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A Case Study of Excellence in Elite Sport: Motivational Climate in a World Champion Team
Abstract
This case study focused on the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team during the period from 2004 to 2011, when Graham Henry (head coach) and Wayne Smith (assistant coach) coached and managed the team. More specifically, this case study examined the motivational climate created by this coaching group that culminated in winning the Rugby World Cup in 2011. In-depth interviews were completed with Henry and Smith in March 2012. A collaborative thematic content analysis revealed eight themes, regarding motivational issues and the motivational climate for the 2004-2011 All Blacks team: (i) critical turning point, (ii) flexible and evolving, (iii) dual-management model, (iv) "Better People Make Better All Blacks," (v) responsibility, (vi) leadership, (vii) expectation of excellence, and (viii) team cohesion. These findings are discussed in light of autonomy-supportive coaching, emotionally intelligent coaching, and transformational leadership. Finally, practical recommendations are offered for coaches of elite sports teams.
... Recently, there is a growing body of research on coaches who have achieved unparalleled success over long periods of time, often referred to as serial winning coaches (SWC) (Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Hodge et al., 2014;Mallett & Lara-Bercial, 2016, Urquhart et al., 2020Vallée & Bloom, 2005). This line of research has focused on coach behaviours, values, and narrative identities (e.g., mutual care and trust, altruism). ...
... Thus, strong leadership such as fostering mutual, trusting relationships between leaders and followers in sport teams can greatly benefit the overall performance and culture by uniting the team in their pursuit of an overarching goal (Cranmer & Myers, 2015;Vallée & Bloom, 2005). Overall, a winning team culture has been linked to outcomes such as high performance and athletes' psychological well-being and often correlates with strong leadership from athletes and coaches as well (Hodge et al., 2014;Mallett & Lara-Bercial, 2023;Vallée & Bloom, 2005). ...
... Despite the depth and breadth of high-performance coaching research, the focus has largely been constrained to the positive aspects of coaching, and how successful coaches achieved their success and created a winning team culture (e.g., Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Hodge et al., 2014;Mallett & Lara-Bercial, 2016;Urquhart et al., 2020). For instance, research has shown that SWC cultivated high-performing environments by implementing a clear vision, fostering buy-in to team values, and clearly communicating their expectations (Mallett & Lara-Bercial, 2016;Urquhart et al., 2020). ...
... Clearly, the complexity of the professional environment makes it challenging for head coaches to positively influence group dynamics on their own. Consequently, many may choose to purposefully include their assistant coaches and athlete leaders to help promote a unified team environment (Elberse & Dye, 2012;Heelis et al., 2020;Hodge et al., 2014). ...
... Considering assistant gridiron football coaching includes coordinators (i.e., offensive coordinator) and positional coaches (i.e., offensive line coach), the current study extends these two previous studies on assistant football coaching in that it suggests that it is specifically the offensive line coach who interacts most often with the offensive line players in a professional context. From a practical standpoint, considering that professional (i.e., sport-specific knowledge) and interpersonal (i.e., the ability to interact with others) coaching knowledge are both critical components of effective coaching (Côt� e & Gilbert, 2009), this finding suggests that a nonhierarchical coaching relationship (Hodge et al., 2014) between the offensive coordinator and the offensive line coach could benefit offensive line group cohesion. Specifically, while tactical decisions (professional knowledge; Côt� e & Gilbert, 2009) are likely an important coaching role for the offensive coordinator, the offensive line coach seems to have the equally important role of interacting and building relationships with the offensive line players (interpersonal knowledge). ...
... Specifically, while tactical decisions (professional knowledge; Côt� e & Gilbert, 2009) are likely an important coaching role for the offensive coordinator, the offensive line coach seems to have the equally important role of interacting and building relationships with the offensive line players (interpersonal knowledge). Therefore, offensive coordinators and offensive line coaches in professional gridiron football teams could separate coaching roles as such and perceive their relationship in a nonhierarchical way (Hodge et al., 2014). Their resulting collaborative work would likely be an effective way to improve athlete outcomes (e.g., confidence, competence, connection, character; Côt� e & Gilbert, 2009) on the offensive line subgroup in professional football. ...
An inevitable structural feature within sport teams involves ‘the groups within the group,’ otherwise known as subgroups. Although there is a large body of literature dedicated to group dynamics constructs at the total team level, little research has explored such topics at a positional subgroup level, particularly in professional sports. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth exploration of group dynamics perceptions from a specific positional subgroup in professional sports, with a particular emphasis on group cohesion and leadership. Specifically, we interviewed six experienced professional gridiron football offensive linemen to explore their perspectives of the factors influencing group cohesion within their positional subgroup. The analysis revealed environmental factors as well as internal roles and interpersonal processes that shaped group development and cohesion within the subgroup. Notably, the impact of veteran athlete leadership and how the behaviours of both the coaching staff and general managers could either positively or negatively influence group cohesion in professional football were apparent. Therefore, the present results are of interest to members of professional organizations generally, and gridiron football specifically, including general managers, head coaches, assistant coaches, support staff, and athletes regarding how the dynamics within a positional subgroup can impact individual and team outcomes.
... A central theme -or golden thread -through the original research project, practical application of the model to an international sporting organisation and critical evaluation at a European sport level has been, generally, the development of leadership and, specifically, the role of leaders. The application and adaptability of the SATSport model in the sport organisation typology or governance landscape require applied and adaptive leadership practice, with an increasing expectation for behavioural and relational integrity (Hogan et al., 1994;Brearley, 2001;Heifetz and Linsky, 2002;Grint, 2004;Lebed and Bar-Eli, 2013;Hodge et al., 2014). In short, good governance requires and is reliant upon 'good' leadership. ...
... Furthermore, Kellerman (2004, p. 45) argues that 'To assume all leaders are good people is to be wilfully blind to the reality of the human condition', and Binney et al. (2012) note that leaders are ordinary (and sometimes flawed) people, not mythical heroes. Others (Hogan et al., 1994;Brearley, 2001;Heifetz and Linsky, 2002;Grint, 2004;Lebed and Bar-Eli, 2013;Hodge et al., 2014) argue that the issue is less about being a good, or indeed perfect, person but about acting responsibly for the common good. While leadership may not be, theoretically, a moral concept, in practice it has an increasingly important moral dimension, especially in the context of corporate governance, social responsibility and employee perceptions of relational trust in organisation and sport settings (Edelman, 2017). ...
... Grint (2004) suggests that effective -or true -leadership emphasises influence not coercion, Hogan et al. (1994) and Heifetz and Linsky (2002) that leadership is persuasion not domination and Brearley (2001) that leadership requires the appropriate use of authority but not manipulative activities. Hodge et al. (2014) in their study of the New Zealand rugby union team noted the concept The SATSport model 83 of 'better people make better All Blacks' and emphasised that connecting with others and doing things the right way were fundamental aspects of the team environment. Lebed and Bar-Eli (2013) proposed that sport team leadership was a context dependent relationship based on the interaction between personal traits and different situations but to promote the common good. ...
... Furthermore, Kellerman (2004, p45) argued, "to assume all leaders are good people is to be wilfully blind to the reality of the human condition" and Binney et al. (2012) noted that leaders are ordinary (and sometimes flawed) people not mythical heroes. Others (Brearley, 2001;Grint, 2004;Heifetz and Linsky, 2002;Hodge et al., 2014;Hogan et al., 1994;Lebed and Eli-Bar, 2013) argued that the issue was less about being a good or perfect person but more about acting responsibly in the common good. While leadership may not be, theoretically, a moral concept, in practice it has an increasingly important moral dimension especially in the context of corporate governance and social responsibility in organisation, sport and rugby union settings (Lowther et al., 2016). ...
... Grint (2004) indicated that effectiveor trueleadership emphasised influence not coercion, Hogan et al. (1994) and Heifetz and Linsky (2002) that leadership was persuasion not domination and Brearley (2001) that team captaincy required the appropriate use of authority but not manipulative activities. Hodge et al. (2014) in their study of the New Zealand rugby union team noted the concept of "better people make better All ...
... Gould et al. (1996) and Eklund (1996) in Sparkes (1999) proposed that the subjective experience and expertise of researchers was a legitimate source of trustworthiness. More recently, Hodge et al. (2014) in a study of the New Zealand All ...
... 15,53 All but 3 of the 18 selected studies used a questionnaire to measure at least one of the three SDT fundamental needs. 51,54,55 In the 15 studies that did use a questionnaire, a total of 31 different tools were used with many in an integrated fashion to suit the purpose of the study. This included researchers combining several empirically verified tools and sub-scales into one multi-section questionnaire. ...
... 51,56 This trend was particularly evident in youth sport. 57,60 Furthermore, all three of the studies that examined coach-athlete interactions in elite sport, 52,54,59 highlight the performance benefits and increased self-perceived group connectedness that athletes reaped as a result of improved social relationships with both their coaches and team-mates alike. 54 ...
... 130,131 This approach also advocates the coach as a facilitator who empowers their athletes to solve problems and make decisions themselves through exploration. 28,54 Therefore, to improve decisionmaking, training sessions should recreate the interactions that a player will confront in the performance environment by including practice task information from boundary markings, pitch surface, team-mates and opponents. 96,101 NLP also advocates the importance of practitioners to use an external focus of attention, as shown in ELT, when guiding athletes to a particular movement outcome. ...
Coaching behaviours often derive from sporting traditions, instinct and previous experiences. Practitioners tend to follow traditional, inherited methods rather than adopt new evidence-based approaches associated with athlete development. This article reviews literature relating to theoretical constructs of a novel coach education framework (CEF) developed by the Irish Rugby Football Union. The three constructs included are: self-determination theory (SDT), explicit learning theories (ELT) and implicit learning theories (ILT). A total of 82 publications met the inclusion criteria (SDT: n = 18, ELT: n = 28, ILT: n = 36). This review supports the efficacy of these constructs in isolation for promoting effective coaching practices and provides a justification for future implementation of the framework and its evaluation. This framework may have the potential to address a shortfall in current coach education formats, which have traditionally focused on What content should be used for athlete development as opposed to How practitioners can coach more effectively.
... One of the first decisions made by the coaching staff was to organise a meeting with the senior players that had not travelled to South Africa, with the purpose of outlining a 'dual management' model (shared ownership) between the coaches and senior players on all aspects of game preparation [39]. This involved empowering senior players and giving them the responsibility to lead the group and provide input across both the on-pitch and off-pitch components of preparation. ...
... There was real sense of trust around and that brought a closeness". This approach is based on an approach employed by the All Blacks (New Zealand rugby team) as documented by Hodge et al. [39], and is consistent with the coaching philosophy of the academy coaches at Munster. Many of the principles associated with dual-management are consistent with autonomy-supportive coaching [40], and emotional leadership coaching [41]. ...
