches encountered complex multifactorial contextual situations, which required them to accurately assess the underlying issues that were causing failure and decide on a leadership approach that would reverse underperformance. Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the temporal dimension of coaches’ approaches to losing streaks and highlight the critical process involved in establishing a team environment capable of responding with positive individual and collective cognitive and behavioral responses following successive losses.
This study analyzes the leadership behaviours that have helped shape a successful university soccer team in Korea. More specifically, the research focuses on both vertical and shared leadership in a team. To gain an in-depth understanding of how the ‘Y team’ could have had so much continuous success over an eight-year period, this study uses a total of 16 semi-structured interviews with athletes and coaches. The study showed some first insights that the team can generate excellence even without top-ranked players when operating under a combined vertical and shared leadership approach. Useful implications for current and future soccer coaches exploring how to develop and implement various leadership behaviours were addressed.
The successful development of Transformational Leadership (TFL) theory has influenced research in organizational psychology since the 1980s. Research shows that TFL has been effective not only in the domain of business but also in the military, education, parenting, and public sectors. Sport psychology researchers became interested in TFL in the early 2000s. The TFL behaviors in sport include individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, fostering teamwork, high performance expectation, and appropriate role modeling. The focus of the current review paper is to examine and organize research on TFL in the sport coaching literature. More specifically, the effects of coaches’ TFL behavior on the psychological and behavioral aspects of athletes are reviewed. The previous literature was organized into 7 themes: performance, training attitude, motivation, self-efficacy, cohesion, satisfaction, and psychological development. It is recommended that future research should examine the effect of TFL on desired psychological and behavioral outcomes of athletes and include it in sport coaching education.
Adventure sports offer an exciting area of investigation regarding pedagogical best practices. Previous research points to the evolution of adventure sports coaching with the development and implementation of the PPTT (physical, psychological, technical, and tactical) framework. However, there is a missing area of consideration within the PPTT framework: the individual participating in the adventure sport. The growth and diversification of adventure sports necessitate consideration of language and reflection between the coach and athlete, and the current paper proposes the integration of a multicultural education lens to support this process. Thus, the main purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of the PPTT as a framework to support reflective processes and as a common language to facilitate the coach–athlete relationship.
Based on a condition-setting approach derived from organizational psychology, the authors investigated the conditions that university sport coaches considered and implemented prior to a competitive season. Using a collective case study approach, semistructured interviews were conducted at two time points, with five head coaches across different sports. Student-athletes from each team ( n = 5) and the high performance director from the institution were also interviewed. The data were analyzed thematically to highlight the relevant conditions for coaches and their individual athletes and were then generalized across teams within the institution. The authors’ results support the utility of the condition-setting approach outlined by Hackman for sport. Specifically, coaches emphasized the need to (a) create a team vision with clear objectives, (b) opt for athletes of best fit, (c) assign team roles and expectations, (d) confirm and allocate necessary resources, and (e) have competent and prepared team coaching. Despite the generalizability of these themes, the authors’ results highlight the need to consider the context, as both the university environment generally and each specific program were bound by unique constraints (e.g., funding). Herein, the authors discuss their findings in relation to the broader literature, propose future directions, and provide practical implications for sport coaches and institutions.
In this article we challenge deterministic practices on learning and development, biased towards individual properties of learners (e.g., genetic endowment) and knowledge acquisition (e.g., internal representations). These traditional approaches typically fail to account for environmental influences which may interact in unique ways with relevant personal characteristics of learners. To challenge these deterministic approaches, we present a conceptual framework that combines niche construction theory and ecological dynamics, positioning behaviour at the ecological level of analysis where highly skilled behaviour emerges from the individual-environment system. To substantiate this conceptual framework, we investigate the insights and experiential knowledge of professional sports coaches on their practice designs. Results revealed how athletes and coaches value the capacity to modify athlete-environment interactions influencing opportunities for action in a practice context. This novel conceptual framework can inform the designs of contemporary learning and development practices that positively influence the evolution of skilled behaviours in different individuals.
