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The Question of Elementary Education in the Third Russian State Duma, 1907-1912
The previous research with incomplete data revealed that zemstva were spending more per capita in regions with low level of education, but these spending did not make much of a difference – human capital in these regions remained relatively low (Popov, Konchakov, Didenko, 2024). The results reported in this paper provide additional and more rigorous proof that zemstva activities and the increase in their spending for education in 1897-1913 contributed to the spread of primary education and to the decline in the inequality of the distribution of human capital within the regions (ratio of secondary to primary education enrollment).
But we also show that there were more powerful forces at play – education for tuition fees, central government and city/town administration financing, that were pushing the development in an opposite direction, increasing the secondary education enrollment in most regions faster than the primary education enrollment. The result was the widening gap between low and high educated individuals that could have contributed to the formation of the intelligentsia phenomenon – educated intellectuals that were not able to find the proper place in the national economy to apply their knowledge. Intelligentsia opposition to the tsarist regime, however, did not take violent forms –regions with fast growing educational disparities registered lower, not higher increases in peasants’ unrest, industrial strikes and crimes against persons.
This paper is an empirical test of what is called a unified theory of inequality and growth (Galor and Zeira, 1988, 1993; Galor and Moav, 2004; Galor, 2012) – in early stages of industrialization inequality enhanced the process of development by channeling resources towards individuals whose marginal propensity to save is higher, thus enhancing physical and human capital accumulation. In later stages of development, however, equality has stimulated human capital formation and growth and unequal distribution of income became a hurdle for economic development.
A number of studies have found that human capital is higher and more evenly distributed in countries with lower income and wealth inequalities. In particular, Baten and Hippe (2018) argued that inequality in the distribution of land ownership in Europe (including Russia) in the 19th century had a negative impact on human capital formation (as measured by numeracy rate).
In contrast, we find that in the regions of Russian Empire in 1897 uneven distribution of land was associated with higher levels of human capital, whereas the distribution of the human capital across the regional population was more even. The difference in the results is caused by the different measurements of land inequality.
One neglected aspect of the Gorbachev perestroika era in Russia [1985–1991] was the remarkable “pedagogy of cooperation” (or pedagogika sotrudnichestva) movement, a renewal of the experimental tradition in education. Central to this was Edward Dneprov, a brilliant and forceful individual whose views and personality substantially shaped the Gorbachev-era educational reform movement. Dneprov, who served as Russian Minister of Education (1990–1992) was also a product of his times and his training as an historian These characteristics informed but also limited his ability to understand the forces at work resisting educational change—especially the resilience of “the culture of the classroom.”
The author examines the role of institutes of the Russian parliamentarism in conditions of exile (after the events of 1917), the communicative role of the ex-deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Empire (hereinafter - the State Duma RI). Having studied archival sources from the collections of archives post-Soviet states, the documents from the personal archive M.Shokay, from the fund of the library of the University of Oriental Languages' New Sorbonne – Paris – III » (INALCO, France), the correspondence of former deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Empire, lifetime publications and matching them with the materials of the NKVD (KGB), the author reconstructs a little known facets of system communication activity of ex-MPs.
The study used historical and situational approach, in the context of the study period. For the purpose of reconstruction of the migration routes, occupation immigrant’s kinds of interpersonal communication and media resources, due to the presence of incomplete data, the methods used for quantitative and qualitative analysis of the sources. The method of induction, the example Shokai activities reflected socially significant activity of immigrants.
Methods: synchronization, typology and systematization applied for verification of primary sources (scientific articles, reports, correspondence, reference materials, and so on.). The author summarizes the currently available research results of the parliamentary reform of the early twentieth century, in tsarist Russia. In conclusion, the author focuses on a new mission of the State Duma Russia abroad, when large-scale explanatory work was carried out both in Eurasia and the New World.
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