... Our findings support that the steps taken to connect the pathway by (a) aligning the key stakeholders from top to bottom, and (b) increasing coherence between different groups at various stages, were influential in navigating the significant challenges that were encountered. The importance of empowering players [39], creating a high-performing, positive, task-focused environment [37], utilising role models [53], and establishing trust, connections, and a deep purpose in a playing group, were all considered influential in achieving a successful outcome in the Wasps-Munster match at the centre of this study. ...
A wealth of literature examines the role of challenge from an individual psychological perspective, but research investigating how a talent development system can proactively support athletes to successfully meet the ever-increasing demands of top-level professional sport is less prevalent. This study takes advantage of a naturally occurring but highly atypical developmental challenge as a result of COVID-19 to examine factors influencing the efficacy and effectiveness of the talent development pathway at Munster Rugby. Players and staff (n = 12) took part in semi-structured interviews exploring their experiences of the build-up to the event, the game itself, and the impact post-event. The data were subsequently analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Players and coaches highlight the groundwork undertaken to establish alignment and coherence, both horizontally and vertically across the talent development environment, and how this contributed to navigating the challenge successfully. The findings support the necessity of both the player and the talent development system being prepared to enable players to perform at the highest level. The findings point to an overlap between the development and performance phases of a player’s journey and the need to integrate short- and long-term objectives within a talent development system.
... As such, there has been a recent shift towards athlete leadership models (Fransen et al., 2014); specifically where multiple athletes perform leadership roles by influencing their team to achieve a common goal . Accordingly, the growing use of leadership groups has been suggested as a way to improve overall leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Thomas et al., 2012). Some athletes are assigned formal leadership roles (e.g., captain and vice-captains), whereas other leaders emerge as informal leaders through interactions between teammates (e.g., cultural architects). ...
... A failure to explore contemporary models potentially represents a missed opportunity for cricket. Recent studies have revealed that many successful coaches in a variety of sports (e.g., football, basketball, rugby) have shifted towards more contemporary models of shared leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Manz et al., 2013). Indeed, coaches with an athlete-centred approach may be more likely to be receptive to adopting shared leadership models in their team (Hodge et al., 2014). ...
... Recent studies have revealed that many successful coaches in a variety of sports (e.g., football, basketball, rugby) have shifted towards more contemporary models of shared leadership (Haddad et al., 2021;Hodge et al., 2014;Manz et al., 2013). Indeed, coaches with an athlete-centred approach may be more likely to be receptive to adopting shared leadership models in their team (Hodge et al., 2014). An added benefit for coaches who empower their athletes to lead is that their athletes see their coaches as better leaders (Fransen, Mertens, et al., 2019). ...
Many sports are shifting to shared leadership models, but cricket remains somewhat wedded to traditional models of leadership. Female cricket especially might challenge this traditional model. Understanding how players and coaches have similar, or differing, views can inform how to implement contemporary leadership models into cricket and extend conceptions of athlete leadership. Therefore, this study examined how the coach and players have similar or differing understandings of shared athlete leadership in their cricket team. An interpretative phenomenological analysis approach was adopted. Semistructured interviews were conducted with three female cricket players and their male coach. Results suggest that the coach and players value the social leadership skills of the captain more than the task leadership skills, whereas informal athlete leaders are relied on by the captain to provide tactical guidance. Nonetheless, there were different expectations regarding the role of athlete leaders. While the coach expected athlete leaders to deliver his message to the rest of the team, players wanted athlete leaders who maintained lines of communication among the players, and with the coach. Therefore, this study offers another perspective on leadership that is fluid and promotes collaboration to appoint and develop appropriate leaders who are accepted by all team members.
... (e.g., Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Elberse & Dye, 2012;Hodge et al., 2014;Urquhart et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005). Successful coaches possessed high emotional intelligence, had a deep desire for selfimprovement, carried an exceptional work ethic, and prioritized holistic athlete development (Donoso-Morales et al., 2017;Heelis et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005. ...
... A number of studies in high-performance sport have demonstrated the importance of the coaches' vision for achieving team success (Elberse & Dye, 2012;Frontiera, 2010;Gavazzi, 2015;Hodge et al., 2014;Urquhart et al., 2020;Vallée & Bloom, 2005Yukelson & Rose, 2014). In the present study, the General Managers immediately began to enact their vision. ...
... organizational members that are aligned with the leader's vision (Elberse & Dye, 2012;Frontiera, 2010;Heelis et al., 2020;Hodge et al., 2014;Kerr, 2013;Schroeder, 2010;Vallée & Bloom, 2005. The current General Managers were not afraid to make personnel changes, beginning with trading or deselecting players; interestingly, this included the star players. ...
Leaders within high-performing sport contexts are under increasing amounts of pressure to build a successful (winning) program. To date, most research in this domain has focused on coaches and athletes, which does not account for teams that have an individual with a greater role, the General Manager. Few positions in sport are as multifaceted and demanding as the General Manager. The purpose of the present study was to gain insight into how ice hockey General Managers created and sustained a culture of excellence. Semistructured interviews were conducted with five experienced Canadian Hockey League (CHL) General Managers who took over poor programs and turned them around on and off the ice, including leading their teams to championship victories. Using a thematic analysis, the findings revealed that the General Managers played a key role in creating a cultural transformation of excellence. This occurred by implementing a set of values and principles that were focused on holistic athlete development and maintained a level of excellence within every aspect of the organization. Additionally, each General Manager facilitated a cultural transformation by implementing a clear and consistent vision that led to the creation of a strong organizational culture that ultimately resulted in continued success on and off the ice. Findings from this study could provide valuable information for current and future leaders in both high-performing sport and business domains by providing crucial knowledge on how to build and sustain a culture of excellence.
... The value of positive coach-athlete relationships, and transparency in decision-making appears a similarly influential factor within elite sport settings. In one of the most successful international sport teams in recent history (the New Zealand All Blacks), an autonomy supportive environment was credited as being a central to their success in the lead up to their 2011 rugby union World Cup victory (Hodge et al., 2014). Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. ...
... In one of the most successful international sport teams in recent history (the New Zealand All Blacks), an autonomy supportive environment was credited as being a central to their success in the lead up to their 2011 rugby union World Cup victory (Hodge et al., 2014). Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. Drawing parallels between their dual-management model and the principles of SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2020), Hodge et al. (2014) suggested that the offering of choice, encouraging of initiative, and empowering performance feedback supported the transformation of the team and its culture, while simultaneously supporting of the player's BPN. ...
... Hodge et al. (2014) examined the motivational climate of the All Blacks following a critical turning point (i.e., an incident at a social event) which led to players and coaches agreeing upon a dualmanagement leadership model; players were given more accountability, ownership, and became greater stakeholders in management responsibilities. Drawing parallels between their dual-management model and the principles of SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2020), Hodge et al. (2014) suggested that the offering of choice, encouraging of initiative, and empowering performance feedback supported the transformation of the team and its culture, while simultaneously supporting of the player's BPN. Despite the necessity to win, the research endorses the integration of autonomy supportive features within competitive elite sport settings (Hodges et al., 2014;Keegan et al., 2014). ...
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... Organizational culture was described by Henriksen and Stambulova (2017, p. 272) as a key Environmental Success Factor (ESF) consisting of cultural artefacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions. Participants perceived that selection decisions were consciously influenced by cultural considerations within their organization (Hodge et al., 2014). Some participants reflected that: "whether implicitly, or explicitly, the conceptualization of talent is top down" (S4), with athletes needed to demonstrate qualities valued by the upper echelons of an organization. ...
... Selector eight reflected that his was "a very working-class club" where visible demonstrations of commitment were central to the culture of the club and recognized as a key positive factor in promoting selection. The "no dickheads" selection policy of the New Zealand All Blacks (Hodge et al., 2014), is an explicit example of how selection has been used to maintain, or change organizational culture (Cruickshank et al., 2013), and although the culture of the senior team was acknowledged as an influencing factor, participants stressed that "you wouldn't exclude players solely on the basis of that [senior team culture]" (S1). In addition to the perceived potential of the individual, participants discussed the need to consider if there was a vacancy for an athlete to move into. ...
Decision making related to the future potential of athletes has become a significant area of research attention. Talent selection decisions in sport are considered complex, highly nuanced, and influenced by a multitude of factors. The purpose of this study was to explore individual and systemic factors influencing talent selection decision making in team sports. Twelve experienced recruitment professionals, across three professional male team sports, participated in semi-structured interviews. Findings suggest that organizational and contextual factors influence both individual judgements and the wider selection process. These factors are considered through micro (individual), meso (organization) and macro (system) lenses. There was an appreciation that not all selection decisions are the same, carrying different degrees of uncertainty based on the stage of the talent system. The context of decisions varied between systems, with a variety of processes being used to manage the inherent uncertainty of selection. In addition, systems aimed to reduce the consequences of "non-selection" and reduction in the use of "one-off" selections. Because of this complexity, there is a need for research to consider the wider system in which selection decisions are taken. In practice, we suggest that talent systems are shaped in a manner that encourages more "hedge-trimming" type decisions (allowing for continuing opportunity), rather than "tree-felling" (in or out) decisions.
... (New Zealand National Rugby Team) motivational climate reflected an autonomysupportive coaching approach by providing choice (e.g., ownership and accountability for decision-making), encouraging athletes to take action (e.g., leadership group, responsibility), and using encouraging performance feedback (e.g., feedback on improving strengths, not just reducing weaknesses) (Hodge et al., 2014). ...
... While there is evidence that highly successful coaches in top sports may already use an athlete-centered strategy (Hodge et al., 2014), the extent to which this method is widely used in basketball, remains to be discovered. The necessity of providing a pleasant and safe environment, increasing player engagement, and enabling time for athlete-driven growth are all well-known features (Souza & Oslin, 2008). ...
This study aims to investigate basketball coaches' self-reported use and value of teaching methods, affinity to technology, and technology integration self-efficacy by age, educational level (lycée, undergraduate, graduate), and coaching certification categories (Mini Basket vs. Level 1-2-3 Coaching Certificates) in Moroccan context. To this end, a digital survey including scales related to teaching methods, Affinity to Technology Interaction (ATI), and Technology Integration Self-Efficacy (TISE) was sent to 884 basketball coaches. A total of 153 coaches (24 women and 129 men)
completed the survey. The self-reported use and value of teaching methods data was analyzed by MANOVA, and the ATI and TISE data were analyzed by ANOVA (p<0.05). Findings indicated that the value given to productive athlete-initiated teaching methods with 18-24 and 25-34 years old coaches was higher than coaches
with 55-65 years old (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among the coaches with respect to the use of teaching methods by coaches' ages (p>0.05). Descriptive data indicated that coaches use productive athlete-initiated teaching methods less than reproductive and productive problem-solving methods. According to the ATI findings, 18-24 years old coaches compared to 55-65 years old coaches and coaches with undergraduate and graduate degrees as compared to lycée degree had a higher affinity to technology (p<0.05). Moreover, compared to lycée degree, coaches with undergraduate and graduate degrees had higher technology integration self-efficacy (p<0.05). These findings indicated that coaches need continuing professional development programs for autonomy supportive athlete-centered teaching methods regardless of age. Affinity of technology and technology integration self-efficacy professional development programs should specifically
target older coaches and coaches with lower educational levels/background.