Keywords: Niche construction theory, ecological psychology, ecological dynamics, learning and development, sport coaching
This chapter introduces the leadership efficacy model applied to sports coaching. It is proposed in the model that leadership efficacy depends on the congruence between the conceptual cycle of leadership and the practical cycle of leadership and also by considering the leadership styles assumed by coaches and the moderating influence of the antecedent factors of leadership. This chapter discusses how these three elements of the model (leadership cycles, leadership styles, and the antecedent factors of leadership) apply to sports coaches and concur to explain their efficacy in leading athletes and teams. The model includes four hypotheses (congruence of leadership cycles, optimal leadership profile, favourability of conditions for leadership, and optimized congruence hypothesis of leadership) that will be presented according empirical finding about leadership and sports coaching. The final part of the chapter presents some practical implications of the model to the work of coaches.
Sport settings have long been viewed as environments that can foster youth athletes’ positive psychological development. Consequently, sport coaches are increasingly called upon to create environments that nurture this development. The purpose of this chapter is to provide insight into some of the most influential conceptual and empirical research findings that help guide coaching practices in building learning environments that are structured to meet the needs and desires of youth athletes. This will be accomplished by reviewing four popular and empirically tested coaching frameworks: Mastery Approach to Coaching, Positive Youth Development in Sport, Life Skills Development Model, and Humanistic Coaching. Insights gained from these frameworks informed our recommendations for creating ideal youth sport environments: promote learning and development over winning, create a supportive environment, intentionally plan and promote the development of positive developmental outcomes (PDO), facilitate opportunities to practice PDO, promote and facilitate the transfer of PDO, and consider athletes’ individual differences and wider social environment. Given the worldwide movement towards appropriate developmental opportunities for children and youth, this chapter offers helpful recommendations for coaches and other important stakeholders involved in children’s development.
This study aimed to examine the Collective Efficacy (CE) and Group Cohesion (GC) of players belonging to Japanese high school and university rugby teams, and to verify the associations between these concepts and educational stage and playing opportunities. The sample comprised 766 male high school and college rugby players, who belonged to highly competitive teams that have participated in national competitions. The breakdown of the sample was as follows: high school-roster players (116); high school-non-roster players, (206); university-roster players (108); and university-non-roster players (336). The survey was conducted in-season for control purposes, and only the winning teams in matches preceding and following the survey were targeted. The Japanese translated version of the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sports (CEQS) was used to verify CE, and a Japanese translated version of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) was used to verify GC. Furthermore, two-way analysis of variance was performed on the values of the dependent variables for each level of the independent variables of educational stages (high school, university) shown as the total score of CE. Simple main effects analysis results indicated that, in the case of high school and university students, roster players displayed higher values than non-roster players. In addition, in the case of roster and non-roster players, high school students displayed higher values than university students. On the other hand, no interaction was shown for the total score of GC. A main effect of educational stage was observed in the analysis results, where high school students displayed higher values than university students. Moreover, regarding playing opportunities, roster players displayed higher values than non-roster players.
In addition, this study's results demonstrate that all subscales of both concepts displayed similarities to the total scores; strongly suggesting that an association exists between different educational stages and playing opportunities, as well as between the concepts themselves. This showed that differences in CE and GC arose from differing educational stages and playing opportunities. The findings obtained in the present study can provide helpful insights that inform coaching and management of team sports in season.
Drawing on social cognitive theory, we examined a cross-level interaction between coach transformational leadership and the within-individual change in evaluations of perceived coaching competency over a season. We applied linear growth modeling to analyze 246 collegiate competitive basketball players (147 males and 99 females from 24 teams). Our results revealed that coaches with high transformational leadership were evaluated as having a decrease in perceived coaching competency over time. In contrast, coaches with low transformational leadership were evaluated as having an increase in perceived coaching competency over time. Implications for coaching education in terms of theory and research are discussed.
Object of research was motivation of the Lithuanian army soldiers and the influence of physical training instructors on the soldiers’ motivation.
Aim of research is to reveal the motivation of the Lithuanian army soldiers regarding physical training exercise and the influence of physical training instructors on motivation.