... For instance, the players' previous antisocial binge drinking behaviours were no longer accepted (performance environment). The players were also empowered with leadership roles (internal processes and procedures) as well as agreeing to behaviours that demonstrated their expectation of excellence culture (Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014). The final theme within operational PM is debriefing, feedback and learning that identifies current performance levels and areas of improvement across both playing, coaching and support staff. ...
... I need you to work hard -this is how we potentially can get there, but I need your buy in (HoERP) The simplicity of the HoERP's vision was particularly significant for the ERP when considering the multinational makeup of the squad with the HoERP recognising the need for "all the guys to be on the same page, pulling in the same direction". The central hard work ethos in particular has been previously recognised as a foundational pillar in a number of other elite sports and TDEs (Fletcher & Streeter, 2016;Henriksen et al., 2011;Hodge et al., 2014) that according to Wagstaff (2019) should be prioritised ahead of relying too heavily on the myth of individualism. This was a critical step for the ERP in addressing its previously inhibiting organisational capital resource by explicitly identifying the non-negotiable behaviour of a professional culture. ...
Currently little is known about the development of high-performance cultures in emerging nations. This study is the first of its kind examining an emerging rugby nation’s transition from an amateur to a professional full-time fifteen-a-side programme. Eleven full-time professional male rugby union players, the Head of the Hong Kong Rugby Union’s (HKRU) Elite Rugby Programme(ERP) and the HKRU’s peripatetic sport psychologist were interviewed. Inductive thematic analysis of semi-structured interview data revealed four emerging themes, namely; 1) an amateur environment that required change; 2) ERP’s professional culture building blocks; 3) leadership strategy and managing key stake holders and 4) managing on-going challenges in the ERP’s professional culture. Theoretical and applied implications for practitioners and programme leaders responsible for driving cultural change in their respective environments are discussed.
... I could begin to see the individuals in the group focused on their own interests and desires, and this impacted the systems functioning when it came to collaboration and shared vision (Gibson & Groom, 2018). If the coaches had transferred more responsibility to the athletes, it may have helped empower them through ownership and accountability (Hodge et al., 2014). Without this, the squad suffered from a "them versus us" outgroup approach and lacked a sense of shared purpose and psychological safety. ...
... Ultimately, there existed a lack of congruence between athletes and coaches and no sense of shared purpose and identity. My hope that team values or a charter would provide the foundation to develop a bond through the squad was misplaced without other fundamental foundation stones, and the team struggled to develop any continuity, meaning, distinctiveness, and sense of belonging (Hodge et al., 2014). Working in this system felt like a "dynamic and fluid process of forging and reforging alliances and working relationships" (Cassidy et al., 2016, p. 60) and, as a neophyte practitioner, I found it difficult to read, initiate, and respond to the inescapably political demands of the sporting workplace. ...
This article provides a neophyte practitioner’s account of providing psychological support to a national team for the first time. The practitioner felt “caught in the headlights” due to his lack of preparation for the range of organizational issues he encountered. In this confessional tale, experiential knowledge gained by the practitioner is shared through the presentation of self-reflections from the 6-month period when he supported the squad. While the practitioner’s time with this national squad was limited, it gave him a sense of the micropolitical landscape of the sporting organization and illuminated some of the complexities and dilemmas that characterize applied sport psychology practice. These reflections are offered to guide other aspiring professionals during their initial training experiences.
... Regardless of gender, age, training frequency, or coaching experience, athletes reported less involvement from their coaches in setting short-and long-term goals. Previous literature on the CBS-S underscores the importance of goal setting in the coaching process (Hodge et al., 2014). Effective goal-setting strategies help athletes better understand their progress and maintain motivation. ...
Goalball is a Paralympic team sport designed specifically for people with visual impairments. This study aimed to investigate goalball athletes’ perceptions of the coaching behaviors of their coaches. A total of 35 goalball athletes (12 female, 23 male) participated in the study, completing the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport comprised of 47-items across seven constructs: physical training and conditioning, technical skills, mental preparation, goal setting, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport. Descriptive statistics for each subscale were calculated across different demographic groups. Negative personal rapport had the highest mean among all constructs (M = 6.30, SD = .59) and goal setting being the lowest ( M = 4.32, SD = 1.64). A Mann–Whitney U test compared mean differences between age, gender, training frequency, and prior coaching experience. No statistically significant differences were found between groups. The findings showed positive perceptions toward coaches’ behaviors, with frequent engagement identified in areas of personal rapport, competition strategies, and technical skills. However, athletes perceived physical training and goal setting as areas of less involvement from their coaches. This suggests a disconnection in coaches’ engagement with athletes’ objective-setting processes and physical preparation. Future research directions and limitations were also discussed.
... Este estudio identificó ocho aspectos clave de la motivación y el clima motivacional entre 2004 y 2011 (punto de inflexión crítico, flexible y evolutivo, modelo de gestión dual, "mejores personas hacen mejores All Blacks", responsabilidad, liderazgo, expectativa de excelencia y cohesión del equipo). De este estudio se derivan recomendaciones para otros entrenadores de equipos de élite (Hodge et al., 2013). No obstante, el tipo de diseño, los componentes de la intervención y la duración de la misma son aspectos relevantes que deben considerarse en el planteamiento. ...
El Manual sobre igualdad de género, equidad e inclusión en el deporte es un producto intelectual del proyecto Women in Sport: Relaciones de Género y Perspectivas de Futuro (Women-Up), cofinanciado por la Unión Europea. Esta exhaustiva guía pretende sensibilizar e inspirar la acción en favor de la igualdad de género en el deporte. Involucra a las partes interesadas, como entrenadores deportivos, responsables políticos, educadores y ciudadanos, para destacar el valor del deporte y la actividad física, al tiempo que proporciona estrategias para promover la igualdad, la equidad y la inclusión de género.
... It is important to note the practical applications obtained from this study. The analysis of this programme highlights the influence of place, in this case, Spain, in creating high-performance sporting cultures, similar findings have been discussed with rugby in New Zealand (Hodge et al., 2014). Experientially, this programme must be viewed as a cumulative contribution of coaches, coach developers, and tennis cultures to achieving learning objectives. ...
The coach is identified as a key actor in the development of a high-performing culture in sport, in this case, tennis. Using mixed-methods research design, we investigated the views of the participating high-performance tennis coaches on the International Tennis Federation/Olympic Solidarity coach education and certification programme conducted in Spain, and how they felt their involvement made an impact within their national organisations, by enabling them to develop and implement a coach-created high-performing environment. We collected data using both interview and survey procedures. Our findings from the survey indicated that the participating coaches found the programme to be very helpful to their practice, especially to their long-term tennis development, the structure and organisation of effective tennis programmes, and the implementation of appropriate training methods for their players. Content analysis of the interviews revealed three main themes related to creating a high-performing tennis culture: (a) high-performing environment, (b) deliberate focus on growth and development, and (c) obstacles to creating a tennis culture. We discuss the challenges associated with transferring a successful sports development programme to a different cultural environment and conclude with some key points for effective implementation.
... Coaches could be provided with some form of coach education to equip them with adequate tools to reflect on their current coaching behaviors and training content with the aim to perhaps integrate new, more beneficial evidence-based approaches to potentially aid their athletes' learning and development Renshaw & Moy, 2018). Evidence suggests that effective coaching could be developed with an emphasis placed on utilizing self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) where autonomy is integral to a coach's philosophy and behavioral approach with their athletes (Hodge et al., 2014). ...
The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches ( n = 5) and athletes ( n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions ( n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.
... This study identified eight key aspects of motivation and motivational climate between 2004 and 2011 (critical turning point, flexible and evolving, dual-management model, "better people make better all blacks", responsibility, leadership, expectation of excellence, and team cohesion). Recommendations for other coaches of elite teams are derived from this study (Hodge et al., 2013). However, the type of design, the components of the intervention and the duration of the intervention are relevant aspects that should be considered in the approach. ...
The Handbook on Gender Equality, Equity, and Inclusion in Sports is an intellectual output of the Women in Sport: Gender Relations and Future Perspectives (Women-Up) project, co-funded by the European Union. This comprehensive guide aims to raise awareness and inspire action for gender equality in sports. It engages stakeholders such as sports operators, policymakers, educators, and citizens to emphasize the value of sport and physical activity while providing strategies for promoting gender equality, equity, and inclusion. With eight chapters led by esteemed organizations, the Handbook covers various topics. The first chapter highlights the positive effects of physical activity on physical health, mental well-being, and social connections for individuals of all genders and ages. Subsequent chapters address women’s challenges and benefits in sports, including issues related to maternity, menstruation, and female trials. The Handbook explores the risks of physical inactivity, the importance of health equity, and strategies for fostering inclusivity. It delves into governance in sports organizations, examining the representation of women in leadership roles, gender equity, barriers women face, and effective strategies for promoting equality. Another chapter focuses on sport legislation, uncovering gender disparities and offering reform strategies. The Handbook discusses dual career challenges for female athletes and provides support strategies. It also tackles gender discrimination in media coverage, the role of education in promoting equity, and the impact of intersecting identities on sports experiences. Throughout the Handbook, numerous case studies and scientific, technical, and pedagogical guidance have been presented to showcase practical and evidence-based examples of promoting gender equality in sports. The Handbook concludes by emphasizing the significance of positive action in creating a support network for gender equality, equity, and inclusion in sports, envisioning a future in which individuals of all genders thrive in the world of sports.
... This study identified eight key aspects of motivation and motivational climate between 2004 and 2011 (critical turning point, flexible and evolving, dual-management model, "better people make better all blacks", responsibility, leadership, expectation of excellence, and team cohesion). Recommendations for other coaches of elite teams are derived from this study (Hodge et al., 2013). However, the type of design, the components of the intervention and the duration of the intervention are relevant aspects that should be considered in the approach. ...