Methodology of research. 242 soldiers of Lithuanian Armed Forces were interviewed by questionnaires in total. 30% of which are compulsory primary military service soldiers. The age of the soldiers in the research ranges from 18 to 54 years and the length of service varies between 1 and 30 years. In order to achieve aim and goals of research 3 scales as anonymous questionnaires were used: Situational motivation scale; The Amotivation
Inventory-Physical education scale and Interpersonal behaviour scale. The participants of the research had to evaluate every statement of scales using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. The analysis of research data has been carried out using SPSS 21.0. Reliability and inner coherence of the sub-scales have been found grounding on the following: Cronbach α coefficient; correlations of the statement with the subscale by the Item-total Correlation coefficient and Cronbach α c, efficient having eliminated the statement.
Conclusions. Analysis of the causal relationships between the Situational Motivation Scale subscales and the Amotivation Inventory-Physical Education showed that soldiers are more likely to be motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. It has been revealed that soldiers are most involved in physical training with identified regulation of external motivation. The statements describing intrinsic motivation are also highly valued. The
intrinsic motivation of the soldiers is characterized by self-confidence, physical training exercises are attractive to them, the soldiers value the exercise as a value, and believe in the benefits of their efforts.
In physical training, physical education instructors are most successful in creating the conditions for soldiers to meet their need for excellence. Soldiers highly value the feeling of belonging to a collective. Physical training instructors have a moderate influence on soldiers’ sense of autonomy. Based on the results of the physical support training provided by physical education instructors, physical education instructors help soldiers to meet
their basic psychological needs and create more intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for physical education. The level of a motivation of the soldiers in physical training exercises was found to be below average. There was no statistically significant relationship between the physical support instructors’ social support and the soldiers’ motivated behavioural physical exercise. There was a weak negative correlation between the soldiers’ lack of
confidence in their efforts and the need to belong to a team. When soldiers meet the need for teamwork during physical training, they are more confident in their efforts. Soldiers’ amotivated behaviour during physical training exercises occurs when the exercise is tedious, monotonous, which causes a lack of energy and a reluctance to exert effort.
Keywords: soldiers, situational motivation, autonomy, social support, amotivation.
This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (1) Theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (2) One cannot generalize from a single case, therefore the single case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (3) The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, while other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (4) The case study contains a bias toward verification; and (5) It is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. The article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and that a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of more good case studies.
A field investigation of 337 employees and their immediate superiors tested the mediating role of empowerment in relations between job characteristics, leader-member exchange (LMX), team-member exchange (TMX), and work outcomes. The meaning and competence dimensions of empowerment mediated the relation between job characteristics and work satisfaction. The meaning dimension also mediated the relation between job characteristics and organizational commitment. Contrary to prediction, empowerment did not mediate relations between LMX, TMX, and the outcome variables. Rather, LMX and TMX were directly related to organizational commitment. In addition,TMX was directly related to job performance. These findings suggest that work satisfaction is explained largely by job characteristics (through empowerment) but that LMX and TMX combine with job characteristics and empowerment to explain variation in organizational commitment and job performance.
Similar to an effective leader in business, a high-performance sports coach requires qualities beyond technical and tactical acumen, such as leadership and the ability to facilitate a functional leader-follower relationship. Underpinning this dynamic relationship that exists between the coach and athlete is a leader's acumen associated with emotional intelligence (EI). This article aims to highlight the utility of EI for high-performance sport coaches, and provide concrete examples as to how EI might enhance a coaches' ability to lead and direct the production of high-performance with their staff and athletes. First, a brief overview of the link between EI and leadership quality is presented. Second, Mayer and Salovey's (1997) four-branch model of EI (i.e., perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions) will be used as a framework for demonstrating how a coach may use such abilities to lead and produce high-performance.
Multidimensional models of leadership in sport suggest that in order to maximize performance there should be congruence between the actual coaching behaviour and behaviours preferred by players. This study examined the preferred coaching leadership behaviours in prolonged periods of perceived success and failure in eighty-eight elite soccer players in Norway using the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS). The three preferred behaviours were Positive Feedback, Training & Instruction, and Democratic Behaviour in both scenarios. All preferred behaviours (except Autocratic Behaviour) were higher in the unsuccessful scenario (p < .01). Negative relationships existed between age/experience and Social Support, Democratic Behaviours and Positive Feedback in the successful scenario and between age/experience and Social Support and Democratic Behaviours in the unsuccessful scenario (p < .05). The findings therefore have implications for adapting coaching leadership behaviours when players of different ages and with different levels of experience encounter prolonged periods of success or failure.