The Handbook on Gender Equality, Equity, and Inclusion in Sports is an intellectual output of the Women in Sport: Gender Relations and Future Perspectives (Women-Up) project, co-funded by the European Union. This comprehensive guide aims to raise awareness and inspire action for gender equality in sports. It engages stakeholders such as sports operators, policymakers, educators, and citizens to emphasize the value of sport and physical activity while providing strategies for promoting gender equality, equity, and inclusion. With eight chapters led by esteemed organizations, the Handbook covers various topics. The first chapter highlights the positive effects of physical activity on physical health, mental well-being, and social connections for individuals of all genders and ages. Subsequent chapters address women’s challenges and benefits in sports, including issues related to maternity, menstruation, and female trials. The Handbook explores the risks of physical inactivity, the importance of health equity, and strategies for fostering inclusivity. It delves into governance in sports organizations, examining the representation of women in leadership roles, gender equity, barriers women face, and effective strategies for promoting equality. Another chapter focuses on sport legislation, uncovering gender disparities and offering reform strategies. The Handbook discusses dual career challenges for female athletes and provides support strategies. It also tackles gender discrimination in media coverage, the role of education in promoting equity, and the impact of intersecting identities on sports experiences. Throughout the Handbook, numerous case studies and scientific, technical, and pedagogical guidance have been presented to showcase practical and evidence-based examples of promoting gender equality in sports. The Handbook concludes by emphasizing the significance of positive action in creating a support network for gender equality, equity, and inclusion in sports, envisioning a future in which individuals of all genders thrive in the world of sports.
... In addition, a case study design was selected because, as Simons [(23), p. 21] suggested, a "case study is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, program or system in a 'real life' context." More specifically, in the same way that Hodge et al. (24) examined the motivational climate created by the New Zealand Rugby Union team, an instrumental case study was undertaken to achieve that purpose. The Sheffield Hallam University ethics committee provided ethical approval. ...
Knowledge and knowledge transfer are often viewed in unitary and hierarchical terms, where a linear transaction exists between an individual possessing a body of knowledge and a person needing that knowledge. Although this traditional view of knowledge transfer is common within the sports domain, it is problematic because knowledge is treated as a self-contained entity. The overarching purpose of this study is to explore the ecological role of knowledge, underpinning performance preparation processes in an international coaching setting. Specifically, we investigated how bi-directional self-organising (coordination) tendencies (coach and athlete-led) can be exploited to facilitate the formation of attacking synergies within the team sport of wheelchair rugby league. A mixed-method case study approach was employed to collect data, involving semi-structured interviews, reflexive observations and field notes, and notational analysis. Results from the study described the transitional process of positioning an ecological view of knowledge transfer as a guiding principle to enhance athlete and practitioner collaboration. This reciprocal relationship provided documented opportunities to enhance on- and off-field team synergies. The pedagogical experiences we describe emerged throughout periods of uncertainty, requiring effortful interactions, forged on the continuous coupling of key agents (individuals), content, and context, enabling application, refinement, and opportunities for team synergies to evolve in performance preparation. Results suggested that the challenge of understanding and facilitating knowledge transfer could be embedded within the ecology of a complex adaptive system, sustained as a contextualised activity reciprocally constructed through on-going correspondence between athletes, scientists, practitioners, and the competitive performance context.
... An excellent example of this relates to the dual-management model implemented by the New Zealand All Blacks ( men's rugby union) team in the build-up to winning the 2011 Rugby World Cup. This model reflects the active involvement of players, along with coaches, in contributing to training, the development of on-field game plans, as well as off-field activities ( Hodge et al., 2014). The sharing of leadership across team members serves ( at least) three purposes. ...
... Suki's list of behaviors are consistent with research investigating effective culture in elite sport teams in terms of, for example, avoiding the deleterious effect of mavericks and demonstrating respect for their opponents, although they do not demonstrate the commitment to autonomy-supportive behaviors also advocated in such studies (Hodge et al., 2014). A further interrelated mechanism between professional behaviors as a component of club structure and relationships was evident in the selection policy implemented throughout the pathway. ...
The personal assets framework offers a lens to better understand the relationship between leadership in sport environments and the resultant (athlete) developmental outcomes. This investigation aimed to explore how leadership behaviors and the broader environment of a Super League netball club represented an effective context for athletes to flourish by exploring the interrelations between the personal assets framework’s dynamic elements, namely (a) quality social dynamics, (b) appropriate settings, and (c) personal engagement in activities. Twenty-eight stakeholders were interviewed either individually or in small groups. The results revealed that the environment constructed was shaped by many interrelated mechanisms, and all stakeholders influenced how the dynamic elements intersected with one another. Key leadership behaviors driving the positive environment of the club were related to individualization and generating perceptions of value. The stakeholders’ desire to understand the relationship between their individual contribution and Super League netball was also crucial.
... The present pilot study expectedly suffers from sample size limitations inherent to single case designs, but the comprehensive understanding of skill acquisition is important (e.g., Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014), and investigating the neural correlates of an elite expert athlete provides fruitful information on his/her uniqueness that cannot be collected from novices or confirmed athletes (Budnik-Przybylska et al., 2021). While it is inappropriate to offer definitive recommendations, case-studies can provide helpful insights for the understanding of the neurophysiological processes mediating mental practice and the study of excellence in sport. ...
Brain activations elicited during motor imagery (MI) in experts are typically reduced compared to novices, which is interpreted as a neurophysiological correlate of increased neural efficiency. However, the modulatory effects of MI speed on expertise-related differences in brain activation remains largely unknown. In the present pilot study, we compared the magnetoencephalographic (MEG) correlates of MI in an Olympic medallist and an amateur athlete under conditions of slow, real-time and fast MI. Data revealed event-related changes in the time course of alpha (8-12 Hz) power of MEG oscillations, for all timing conditions. We found that slow MI was associated with a corollary increase in neural synchronization, in both participants. Sensor-level and source-level analyses however disclosed differences between the two expertise levels. The Olympic medallist achieved greater activation of cortical sensorimotor networks than the amateur athlete, particularly during fast MI. Fast MI elicited the strongest event-related desynchronization of alpha oscillations, which was generated from cortical sensorimotor sources in the Olympic medallist, but not in the amateur athlete. Taken together, data suggest that fast MI is a particularly demanding form of motor cognition, putting a specific emphasis on cortical sensorimotor networks to achieve the formation of accurate motor representations under demanding timing constraints.
... 21 Importantly, it has been suggested that coaches adopting a transformational leadership style may be best suited to the challenges posed by elite-level rugby. 22 These challenges are further highlighted through the complex context that a team game such as rugby union provides, where it has been presented that managing relationships with all stakeholders have been identified by coaches as a key challenge in a professional environment. 23 One of the central tenants of transformative leadership is developing athletes into leaders themselves by focusing on assets of competence, confidence, connection, character and care. ...
The concept of leadership within sports coaching continues to fascinate and intrigue a multitude of stakeholders. There is still a need for a greater understanding of its role within a complex, dynamic field of inquiry that seemingly relies heavily on the ‘coach as leader’ for a multitude of outcomes (e.g. performance success, athlete development, social outcomes). Given the call for more contextually specific and action orientated research, the aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of coach leadership within the Hong Kong rugby union environment. The study adopted an interpretive paradigm to gain deep insight into coaches’ and players perceptions of leadership in rugby. Data was collected from 16 participants via three separate online focus groups. Qualitative thematic analysis was used to analyse and interpret the data. The findings suggest that for leadership to be effective, coaches must possess a socio-cultural understanding of their context, have a clear vision for their team and have a principle of transformational and value-based leadership to assist with decision making. Additionally, coaches must become role models and demonstrate authentic leadership characteristics to be able to build and maintain relationships with the people in their organisation through effective communication. Sharing leadership appeared to be an effective method adopted by coaches to enhance leadership throughout a rugby organisation. We suggest that the results provide a grounding for coach learning within a unique coaching context.
... Verschiedene Studien haben sich mit den Umfeldbedingungen von Athlet:innen beschäftigt (Arnold et al., 2012;De Bosscher et al., 2008;de Bosscher et al., 2009;de Bosscher et al., 2015;de Zeeuw et al., 2017;Gowthorp et al., 2017;Green & Houlihan, 2005;Hodge et al., 2014;Houlihan & Green, 2008;Smolianov et al., 2014; SPLISS-Studie (de Bosscher et al., 2015). ...
In view of the historically poor performance of Germany as a sporting nation at the 2021 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, the question arises as to how top-level sport in Germany can be put back on the road to success. A necessary first step in this direction is likely to be a systematic analysis of the causes. For this reason, the German Sports Aid Foundation commissioned the Institute for Sports Economics and Sports Management at the German Sport University Cologne to conduct an analysis of the environment from the athletes' point of view.
A total of 1,122 athletes supported by Deutsche Sporthilfe took part in the online survey between September 24, 2021 and October 18, 2021. This corresponds to a response rate of 28.9%. The Olympic and Paralympic squads were disproportionately well represented.
The study shows that mental presence at the season's climax is a key issue. 29.2% of the Olympic and Paralympic squads were not fully mentally present at their season peak. Mental presence significantly increases the probability of participating in the final.
Two thirds of the athletes say that their income situation enables them to concentrate sufficiently on their sport. 82% even believe that their athletic career can be sufficiently combined with a dual career. Although it could be shown that the support services for a dual career are rated as good by the athletes, they are hardly used overall. The personal competencies required for a dual career can also be developed, according to the results.
The athletes are quite satisfied with parts of the training environment. 80% confirm that they have sufficient access to high-quality training facilities and high-quality training equipment. However, other aspects of the training environment could be improved. Less than half of the athletes had individually tailored training plans based on performance diagnostics. Only two thirds of the athletes had signed an athlete agreement with the top association, and in only 65% of the cases was there a regular competition analysis. Often, the training environment was also characterized by an insufficiently innovation-oriented organizational culture. In only 69% of the cases was the training environment characterized by personal freedom and the promotion of creativity. And only 72% of the athletes surveyed confirmed that the people in the respective training environment were held together by a joy in innovation and development.
The situation of the trainers is still a big challenge. Only two thirds of the athletes interviewed stated that Germany has world-class coaches in their discipline. Satisfaction with their own coaches was very high in terms of their accessibility, but significantly lower in terms of their expertise and especially their leadership style.
The study also showed that the athletes did not feel sufficiently valued and supported, especially by politicians and the media.
In order to mobilize the world-class potential that certainly exists among German athletes, better support is needed, focusing on the following things, among others:
1. greater material security, during and after the athletic career,
2. a consistent use of the (qualitatively good) support services in the case of the dual career,
3. the development of personal skills in self-management and resilience,
4. improved individual training plans based on performance diagnostics,
5. investments in qualification, further education and remuneration of the national coaches along international world class level,
6. social recognition of "performance" by competitive athletes as role models for our society and international ambassadors of our country,
7. to focus more on aspects of personal freedom and innovation and development in the training environment.
... By anticipating these subgroup differences and adapting their strategy, the leaders gave sub-group members agency and ownership over their own change which allowed silos to maintain important practices, traditions, and customs essential to their identities (Geertz, 1973;McGuire et al., 2021). Similar approaches to creating and empowering devolved leadership structures have contributed to creating effective climates in centralised elite sport organisations (e.g., Hodge et al., 2014), while Cruickshank and Collins (2015) suggest that leader-led cultural change must involve important cultural architects as "buy-in" from these socially influential individuals is integral to implementing and driving change. Further, Martindale et al. (2005;2012) argue that it is important for an organisation to develop guiding principles of practice, but to allow for these principles to be enacted differently within different contexts (see also Feddersen et al., 2021). ...
Objectives
The aims of this study were to explore the features of the athletic environment that influence thriving within a British Olympic and Paralympic sport organisation and to understand the interconnectedness of these factors across a range of individuals and contexts. These aims were pursued within a decentralised organisation that was undergoing a leader-led cultural change strategy.
Method
To develop an understanding of the environmental factors that facilitate athlete thriving, a 16-month ethnography was conducted. Data analysis consisted of reflexive thematic analysis of observational notes, reflexive diaries, and interview transcripts. The findings are presented in an ethnographic tale.
Results
Alongside the complexities of implementing a culture change strategy across a decentralised organisation, the ethnographic tale details three key features of the athletic environment targeted by senior leadership to successfully influence the athletes’ ability to thrive within their silos. Underpinning these factors are three interconnected themes of understanding, openness, and trust.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates how empowering devolved leadership was impactful for organisational culture by reducing the homogeneity of leader-centric change initiatives. Further, harnessing an organisation-wide commitment to promoting relationships founded on understanding, openness, and trust can create athletic environments that facilitate thriving. Therefore, while a decentralised structure may present challenges for promoting a duty of care, it is possible to create an environment that supports athletes to thrive.
... Qualitative studies have contributed new understandings of basic psychological needs satisfaction and self-determined motivation in various contexts, including in postsecondary education (Hodge et al., 2014;Nagpaul & Chen, 2019;Wisniewski et al., 2018). Given the strong correlations between the three needs and their statistical tendency to converge in quantitative approaches, such as factor analyses, qualitative approaches may be particularly apt to examine the interdependency of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, in addition to helping "in identifying concrete manifestations and themes underlying experiences of need satisfaction and frustration" (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020, p. 6). ...
Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a cross-cultural, empirical framework for exploring what world (i.e., "foreign") language educators can do to support the satisfaction of their learners' basic psychological needs and, in turn, their autonomous motivation and well-being. Despite this, the identification of approaches to world language pedagogy and curriculum development that are supportive of learners' simultaneous and interdependent-rather than individual and isolated-basic needs satisfaction has been limited. To this end, this study sought to examine the characteristics of postsecondary world language learning environments that were supportive of the balanced, simultaneous satisfactions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as beneficence, a candidate need. Participants in the study included thirteen undergraduate world language learners at a large public university in the United States. Semi-structured interviews were analyzed through a qualitative approach involving multiple rounds of deductive coding and two stages of inductive thematic analysis. Results of the analysis identified six themes representing the characteristics of world language learning environments that students perceived to support their autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence. Further, the analysis identified textual evidence for the interdependent satisfaction of students' basic psychological needs via the multidirectional influences of each need on the others. Recommendations for world language teachers and implications for theory and methodology are discussed.
... 425). Significant samples are those who are different and possibly even extraordinary (Hodge et al., 2014) and can often be characterized as "critical cases" (Flyvbjerg, 2006) that offer valuable and exceptionally rare insight for others. The repeated interview design adopted here offered access to one of the world's leading coaches and members of his support team throughout the first 21-months of his tenure as national coach in the build-up to the World Cup. ...
In this study, we provide a novel account of the selection and development of a staff team for the Swedish national men’s football team for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. A total of 37 interviews took place at six time points over a 21-month period to track the values-based steps taken by the national Head Coach to build his support team. The sample was employed in a variety of roles including Head Coach, Assistant Head Coach, Goalkeeping Coach, Mentor to the Head Coach, Performance Analyst, Sports Psychologist, three Scouts, and a Team Manager. The data are presented in a temporal manner and organized according to three core values which were espoused by and later adopted as a value system by the support team: candor, humility, community. The data provide novel insight into the recruitment, formation, and development of the support team underpinned by a value system promoted by the Head Coach using candor, humility, and community. The presentation of longitudinal reflections from the Head Coach and members of the staff team during their build-up to, and excellent performance at the World Cup finals offer a significant contribution to knowledge regarding how a values-led approach was experienced in elite sport. The findings offer salient implications for research and practice.
Lay summary: This is a case study of the selection, formation, and development of a support team for the Swedish national football team over 21 months before the men’s 2018 FIFA World Cup. We explored the values-led leadership approach of the Head Coach across this period, presenting data from interviews over time-related to the impact of this values-led approach on the “team behind the team” in the build-up to and during the World Cup.
• Applied implications
• Psychologists and coaches might benefit from adopting a values-led approach to recruitment and ways of working.
• The values of candor, humility, and community were effectively articulated and role modeled by the leader and subsequently adopted by members of the support team. Although the specific values may not be suitable, the processes and critical moments that defined this adoption process might be valuable for others to reflect on.
• Values systems might benefit from “stress testing” over a period of time that is characterized by the relative stability of personnel and consistency of value messaging.
... Thus, 'teaching is less about what the teacher does than what the teacher gets the students [athletes] to do' (Perkins, 1993, p. 31). Embracing an autonomy-supporting coaching environment is beneficial to the motivation of the elite athlete (Hodge et al., 2014). The hurdle for many coaches is in supporting the motivation of developing athletes (Amorose & Anderson-Butcher, 2007), and a strategy to provide a selfassessment framework could support this process. ...
Adventure sports offer an exciting area of investigation regarding pedagogical best practices. Previous research points to the evolution of adventure sports coaching with the development and implementation of the PPTT (physical, psychological, technical, and tactical) framework. However, there is a missing area of consideration within the PPTT framework: the individual participating in the adventure sport. The growth and diversification of adventure sports necessitate consideration of language and reflection between the coach and athlete, and the current paper proposes the integration of a multicultural education lens to support this process. Thus, the main purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of the PPTT as a framework to support reflective processes and as a common language to facilitate the coach–athlete relationship.
... In a rugby match, there are 15 players on the field from each team, and each team has eight substitutes. A match at senior level is usually 80 min in duration (Quarrie et al., 2001) which is split into two halves with no time outs and a short half-time period of fifteen minutes (Hodge et al., 2014). There is a range of different playing positions, each with its own set of demands. ...
To overcome the challenges associated with navigating the talent development pathway to professional rugby, players must possess certain psychological skills and characteristics (PSCs), e.g., motivation, confidence, and coping skills. It is essential to understand the PSCs that assist players in successfully transitioning through a talent development pathway and at the professional level, as that knowledge could be applied to enhancing psychological support. The goal of this narrative review was to synthesise research examining the PSCs that contribute to rugby players overcoming challenges to optimise their performance. To ensure objectivity within this review, a systematic approach was taken to the literature search and selection process of papers. Four databases were searched, and the key search terms used were “rugby” “psych*” “mental” and various combinations of these terms. From this process, ten relevant papers were identified. The review revealed that players need to possess a range of PSCs, notably motivation, commitment, coping skills, confidence, focus and self-regulation to navigate the talent development pathway in rugby successfully. It is suggested that players should be taught a wide range of psychological skills so they can develop the skills and characteristics to enable them to deal with the challenges they face and to optimise their performance. Future research should examine whether a training programme based on the PSCs identified would have positive effects on players navigating the talent development pathway to professional rugby.
... Hence, our findings provide further evidence of the benefit of an perceived athlete leadership quality approach in team sports settings. A possible explanation for this relationship is that leaders' inspirational motivation for their followers, who accept their leaders' collective view, is likely to promote these positive behaviors (e.g., commitment; Hodge et al., 2014;Fransen et al., 2017) and engage the teammates, correlating with high inside sacrifices (Cronin et al., 2015). Therefore, when athletes perceive their teammates as good leaders, they will probably sacrifice more to achieve team goals. ...
The study aimed to analyze the relationship between athletes' perceptions of athlete leadership quality, team identification, inside sacrifice, and performance. A total of 299 players of collective sports (soccer, beach soccer, basketball, volleyball; Mage 19.05, SD = 5.10) participated through a cross-sectional design survey. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results highlight the positive relationships between perceived quality of athlete leaders, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance, and between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. Furthermore, inside sacrifice perceived by the athletes was a positive mediator between perceived athlete leadership quality and perceived performance. Also, team identification was a positive mediator in the association between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. These findings extend knowledge about the athlete leadership quality context. These results can also be useful for further research and implications in team sports' performance, as coaches and sports psychologists would have more information about their teams' perceptions of leadership quality to achieve positive outcomes in players' inside sacrifice and performance. The findings also highlight the importance of developing team identification to improve the relationships between perceived athlete leadership quality, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the experiences of athletes in a competitive military sports recovery program with a specific focus on the extent to which coaches supported, or frustrated, athletes’ basic psychological needs. Eight military veteran athletes competing in parasport took part in semistructured interviews. The accounts of their experiences of working with coaches in this context and their influence on their psychological needs and well-being were thematically analyzed. Results demonstrated that coaches’ behaviors that support basic psychological needs can have positive effects on athletes’ well-being and support their wider rehabilitation. Furthermore, frustration of these needs through controlling behaviors contributed to psychological ill-being. Findings suggest practical implications to help inform coaching practice to support optimal recovery and an environment that promotes well-being.
Given Africa's productive potential, addressing constraints to agricultural productivity in Africa will need inventive techniques will need inventive techniques. Having in mind the aforementioned, the study explores the impact of developing concerns in African agriculture, such as maize fall armyworm, cereal aflatoxins, African swine fewer in pigs, and climate change-related issues in agriculture and proposes remedies. This was performed by a scoping review using bibliometrics (Web of Science, CiteULike, and Science Direct) as well as a systematic review covering the years 2008-2021. The findings have revealed that developing concerns have a severe influence on agricultural and food security in Africa, particularly among the poor. Furthermore, the findings have demonstrated that sustainable technologies can address rising difficulties in African agriculture. However, various programs that promote the progress of creative and advanced technology might be implemented to develop frameworks for managing developing difficulties in African agriculture. Production in African agriculture must be boosted by the implementation of innovative and modern technology.