The purpose of the article is to outline a comprehensive conceptual framework for life skills interventions by integrating aspects of Basic Needs Theory (BNT) and Life Development Intervention (LDI). In particular, we advocate the integration of (a) the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and (b) the needs-supportive motivationalclimate from BNT with the LDI framework. When these basic psychological needs are satisfied, people experience positive psychological development and optimal psychological well-being—the stated outcome goals of most life skills programs. Without the development of a conceptual framework, it is difficult to determine whether individual life skills interventions achieve optimal psychological well-being. By developing this framework, we seek to identify and articulate the key underlying psychological mechanisms (i.e., basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) that contribute to optimal human functioning and positive psychosocial development in all life skill programs. The implications for counseling psychologists’ research and practice are also considered.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of perceived motivational climate to cohesion and collective efficacy in elite female teams. A total of 124 basketball and handball athletes completed two season measures (T1, T2). Relationships were examined at an individual level both statically and across time. Canonical correlations revealed that a combination of high perceptions of an ego-involving but low perceptions of a task-involving climate were associated with low perceptions of task cohesion at Time 1. High perceptions of a task-involving but low perceptions of an ego-involving climate were associated with higher perceptions of task cohesion and collective efficacy at Time 2. Moreover, low perceptions of an ego-involving and moderately low perceptions of a task-involving climate were associated with high perceptions of social cohesion at Time 2. Regression analyses including autoregressive influence indicated that a task-involving climate positively predicted variance in T2 group integration-task and collective efficacy after controlling for T1 scores. In contrast, an ego-involving climate negatively predicted changes in T2 athletes’ perceptions of social cohesion (individual attractions to the group-social [ATG-S], group integration-social [GI-S]) and group integration-task [GI-T] after controlling for T1 scores. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The sporting arena is replete with examples and anecdotes of great inspirational coaches that have led teams to success, often in the face of adversity and against seemingly better opponents. The role of the coach in developing and motivating athletes has also been the focus of much research in sport psychology (e.g., Challaduria 1990; Smith & Smoll, 2007). Despite the ease with which one readily accepts that coaches can be inspirational, the sport coaching literature is somewhat devoid of research on inspirational coaches and the effects of such coaches on athletic success. The purpose of the current paper is to theoretically delineate the inspirational effects of coaches in sport. Given the relative paucity of inspiration-related research in sport we draw upon contemporary theories of leadership from organisational and military psychology (e.g., transformational and charismatic leadership theories). We propose a sport-specific model of leadership that centres around the vision, support, and challenge meta-cognitive model developed by Arthur and Hardy in military contexts. The model posits that ‘great’ coaches inspire their athletes by: (a) creating an inspirational vision of the future; (b) providing the necessary support to achieve the vision; and (c) providing the challenge to achieve the vision. The underlying proposition is that the vision provides meaning and direction for followers’ effort. That is, the vision serves as the beacon around which all the sweat, pain and sacrifice involved in achieving success at the highest level in sport is directed. At the heart of this model is the notion that athletes can achieve their dreams provided they are inspired to do so; this is because all other things being equal the person who is motivated to practice longer and train harder will ultimately be the best. The current paper will delineate the coach’s role in inspiring the athlete to train harder and longer.
In preparation for the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic Games, the lead author engaged in systematic reflection in an attempt to implement coaching behaviours and create practice environments that promoted athlete development (psycho-social and physical performance). The research was carried out in relation to his work as head Ski Cross coach working with (primarily) three athletes in their quest for Olympic qualification and subsequent performance success in the Olympic Games. This project sought to examine coach-athlete interactions. Of particular interest were coach and athlete responses regarding the implementation of autonomy supportive coaching behaviours in a high context. Autonomy supportive coaching behaviours have previously been strongly associated with positive athlete psycho-social and performance outcomes, however, a paucity of research has examined its implementation in high-performance contexts. Through the use of participant ethnography, it was possible to gain considerable insights regarding athletes’ perceptions of choice, implications of perceived athletic hierarchies, as well as cultural and experience-related influences on training and performance expectations.
The present study explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Three hundred and nine club standard ultimate Frisbee players in the United Kingdom (mean age = 24.30 years, SD = 3.90) completed an adapted version of Hardy, Arthur, Jones, Shariff, Munnoch, Isaacs, and Allsopp et al.'s (in press) Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial and discriminant validity of the leadership inventory. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion; and fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting teamwork significantly predicted social cohesion. Performance level moderated these relationships. These results are discussed with reference to the conceptualization and measurement of transformational leadership, and how coaches’ leadership behaviors may influence cohesion depending on the level of athletes’ performance.
Statement of problem: A variety of conceptions of qualitative research exist. This leads to a situation in which there are competing claims as to what counts as good-quality work. These competing claims revolve around the issue of criteria and how they are used to pass judgment on qualitative research. Those involved in sport and exercise sciences need to reflect on this issue with a view to generating further dialogue and a greater understanding of difference within the research community. Method: Two ideal types of researcher, one a criteriologist the other a relativist, are constructed to illustrate how each might judge qualitative studies of different kinds. Results: A comparison of the ways in which the criteriologist and the relativist draw on different assumptions to judge qualitative studies illustrates the constraining nature of the former and the expansive possibilities of the latter. Conclusions: Criteria should be viewed as lists of characterizing traits that are open to reinterpretation as times, conditions, and purposes change. Researchers need to adopt the role of connoisseur in order to pass judgment on different kinds of study in a fair and ethical manner.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between transformational leadership and a transactional leadership component (management by exception‐active), and fulfillment of the basic needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is based on cross sectional data from 661 employees who completed validated questionnaires such as the the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) and the basic need satisfaction at work (BNSW). The data were analysed using structural equation modeling in AMOS 18.0.
Findings
The results show that both transformational leadership and the transactional behavior management by exception active are significantly related to fulfillment of the basic needs. Significant regression weights of 0.50 ( p <0.01) 0.46 ( p <0.01), and 0.21 ( p <0.01) from transformational leadership to relatedness, autonomy and competence were also found. Negative and smaller paths were revealed from management by exception to relatedness (=−0.12, p <0.01), competence (=−0.12, p <0.05), and autonomy (=−0.18, p <0.01). Squared multiple correlations ( R ² ) for relatedness, competence and autonomy were 0.28, 0.06, and 0.27, respectively.
Originality/value
The paper empirically addresses the theoretically suggested link between transformational leadership and need fulfillment.
Narrative inquiry, as one form of qualitative research, has recently attracted some interest within the field of sport and exercise psychology. Seeking to be theoretically imaginative and instigate dialogue, this article focuses attention on five main issues within ongoing conversations among sport and exercise psychology researchers who promote and/or engage in narrative research. Theoretically inspired and grounded, these interrelated issues include, motivations for why researchers have turned to narrative, the concept of ‘the self’, interviewing, the issue of ‘truth’, and representation. Some implications of these issues for sport and exercise psychology are also highlighted. The article closes with some reflections about the future directions that narrative inquiry might take.