The aim of this phenomenological and instrumental case study was to explore the
combination of high-performance football and higher education at senior level. In
order to go deeper into this topic, which is part of the research on dual careers, semistructured
interviews were conducted with 7 male student-football players between
18 and 19 years of age from the lower categories of a Primera División (Spanish
Premier League) club. The data have been analysed using reflexive thematic analysis
(Braun & Clarke, 2022). The results showed that student-football players can pursue
a higher dual career: (a) if they identify the challenges they have to face and have
the necessary skills and resources; (b) if the people around them accompany them
in a way that suits their lifestyle; and (c) if the club promotes a culture that fosters a
higher dual career and their mental health. The study also highlights some aspects not
foreseen in the sample studied that should be incorporated into the implementation of
the dual higher education career, such as a more individualised and flexible approach
to cases, adapting each case to the specific circumstances.
Introduction
It is well-recognised that fulfilling the role of a coach is multi-faceted. In rugby, some of these coaching facets have been studied, however the research has not been reviewed. Reviewing the literature on rugby coaches will inform and guide policies, coach education, research and practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide a scoping review of the current coach focused literature on rugby union, rugby league and rugby sevens.
Methods
A scoping review was conducted on five electronic databases (EBSCOhost, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) until January 2022 using the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Participants had to be coaches within rugby union, sevens and league to be included. Data were extracted and analyzed to form a numerical and thematic summary.
Results
105 articles were included. 76% of the studies were on rugby union, 14% on league, 1% on sevens and the remainder focused on a combination of rugby cohorts or did not specify. Three themes were identified via a thematic analysis based on the content of the articles, these were coach knowledge (68%), coach pedagogies (29%), and coach development (4%).
Conclusion
The main finding in this review is that research on rugby coaches understood the risk, prevention, and management of injuries. Educational resources should include all aspects of rugby play or training injuries. The importance of the athlete-coach relationship and coach reflective practices was another significant finding. Coaches are encouraged to have a broad understanding of various aspects related to the player's welfare, which can be developed using formal and/or nonformal learning.
Personality has a long, if somewhat checkered history in the sport psychology literature, but insight into its use in contemporary applied practice is more limited. This study investigated contemporary sport psychology consultants’ perceptions of using personality assessment. Ten participants (four female and six male; mean 14 years’ applied experience), all Health and Care Professions Council–registered and accredited by either the British Psychological Society or British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, were purposefully sampled and interviewed. An inductive thematic analysis was then performed. Five themes were identified: effective practice, perceived impact, societal movements, organizational experience, and innovation. Findings deliver an original insight into the perceptions of practitioners around personality assessment in sport, illustrating a movement from prediction to development in the field and providing novel examples of bespoke, individualized tool application. Broad training and career experiences will help practitioners fully appreciate these potential opportunities.
Örgütler küreselleşmeyle birlikte değişen rekabet koşullarına ve çevre koşularına uyum sağlamak,kaynaklarını etkin kullanılabilmeye yönelik küçülme stratejisi ortaya koyabilmektedir. Örgütsel küçülme stratejisi, insan kaynağının etkin şekilde yönetilmesi gerekliliğini beraberinde getirmektedir. Uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları örgütsel değerler, yaklaşım ve istihdam politikalarının belirlenmesi, örgüt çalışan ve yöneticilerinin nasıl davranması gerektiğini ortaya koyan kurumsal
değerin oluşmasına katkı sağlayan unsurları içermektedir. Bu doğrultuda bu çalışma ile küçülme sürecinde uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları ve yöneticilerinin algıları arasında nasıl bir ilişki olduğunu ve küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkileri nitel bir araştırma yöntemiyle ortaya konulmak istenmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucuna göre çıkan kodlar küçülme süreci ve yönetici algıları arasında adil ve şeffaf olma, faydacı ve geride kalan çalışanlara yönelik plan ve program yapmadır. Ayrıca, çıkan sonuçlar küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkilerini örgütsel bağlılığın ve güvenin azaldığını, motivasyon sorununun ve psikolojik iş baskısı olduğunu göstermektedir.
High-performance sport is still not appropriately addressing issues that perpetuate women's underrepresentation in elite sport coaching and leadership. Therefore, it is also unlikely representation for other minority groups in high-performance sport will be achieved any time soon. For high-performance sport to progress, there is an opportunity to create environments that foster a variety of coaching styles with diverse racial, ethnic and gender identities. This paper points to statistics from elite football and Olympic sports to highlight the issue of the underrepresentation of women coaches in high-performance sport and draws upon a range of literature to inform an evidence-based and strategic approach to designing development in the context of increasing coach and leader gender diversity in these settings. It explores leadership in high-performance sport, learning and development, and high-performance sport environments. We argue future focused development should prepare high-performance sport leaders to intervene at an environmental level where they provide leadership, facilitate performance enablers, and engage athletes and performance staff to shape cultural change
Compared to the performance of individuals, groups and teams perform surprisingly well in some situations and surprisingly poorly in others. Therefore, this chapter aims to clarify under which circumstances one or the other applies and which phenomena and processes play a role in sport contexts. First, important definitions and theories concerning the area of groups and teams are presented. Second, the phenomenon of social loafing, which leads to a loss of performance within groups, is discussed. In contrast, the focus of the third section is performance gains in groups, followed by theoretical explanations regarding both aspects. Fourth, group-related phenomena that have a scientifically supported effect on group performance are presented. Finally, validated instruments are demonstrated, which can be used to measure important group-related constructs.KeywordsTeam performanceDyadGroup tasksSocial loafingSocial compensationMotivational climateEmpowering climateLeadershipTeam rolesSocial identityTeam identificationGroup cohesionCollective efficacyTeam trustTeam diagnostics
The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives of elite professional football coaches when their team has experienced a “losing streak” of at least three consecutive matches. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 elite coaches from the National Rugby League, Australian Football League, and Super Rugby or international-level Rugby Union. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the development of six themes, which were organized under a practical three-phase framework. The “pre” phase included (a) team environment; the “during” phase included (b) context of the streak influences strategy, (c) coach approach with the team, (d) disruption in the team dynamic, (e) the coaches’ personal response; and the “post” phase included (f) poststreak reflection. These coaches encountered complex multifactorial contextual situations, which required them to accurately assess the underlying issues that were causing failure and decide on a leadership approach that would reverse underperformance. Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the temporal dimension of coaches’ approaches to losing streaks and highlight the critical process involved in establishing a team environment capable of responding with positive individual and collective cognitive and behavioral responses following successive losses.
This study analyzes the leadership behaviours that have helped shape a successful university soccer team in Korea. More specifically, the research focuses on both vertical and shared leadership in a team. To gain an in-depth understanding of how the ‘Y team’ could have had so much continuous success over an eight-year period, this study uses a total of 16 semi-structured interviews with athletes and coaches. The study showed some first insights that the team can generate excellence even without top-ranked players when operating under a combined vertical and shared leadership approach. Useful implications for current and future soccer coaches exploring how to develop and implement various leadership behaviours were addressed.
The successful development of Transformational Leadership (TFL) theory has influenced research in organizational psychology since the 1980s. Research shows that TFL has been effective not only in the domain of business but also in the military, education, parenting, and public sectors. Sport psychology researchers became interested in TFL in the early 2000s. The TFL behaviors in sport include individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, fostering teamwork, high performance expectation, and appropriate role modeling. The focus of the current review paper is to examine and organize research on TFL in the sport coaching literature. More specifically, the effects of coaches’ TFL behavior on the psychological and behavioral aspects of athletes are reviewed. The previous literature was organized into 7 themes: performance, training attitude, motivation, self-efficacy, cohesion, satisfaction, and psychological development. It is recommended that future research should examine the effect of TFL on desired psychological and behavioral outcomes of athletes and include it in sport coaching education.
Based on a condition-setting approach derived from organizational psychology, the authors investigated the conditions that university sport coaches considered and implemented prior to a competitive season. Using a collective case study approach, semistructured interviews were conducted at two time points, with five head coaches across different sports. Student-athletes from each team ( n = 5) and the high performance director from the institution were also interviewed. The data were analyzed thematically to highlight the relevant conditions for coaches and their individual athletes and were then generalized across teams within the institution. The authors’ results support the utility of the condition-setting approach outlined by Hackman for sport. Specifically, coaches emphasized the need to (a) create a team vision with clear objectives, (b) opt for athletes of best fit, (c) assign team roles and expectations, (d) confirm and allocate necessary resources, and (e) have competent and prepared team coaching. Despite the generalizability of these themes, the authors’ results highlight the need to consider the context, as both the university environment generally and each specific program were bound by unique constraints (e.g., funding). Herein, the authors discuss their findings in relation to the broader literature, propose future directions, and provide practical implications for sport coaches and institutions.
In this article we challenge deterministic practices on learning and development, biased towards individual properties of learners (e.g., genetic endowment) and knowledge acquisition (e.g., internal representations). These traditional approaches typically fail to account for environmental influences which may interact in unique ways with relevant personal characteristics of learners. To challenge these deterministic approaches, we present a conceptual framework that combines niche construction theory and ecological dynamics, positioning behaviour at the ecological level of analysis where highly skilled behaviour emerges from the individual-environment system. To substantiate this conceptual framework, we investigate the insights and experiential knowledge of professional sports coaches on their practice designs. Results revealed how athletes and coaches value the capacity to modify athlete-environment interactions influencing opportunities for action in a practice context. This novel conceptual framework can inform the designs of contemporary learning and development practices that positively influence the evolution of skilled behaviours in different individuals.
Keywords: Niche construction theory, ecological psychology, ecological dynamics, learning and development, sport coaching
This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (1) Theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (2) One cannot generalize from a single case, therefore the single case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (3) The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, while other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (4) The case study contains a bias toward verification; and (5) It is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. The article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and that a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of more good case studies.
A field investigation of 337 employees and their immediate superiors tested the mediating role of empowerment in relations between job characteristics, leader-member exchange (LMX), team-member exchange (TMX), and work outcomes. The meaning and competence dimensions of empowerment mediated the relation between job characteristics and work satisfaction. The meaning dimension also mediated the relation between job characteristics and organizational commitment. Contrary to prediction, empowerment did not mediate relations between LMX, TMX, and the outcome variables. Rather, LMX and TMX were directly related to organizational commitment. In addition,TMX was directly related to job performance. These findings suggest that work satisfaction is explained largely by job characteristics (through empowerment) but that LMX and TMX combine with job characteristics and empowerment to explain variation in organizational commitment and job performance.
Similar to an effective leader in business, a high-performance sports coach requires qualities beyond technical and tactical acumen, such as leadership and the ability to facilitate a functional leader-follower relationship. Underpinning this dynamic relationship that exists between the coach and athlete is a leader's acumen associated with emotional intelligence (EI). This article aims to highlight the utility of EI for high-performance sport coaches, and provide concrete examples as to how EI might enhance a coaches' ability to lead and direct the production of high-performance with their staff and athletes. First, a brief overview of the link between EI and leadership quality is presented. Second, Mayer and Salovey's (1997) four-branch model of EI (i.e., perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions) will be used as a framework for demonstrating how a coach may use such abilities to lead and produce high-performance.
Multidimensional models of leadership in sport suggest that in order to maximize performance there should be congruence between the actual coaching behaviour and behaviours preferred by players. This study examined the preferred coaching leadership behaviours in prolonged periods of perceived success and failure in eighty-eight elite soccer players in Norway using the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS). The three preferred behaviours were Positive Feedback, Training & Instruction, and Democratic Behaviour in both scenarios. All preferred behaviours (except Autocratic Behaviour) were higher in the unsuccessful scenario (p < .01). Negative relationships existed between age/experience and Social Support, Democratic Behaviours and Positive Feedback in the successful scenario and between age/experience and Social Support and Democratic Behaviours in the unsuccessful scenario (p < .05). The findings therefore have implications for adapting coaching leadership behaviours when players of different ages and with different levels of experience encounter prolonged periods of success or failure.
The purpose of the article is to outline a comprehensive conceptual framework for life skills interventions by integrating aspects of Basic Needs Theory (BNT) and Life Development Intervention (LDI). In particular, we advocate the integration of (a) the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and (b) the needs-supportive motivationalclimate from BNT with the LDI framework. When these basic psychological needs are satisfied, people experience positive psychological development and optimal psychological well-being—the stated outcome goals of most life skills programs. Without the development of a conceptual framework, it is difficult to determine whether individual life skills interventions achieve optimal psychological well-being. By developing this framework, we seek to identify and articulate the key underlying psychological mechanisms (i.e., basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) that contribute to optimal human functioning and positive psychosocial development in all life skill programs. The implications for counseling psychologists’ research and practice are also considered.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of perceived motivational climate to cohesion and collective efficacy in elite female teams. A total of 124 basketball and handball athletes completed two season measures (T1, T2). Relationships were examined at an individual level both statically and across time. Canonical correlations revealed that a combination of high perceptions of an ego-involving but low perceptions of a task-involving climate were associated with low perceptions of task cohesion at Time 1. High perceptions of a task-involving but low perceptions of an ego-involving climate were associated with higher perceptions of task cohesion and collective efficacy at Time 2. Moreover, low perceptions of an ego-involving and moderately low perceptions of a task-involving climate were associated with high perceptions of social cohesion at Time 2. Regression analyses including autoregressive influence indicated that a task-involving climate positively predicted variance in T2 group integration-task and collective efficacy after controlling for T1 scores. In contrast, an ego-involving climate negatively predicted changes in T2 athletes’ perceptions of social cohesion (individual attractions to the group-social [ATG-S], group integration-social [GI-S]) and group integration-task [GI-T] after controlling for T1 scores. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The sporting arena is replete with examples and anecdotes of great inspirational coaches that have led teams to success, often in the face of adversity and against seemingly better opponents. The role of the coach in developing and motivating athletes has also been the focus of much research in sport psychology (e.g., Challaduria 1990; Smith & Smoll, 2007). Despite the ease with which one readily accepts that coaches can be inspirational, the sport coaching literature is somewhat devoid of research on inspirational coaches and the effects of such coaches on athletic success. The purpose of the current paper is to theoretically delineate the inspirational effects of coaches in sport. Given the relative paucity of inspiration-related research in sport we draw upon contemporary theories of leadership from organisational and military psychology (e.g., transformational and charismatic leadership theories). We propose a sport-specific model of leadership that centres around the vision, support, and challenge meta-cognitive model developed by Arthur and Hardy in military contexts. The model posits that ‘great’ coaches inspire their athletes by: (a) creating an inspirational vision of the future; (b) providing the necessary support to achieve the vision; and (c) providing the challenge to achieve the vision. The underlying proposition is that the vision provides meaning and direction for followers’ effort. That is, the vision serves as the beacon around which all the sweat, pain and sacrifice involved in achieving success at the highest level in sport is directed. At the heart of this model is the notion that athletes can achieve their dreams provided they are inspired to do so; this is because all other things being equal the person who is motivated to practice longer and train harder will ultimately be the best. The current paper will delineate the coach’s role in inspiring the athlete to train harder and longer.
In preparation for the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic Games, the lead author engaged in systematic reflection in an attempt to implement coaching behaviours and create practice environments that promoted athlete development (psycho-social and physical performance). The research was carried out in relation to his work as head Ski Cross coach working with (primarily) three athletes in their quest for Olympic qualification and subsequent performance success in the Olympic Games. This project sought to examine coach-athlete interactions. Of particular interest were coach and athlete responses regarding the implementation of autonomy supportive coaching behaviours in a high context. Autonomy supportive coaching behaviours have previously been strongly associated with positive athlete psycho-social and performance outcomes, however, a paucity of research has examined its implementation in high-performance contexts. Through the use of participant ethnography, it was possible to gain considerable insights regarding athletes’ perceptions of choice, implications of perceived athletic hierarchies, as well as cultural and experience-related influences on training and performance expectations.
The present study explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Three hundred and nine club standard ultimate Frisbee players in the United Kingdom (mean age = 24.30 years, SD = 3.90) completed an adapted version of Hardy, Arthur, Jones, Shariff, Munnoch, Isaacs, and Allsopp et al.'s (in press) Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial and discriminant validity of the leadership inventory. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion; and fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting teamwork significantly predicted social cohesion. Performance level moderated these relationships. These results are discussed with reference to the conceptualization and measurement of transformational leadership, and how coaches’ leadership behaviors may influence cohesion depending on the level of athletes’ performance.
Statement of problem: A variety of conceptions of qualitative research exist. This leads to a situation in which there are competing claims as to what counts as good-quality work. These competing claims revolve around the issue of criteria and how they are used to pass judgment on qualitative research. Those involved in sport and exercise sciences need to reflect on this issue with a view to generating further dialogue and a greater understanding of difference within the research community. Method: Two ideal types of researcher, one a criteriologist the other a relativist, are constructed to illustrate how each might judge qualitative studies of different kinds. Results: A comparison of the ways in which the criteriologist and the relativist draw on different assumptions to judge qualitative studies illustrates the constraining nature of the former and the expansive possibilities of the latter. Conclusions: Criteria should be viewed as lists of characterizing traits that are open to reinterpretation as times, conditions, and purposes change. Researchers need to adopt the role of connoisseur in order to pass judgment on different kinds of study in a fair and ethical manner.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between transformational leadership and a transactional leadership component (management by exception‐active), and fulfillment of the basic needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is based on cross sectional data from 661 employees who completed validated questionnaires such as the the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) and the basic need satisfaction at work (BNSW). The data were analysed using structural equation modeling in AMOS 18.0.
Findings
The results show that both transformational leadership and the transactional behavior management by exception active are significantly related to fulfillment of the basic needs. Significant regression weights of 0.50 ( p <0.01) 0.46 ( p <0.01), and 0.21 ( p <0.01) from transformational leadership to relatedness, autonomy and competence were also found. Negative and smaller paths were revealed from management by exception to relatedness (=−0.12, p <0.01), competence (=−0.12, p <0.05), and autonomy (=−0.18, p <0.01). Squared multiple correlations ( R ² ) for relatedness, competence and autonomy were 0.28, 0.06, and 0.27, respectively.
Originality/value
The paper empirically addresses the theoretically suggested link between transformational leadership and need fulfillment.
Narrative inquiry, as one form of qualitative research, has recently attracted some interest within the field of sport and exercise psychology. Seeking to be theoretically imaginative and instigate dialogue, this article focuses attention on five main issues within ongoing conversations among sport and exercise psychology researchers who promote and/or engage in narrative research. Theoretically inspired and grounded, these interrelated issues include, motivations for why researchers have turned to narrative, the concept of ‘the self’, interviewing, the issue of ‘truth’, and representation. Some implications of these issues for sport and exercise psychology are also highlighted. The article closes with some reflections about the future directions that narrative inquiry might take.
Psychologists occasionally study eminent individuals, such as Nobel laureates, U.S. presidents, Olympic athletes, chess grandmasters, movie stars, and even distinguished psychologists. Studies using such significant samples may be differentiated along 7 distinct dimensions: qualitative versus quantitative, single versus multiple case, nomothetic versus idiographic, confirmatory versus exploratory, cross-sectional versus longitudinal, micro versus macro analytical units, and direct versus indirect assessments. However, the vast majority of psychological inquiries may be clustered into just 4 types: historiometric, psychometric, psychobiographical, and comparative. After presenting the intrinsic and extrinsic justifications for studying famous persons, the main methodological issues concerning sampling, measurement, and analysis are discussed. The future prospects of significant samples in psychological research are then briefly examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on an ethnographic study of a collegiate soccer team over an eight month season, the purpose of this paper is to identify and examine the factors that contributed to team cohesion. Participants, aged 18–27 yrs, were members of the football (soccer) team at a university in England. Data were collected via participant observation, formal and informal interviews, documentary sources, a field diary, and a reflexive journal. The description-analysis-interpretation approach recommended by H. Wolcott (1994) framed the data analysis. Four key themes that influenced cohesion were clear and meaningful roles, selfishness/personal sacrifices, communication, and team goals. The fluctuating nature of these themes are discussed in relation to the multidimensional heuristic for cohesion presented by A. Cota et al (1995). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of the present study was threefold: a) to evaluate the standing on emotional intelligence of National Hockey League players, relative to the general population, b) to evaluate the relationship of draft rank and emotional intelligence (EI) measures to hockey performance, and c) to evaluate the relative predictive value of these measures to performance indices: total NHL points and NHL games played. During the 2003-04 hockey season, 79 players across 24 NHL teams completed the Bar-On EQ-i. The findings indicated that years-since-draft was the strongest predictor of performance and draft rank was the weakest predictor of performance. With respect to EI, both intrapersonal competency and general mood added significant variance to predictions of number of NHL points and games played. Implications for predicting performance in the NHL, amongst draft prospects, is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We developed and tested a model in which transformational leadership affects sports performance indirectly, through the mediating effects of intrinsic motivation. During the season, 168 university athletes provided data on their perceptions of their coach's transformational leadership and their own intrinsic motivation. At the end of the season, their coaches assessed the performance of the athletes. Using LISREL VIII, three models were estimated following the sequence of mediator tests outlined by Kelloway (1996, 1998). The proposed model received considerable support. The results isolate intrinsic motivation as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and sports performance, suggesting that transformational leadership may enhance intrinsic interest in the task.