Psychologists occasionally study eminent individuals, such as Nobel laureates, U.S. presidents, Olympic athletes, chess grandmasters, movie stars, and even distinguished psychologists. Studies using such significant samples may be differentiated along 7 distinct dimensions: qualitative versus quantitative, single versus multiple case, nomothetic versus idiographic, confirmatory versus exploratory, cross-sectional versus longitudinal, micro versus macro analytical units, and direct versus indirect assessments. However, the vast majority of psychological inquiries may be clustered into just 4 types: historiometric, psychometric, psychobiographical, and comparative. After presenting the intrinsic and extrinsic justifications for studying famous persons, the main methodological issues concerning sampling, measurement, and analysis are discussed. The future prospects of significant samples in psychological research are then briefly examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on an ethnographic study of a collegiate soccer team over an eight month season, the purpose of this paper is to identify and examine the factors that contributed to team cohesion. Participants, aged 18–27 yrs, were members of the football (soccer) team at a university in England. Data were collected via participant observation, formal and informal interviews, documentary sources, a field diary, and a reflexive journal. The description-analysis-interpretation approach recommended by H. Wolcott (1994) framed the data analysis. Four key themes that influenced cohesion were clear and meaningful roles, selfishness/personal sacrifices, communication, and team goals. The fluctuating nature of these themes are discussed in relation to the multidimensional heuristic for cohesion presented by A. Cota et al (1995). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of the present study was threefold: a) to evaluate the standing on emotional intelligence of National Hockey League players, relative to the general population, b) to evaluate the relationship of draft rank and emotional intelligence (EI) measures to hockey performance, and c) to evaluate the relative predictive value of these measures to performance indices: total NHL points and NHL games played. During the 2003-04 hockey season, 79 players across 24 NHL teams completed the Bar-On EQ-i. The findings indicated that years-since-draft was the strongest predictor of performance and draft rank was the weakest predictor of performance. With respect to EI, both intrapersonal competency and general mood added significant variance to predictions of number of NHL points and games played. Implications for predicting performance in the NHL, amongst draft prospects, is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We developed and tested a model in which transformational leadership affects sports performance indirectly, through the mediating effects of intrinsic motivation. During the season, 168 university athletes provided data on their perceptions of their coach's transformational leadership and their own intrinsic motivation. At the end of the season, their coaches assessed the performance of the athletes. Using LISREL VIII, three models were estimated following the sequence of mediator tests outlined by Kelloway (1996, 1998). The proposed model received considerable support. The results isolate intrinsic motivation as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and sports performance, suggesting that transformational leadership may enhance intrinsic interest in the task.
Objectives. To examine the relationship of the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and dispositional goal orientations of elite female handball players' (a) perceived individual and team improvement in different facets of the game; (b) satisfaction with their own and the team's game; and (c) ratings of the coach. A second aim was to study whether the dependent variables were best predicted by the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and/or the players' dispositional goal orientations.Design. Cross-sectional.Methods: Elite female handball players (n=181) from 14 teams participating in a national handball competition in Spain completed the Spanish measures of goal orientations and climate and items assessing the dependent variables of interest.Results: When a stronger task-involving climate was perceived, players reported greater performance improvement and satisfaction with performance and held more positive views regarding the coach. Task orientation added a significant proportion of the variance for perceptions of one's own performance improvement. Perceptions of an ego-involving climate were negatively related to overall coach ratings but were positively related to satisfaction with the team's competitive results.Conclusions: The findings are consistent with the tenets of achievement goal theory and provide evidence for the adaptive implications of a task-involving climate in high-level sport. The superior predictive ability of climate over individual goals suggests that interventions targeted at the coach should have an important impact on individual and team motivation.
ObjectivesBased on the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press], the purpose of this study was to propose and test a model which posits that coaches' autonomy support facilitates athletes' self-determined motivation toward a sport activity (i.e., judo). Self-determined motivation promotes athletes' situational self-determined motivation before a competition, that in turn, predicts their sport performance.MethodA total of 101 judokas completed questionnaires after the weighting session (i.e., between one and two hours before the beginning of the competitive event). Athletes' objective performance during the competition was obtained via the French Judo Federation.ResultsResults from structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the hypothesized model. These results are in accordance with self-determination theory and the hierarchical model.ConclusionsBy showing that coaches' autonomy support facilitates self-determined motivation and sport performance, the present findings have important implications for a better understanding of the determinants of athletes' performance.
This article outlines the development and initial validation of the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS), a multidimensional self-report measure designed to assess sports coaches' controlling interpersonal style from the perspective of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Study 1 generated a pool of items, based on past literature and feedback from coaches, athletes, and academic experts. The factorial structure of the questionnaire was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses across Studies 2 and 3. The final CCBS model in Study 3 comprised 4 factors (controlling use of rewards, conditional regard, intimidation, and excessive personal control) and was cross-validated using a third independent sample in Study 4. The scale demonstrated good content and factorial validity, as well as internal consistency and invariance across gender and sport type. Suggestions for its use in research pertaining to the darker side of coaching and sport participation are discussed.
The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety-nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions, and social skills, whereas character-building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach-related psychology.