Objectives. To examine the relationship of the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and dispositional goal orientations of elite female handball players' (a) perceived individual and team improvement in different facets of the game; (b) satisfaction with their own and the team's game; and (c) ratings of the coach. A second aim was to study whether the dependent variables were best predicted by the perceived motivational climate created by the coach and/or the players' dispositional goal orientations.Design. Cross-sectional.Methods: Elite female handball players (n=181) from 14 teams participating in a national handball competition in Spain completed the Spanish measures of goal orientations and climate and items assessing the dependent variables of interest.Results: When a stronger task-involving climate was perceived, players reported greater performance improvement and satisfaction with performance and held more positive views regarding the coach. Task orientation added a significant proportion of the variance for perceptions of one's own performance improvement. Perceptions of an ego-involving climate were negatively related to overall coach ratings but were positively related to satisfaction with the team's competitive results.Conclusions: The findings are consistent with the tenets of achievement goal theory and provide evidence for the adaptive implications of a task-involving climate in high-level sport. The superior predictive ability of climate over individual goals suggests that interventions targeted at the coach should have an important impact on individual and team motivation.
ObjectivesBased on the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press], the purpose of this study was to propose and test a model which posits that coaches' autonomy support facilitates athletes' self-determined motivation toward a sport activity (i.e., judo). Self-determined motivation promotes athletes' situational self-determined motivation before a competition, that in turn, predicts their sport performance.MethodA total of 101 judokas completed questionnaires after the weighting session (i.e., between one and two hours before the beginning of the competitive event). Athletes' objective performance during the competition was obtained via the French Judo Federation.ResultsResults from structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the hypothesized model. These results are in accordance with self-determination theory and the hierarchical model.ConclusionsBy showing that coaches' autonomy support facilitates self-determined motivation and sport performance, the present findings have important implications for a better understanding of the determinants of athletes' performance.
This article outlines the development and initial validation of the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS), a multidimensional self-report measure designed to assess sports coaches' controlling interpersonal style from the perspective of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Study 1 generated a pool of items, based on past literature and feedback from coaches, athletes, and academic experts. The factorial structure of the questionnaire was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses across Studies 2 and 3. The final CCBS model in Study 3 comprised 4 factors (controlling use of rewards, conditional regard, intimidation, and excessive personal control) and was cross-validated using a third independent sample in Study 4. The scale demonstrated good content and factorial validity, as well as internal consistency and invariance across gender and sport type. Suggestions for its use in research pertaining to the darker side of coaching and sport participation are discussed.
The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety-nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions, and social skills, whereas character-building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach-related psychology.
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
This study examined the 5-factor model of personality, transformational leadership, and team performance under conditions similar to typical and maximum performance contexts. Data were collected from 39 combat teams from an Asian military sample (N = 276). Results found that neuroticism and agreeableness were negatively related to transformational leadership ratings. Team performance ratings correlated at only.18 across the typical and maximum contexts. Furthermore, transformational leadership related more strongly to team performance in the maximum rather than the typical context. Finally, transformational leadership fully mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the maximum context but only partially mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the typical context. The Discussion section focuses on how these findings, although interesting, need to be replicated with different designs, contexts, and measures.
Narrative practice is an approach that enables researchers to alternately focus on the whats and hows of meaningful social interaction. The potential benefits of utilizing this approach in sport psychology are highlighted by focusing on the area of flow as an exemplar. It is suggested that the majority of work on flow has focused on the whats rather than on the equally important hows of this phenomenon. To illustrate the ways in which a concern for the hows of narrative practice can provide different insights into flow, data are provided from an interview-based study of a white water canoeing club. The findings suggest that describing flow is a relational performance, which is shaped by a number of narrative resources and auspices that operate differently according to gender.
The author proposes a typology for the case study following a definition wherein various layers of classificatory principle are disaggregated. First, a clear distinction is drawn between two parts: (1) the subject of the study, which is the case itself, and (2) the object, which is the analytical frame or theory through which the subject is viewed and which the subject explicates. Beyond this distinction the case study is presented as classifiable by its purposes and the approaches adopted— principally with a distinction drawn between theory-centered and illustrative study. Beyond this, there are distinctions to be drawn among various operational structures that concern comparative versus noncomparative versions of the form and the ways that the study may employ time. The typology reveals that there are numerous valid permutations of these dimensions and many trajectories, therefore, open to the case inquirer.
Objectives
Little is known about the mechanisms that might mediate the relationship between transformational leadership behaviors and follower outcomes in the sporting domain. The purpose of this study was to examine whether intrateam communication mediated the effects of transformational leadership behaviors on task cohesion.Design/MethodsA cross-sectional study of university level ultimate frisbee players (N = 199). Participants completed a measure assessing their perceptions of their captain's transformational leadership behaviors. Post-competition, participants completed measures assessing perceptions of intrateam communication and task cohesion within their own team.ResultsMultilevel analyses revealed intrateam communication to partially mediate the relationships between two of the transformational leadership behaviors and task cohesion.Conclusions
Intrateam communication is seen to be a mechanism that explains the relationship between transformational leadership and task cohesion. Overall, the results support and add to the range of positive effects associated with transformational leadership in sport, and are suggestive of interventions that may raise levels of team cohesion.
Using a narrative methodology to explore the stories Olympic and elite athletes tell about success, we identified three alternatives to the dominant conception of success as the achievement of performance outcomes. In these alternatives, success is storied as: (1) ‘I did the best that I could’ – a controllable and sustainable story of effort and application; (2) ‘It’s the closest thing you can get to flying’ – a story where success relates to embodied experience and discovery; (3) ‘People I made the journey with’ – which prioritises relationships and connection between people. We reflect on three key insights: (1) success is a multidimensional concept, broader than the singular conception encapsulated within the dominant performance narrative; (2) through various narrative strategies, experienced athletes resist cultural pressures towards a singular conception of success; (3) for long-term performance and well-being, it is necessary to work towards multiple forms of success over time and across contexts.
The relationship between team emotional intelligence (Team EI) of six cricket teams and their sports performance in a South African national cricket competition over two consecutive seasons was investigated. Team EI was based on cricketers measured prior to the start of the competition in each season using the MSCEIT ability test and averaged over all games for that season. This was correlated with a team sports performance measure, the final log points standing for the team at the end of a competition. The results showed that Team EI was positively associated with the sports performance of the cricket teams. Further, Team EI was shown to be a significant predictor of sports performance, with 61% of the variation in the log points explained. This finding suggests that El may contribute to the success of teams participating in complex sports like cricket.
Over the past five years, sport psychology researchers and practitioners have become increasingly vocal in their suggestions that emotional intelligence (EI) may be an important construct in the sport domain. Initial research in sport has been valuable for gaining preliminary insights, but use of disparate theoretical frameworks and assessment techniques confuses rather than clarifies potential links between EI and sport. Specifically, the use of different definitions, conceptualizations, and assessment inventories may yield different EI profiles of the same individual or team. This disparity has important implications for applied sport psychology, where there is a call for the use of theoretical paradigms, objective and subjective assessments, and empirical research to inform practice. The purposes of this paper, therefore, are to: (a) review EI models and assessment inventories; (b) review research on EI in business, health, and sport; and (c) identify directions for future research and professional practice in sport psychology.
Two studies examined the effects of a differentiated model of transformational leadership on follower outcomes. In Study 1, 484 UK Royal Marine recruits completed questionnaires about their trainers' leadership behaviors and their own attitudes towards training. Training outcome was measured as successful completion of training or non-completion. Discriminant function analyses identified that fostering acceptance of group goals, inspirational motivation, appropriate role model, individual consideration, and contingent reward significantly discriminated between pass and failure. A separate discriminant function analyses revealed that the attitudinal variables of self-confidence, resilience, and satisfaction also successfully discriminated between pass and failure. Study 2 used a true experimental design to examine the effectiveness of a transformational leadership intervention. Participants were 85 experimental and 67 control recruits who completed questionnaires at weeks 5 and 15 of recruit training. Results revealed that 3 of the 5 key leadership behaviors, and all of the 3 recruit attitudinal variables measured, were significantly enhanced by the intervention.
Developing mental toughness has become a major focus for athletes, coaches, sport teams and organizations. Emerging research has supported a variety of influences (e.g., coaches, parents, self) and mechanisms (e.g., reflecting on our experiences, coach motivational climate) by which mental toughness development likely occurs. In this article we focus on a strengths-based approach to mental toughness development, which has received scant attention within the sport psychology literature. A brief history of strengths approaches to the development of human potential is presented and contrasted with assumptions of traditional psychological skills training. We then describe how a strengths-based approach was translated into practice using an example from professional cricket. The guidelines have been shown to be effective in elite sport settings, but we believe they may also prove effective in youth sport settings.
IntroductionKnowledge of Rugby: Intricacies of the SportTeam-Building Interventions For RugbyPsychological Skills Training (Pst) For Individual and Team TrainingSummary: “thinking Rugby”References
The authors present a conceptual model of coaching efficacy and develop a reliable and valid instrument to measure the concept and to examine its hypothesized sources and outcomes. Coaching efficacy is defined as the extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of their athletes. Using high school coaches, confirmatory factor analysis supported 4 dimensions of the Coaching Efficacy Scale: game strategy, motivation, teaching technique, and character building. Marginal support was also found for 1 general coaching efficacy factor that explained the correlations among the 4 first-order factors. Using a separate sample of high school basketball coaches, coaching efficacy was predicted by a coach's past success, coaching experience, perceived player talent, and social support. In turn, coaching efficacy predicted coaching behavior, player satisfaction, and current success. Results establish preliminary support for the conceptual model of coaching efficacy. (P
The coach is central to the development of expertise in sport (Bloom, 1985) and is subsequently key to facilitating adaptive forms of motivation to enhance the quality of sport performance (Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In designing optimal training environments that are sensitive to the underlying motives of athletes, the coach requires an in-depth understanding of motivation. This paper reports on the application of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) to coaching elite athletes. Specifically, the application of SDT to designing an autonomy-supportive motivational climate is outlined, which was used in preparing Australia's two men's relay teams for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.
Recent research investigating the effect of the motivational climate has found that even elite athletes benefit from a mastery climate. The purpose of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding of the importance of the climate surrounding an athlete and the role of the coach for elite athletes by conducting in-depth interviews with a group of athletes (n=7). The athletes also completed the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) and Perception of Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PMCQ) to measure motivational indices. All the athletes were very high on task orientation and moderate to high on ego orientation. Most of the athletes perceived a high mastery climate and a low performance climate. The athletes emphasized the importance of the coach as the creator of the climate, as well as their preference for a supportive and caring climate. This speaks for an emphasis on a mastery climate for elite athletes.
Participants were 80 elected public officials in the United States and 3-6 direct-report staffers for each leader. Together they composed 388 leader-member dyads. The authors surveyed them to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The authors considered the 80 officials as leaders and the staffers as members. The present results showed that the emotional intelligence of the leaders shared significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of transformational leadership. The present results also somewhat support the predictive value of emotional intelligence in antecedent leadership field research.