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
Narrative practice is an approach that enables researchers to alternately focus on the whats and hows of meaningful social interaction. The potential benefits of utilizing this approach in sport psychology are highlighted by focusing on the area of flow as an exemplar. It is suggested that the majority of work on flow has focused on the whats rather than on the equally important hows of this phenomenon. To illustrate the ways in which a concern for the hows of narrative practice can provide different insights into flow, data are provided from an interview-based study of a white water canoeing club. The findings suggest that describing flow is a relational performance, which is shaped by a number of narrative resources and auspices that operate differently according to gender.
The author proposes a typology for the case study following a definition wherein various layers of classificatory principle are disaggregated. First, a clear distinction is drawn between two parts: (1) the subject of the study, which is the case itself, and (2) the object, which is the analytical frame or theory through which the subject is viewed and which the subject explicates. Beyond this distinction the case study is presented as classifiable by its purposes and the approaches adopted— principally with a distinction drawn between theory-centered and illustrative study. Beyond this, there are distinctions to be drawn among various operational structures that concern comparative versus noncomparative versions of the form and the ways that the study may employ time. The typology reveals that there are numerous valid permutations of these dimensions and many trajectories, therefore, open to the case inquirer.
Objectives
Little is known about the mechanisms that might mediate the relationship between transformational leadership behaviors and follower outcomes in the sporting domain. The purpose of this study was to examine whether intrateam communication mediated the effects of transformational leadership behaviors on task cohesion.Design/MethodsA cross-sectional study of university level ultimate frisbee players (N = 199). Participants completed a measure assessing their perceptions of their captain's transformational leadership behaviors. Post-competition, participants completed measures assessing perceptions of intrateam communication and task cohesion within their own team.ResultsMultilevel analyses revealed intrateam communication to partially mediate the relationships between two of the transformational leadership behaviors and task cohesion.Conclusions
Intrateam communication is seen to be a mechanism that explains the relationship between transformational leadership and task cohesion. Overall, the results support and add to the range of positive effects associated with transformational leadership in sport, and are suggestive of interventions that may raise levels of team cohesion.
Using a narrative methodology to explore the stories Olympic and elite athletes tell about success, we identified three alternatives to the dominant conception of success as the achievement of performance outcomes. In these alternatives, success is storied as: (1) ‘I did the best that I could’ – a controllable and sustainable story of effort and application; (2) ‘It’s the closest thing you can get to flying’ – a story where success relates to embodied experience and discovery; (3) ‘People I made the journey with’ – which prioritises relationships and connection between people. We reflect on three key insights: (1) success is a multidimensional concept, broader than the singular conception encapsulated within the dominant performance narrative; (2) through various narrative strategies, experienced athletes resist cultural pressures towards a singular conception of success; (3) for long-term performance and well-being, it is necessary to work towards multiple forms of success over time and across contexts.
The relationship between team emotional intelligence (Team EI) of six cricket teams and their sports performance in a South African national cricket competition over two consecutive seasons was investigated. Team EI was based on cricketers measured prior to the start of the competition in each season using the MSCEIT ability test and averaged over all games for that season. This was correlated with a team sports performance measure, the final log points standing for the team at the end of a competition. The results showed that Team EI was positively associated with the sports performance of the cricket teams. Further, Team EI was shown to be a significant predictor of sports performance, with 61% of the variation in the log points explained. This finding suggests that El may contribute to the success of teams participating in complex sports like cricket.
Over the past five years, sport psychology researchers and practitioners have become increasingly vocal in their suggestions that emotional intelligence (EI) may be an important construct in the sport domain. Initial research in sport has been valuable for gaining preliminary insights, but use of disparate theoretical frameworks and assessment techniques confuses rather than clarifies potential links between EI and sport. Specifically, the use of different definitions, conceptualizations, and assessment inventories may yield different EI profiles of the same individual or team. This disparity has important implications for applied sport psychology, where there is a call for the use of theoretical paradigms, objective and subjective assessments, and empirical research to inform practice. The purposes of this paper, therefore, are to: (a) review EI models and assessment inventories; (b) review research on EI in business, health, and sport; and (c) identify directions for future research and professional practice in sport psychology.
Two studies examined the effects of a differentiated model of transformational leadership on follower outcomes. In Study 1, 484 UK Royal Marine recruits completed questionnaires about their trainers' leadership behaviors and their own attitudes towards training. Training outcome was measured as successful completion of training or non-completion. Discriminant function analyses identified that fostering acceptance of group goals, inspirational motivation, appropriate role model, individual consideration, and contingent reward significantly discriminated between pass and failure. A separate discriminant function analyses revealed that the attitudinal variables of self-confidence, resilience, and satisfaction also successfully discriminated between pass and failure. Study 2 used a true experimental design to examine the effectiveness of a transformational leadership intervention. Participants were 85 experimental and 67 control recruits who completed questionnaires at weeks 5 and 15 of recruit training. Results revealed that 3 of the 5 key leadership behaviors, and all of the 3 recruit attitudinal variables measured, were significantly enhanced by the intervention.
Developing mental toughness has become a major focus for athletes, coaches, sport teams and organizations. Emerging research has supported a variety of influences (e.g., coaches, parents, self) and mechanisms (e.g., reflecting on our experiences, coach motivational climate) by which mental toughness development likely occurs. In this article we focus on a strengths-based approach to mental toughness development, which has received scant attention within the sport psychology literature. A brief history of strengths approaches to the development of human potential is presented and contrasted with assumptions of traditional psychological skills training. We then describe how a strengths-based approach was translated into practice using an example from professional cricket. The guidelines have been shown to be effective in elite sport settings, but we believe they may also prove effective in youth sport settings.
IntroductionKnowledge of Rugby: Intricacies of the SportTeam-Building Interventions For RugbyPsychological Skills Training (Pst) For Individual and Team TrainingSummary: “thinking Rugby”References
The authors present a conceptual model of coaching efficacy and develop a reliable and valid instrument to measure the concept and to examine its hypothesized sources and outcomes. Coaching efficacy is defined as the extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of their athletes. Using high school coaches, confirmatory factor analysis supported 4 dimensions of the Coaching Efficacy Scale: game strategy, motivation, teaching technique, and character building. Marginal support was also found for 1 general coaching efficacy factor that explained the correlations among the 4 first-order factors. Using a separate sample of high school basketball coaches, coaching efficacy was predicted by a coach's past success, coaching experience, perceived player talent, and social support. In turn, coaching efficacy predicted coaching behavior, player satisfaction, and current success. Results establish preliminary support for the conceptual model of coaching efficacy. (P
The coach is central to the development of expertise in sport (Bloom, 1985) and is subsequently key to facilitating adaptive forms of motivation to enhance the quality of sport performance (Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In designing optimal training environments that are sensitive to the underlying motives of athletes, the coach requires an in-depth understanding of motivation. This paper reports on the application of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) to coaching elite athletes. Specifically, the application of SDT to designing an autonomy-supportive motivational climate is outlined, which was used in preparing Australia's two men's relay teams for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.
Recent research investigating the effect of the motivational climate has found that even elite athletes benefit from a mastery climate. The purpose of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding of the importance of the climate surrounding an athlete and the role of the coach for elite athletes by conducting in-depth interviews with a group of athletes (n=7). The athletes also completed the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) and Perception of Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PMCQ) to measure motivational indices. All the athletes were very high on task orientation and moderate to high on ego orientation. Most of the athletes perceived a high mastery climate and a low performance climate. The athletes emphasized the importance of the coach as the creator of the climate, as well as their preference for a supportive and caring climate. This speaks for an emphasis on a mastery climate for elite athletes.
This study examined the 5-factor model of personality, transformational leadership, and team performance under conditions similar to typical and maximum performance contexts. Data were collected from 39 combat teams from an Asian military sample (N = 276). Results found that neuroticism and agreeableness were negatively related to transformational leadership ratings. Team performance ratings correlated at only.18 across the typical and maximum contexts. Furthermore, transformational leadership related more strongly to team performance in the maximum rather than the typical context. Finally, transformational leadership fully mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the maximum context but only partially mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the typical context. The Discussion section focuses on how these findings, although interesting, need to be replicated with different designs, contexts, and measures.
Participants were 80 elected public officials in the United States and 3-6 direct-report staffers for each leader. Together they composed 388 leader-member dyads. The authors surveyed them to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The authors considered the 80 officials as leaders and the staffers as members. The present results showed that the emotional intelligence of the leaders shared significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of transformational leadership. The present results also somewhat support the predictive value of emotional intelligence in antecedent leadership field research.