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LIFECARE- “You are what you eat”
56 VOL. 48 NO. 2 2014
ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA
_______________
An earlier version of this paper was presented as a poster during the 8th
Congress of the Asian-Pacific Society of Atherosclerosis and Vascular
Disease, October 20-22, 2012, Phuket, Thailand. Poster No.38. Book of
Abstracts. pages 83-90.
Corresponding author: Nina T. Castillo-Carandang, MA, MSC
Department of Clinical Epidemiology
College of Medicine
University of the Philippines Manila
Rm.103 - Paz Mendoza Bldg.
547 Pedro Gil Street, Ermita, Manila 1000 Philippines
Telephone: +632 5228380
Fax No.: +632 5254098
Email: nina.castillo@gmail.com
“You Are What You Eat:” Self-Reported Preferences for Food Taste
and Cooking Methods of Adult Filipinos (20-50 years old)
Nina T. Castillo-Carandang,1,2,3 Olivia T. Sison,1,3 Felicidad V. Velandria,3 Rody G. Sy,3,4,5 Elmer Jasper B. Llanes,3,4
Paul Ferdinand M. Reganit,3,4 Wilbert Allan G. Gumatay3 and Felix Eduardo R. Punzalan3,4
1Department of Clinical Epidemiology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila
2Institute of Clinical Epidemiology, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila
3LIFECourse Study In Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology (LIFECARE) – Philippines Study Group, Lipid Research Unit,
UP–Philippine General Hospital (PGH), UP Manila
4Department of Medicine, College of Medicine and Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila
5Cardinal Santos Medical Center, San Juan City, Metro Manila
Introduction
“You are what you eat” is “the notion that to be fit and
healthy you need to eat good food,” and that “the food one
eats has a bearing on one's state of mind and health.”1
Dotson, Babich, and Steinle2 in a 2012 article stated that
“nutritional intake can profoundly impact the development
of human disease, mainly by driving the progression of
obesity-related conditions such as type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, and cancer.”
Garcia-Bailo, Toguri, Eny, and El-Sohemy3 in a review
article on genetic variation in taste and its influence on food
selection contended that “taste perception plays a key role in
determining individual food preferences and dietary habits.
Individual differences in bitter, sweet, umami, sour, or salty
taste perception may influence dietary habits, affecting
nutritional status and nutrition-related chronic disease risk.”
Drewnowski4 had a similar argument that “sensory
responses to the taste, smell, and texture of foods help
determine food preferences and eating habits.” Multiple
variables (genetic, physiological, metabolic, etc) affect taste
responses which, in turn, influence food intake. One’s sex
and age as well as the presence of health conditions such as
“obesity, eating disorders and other pathologies of eating
behaviour,” socio-cultural and economic factors are linked to
food preferences and choices. What we eat and the
availability of highly palatable food impacts on the
prevalence of so-called lifestyle diseases such as
hypertension, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
Drewnowski and Almiron-Roig5 observed that “fat
content contributes to the food’s acceptability, palatability,
and enjoyment,” and there is a “link between obesity and
liking for higher fat foods.” They further noted that “overall,
it seems that men of all sizes tend to derive more fat from
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
LIFECARE- “You are what you eat”
57
VOL. 48 NO. 2 2014 ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA
savoury sources of food; while women (more so if obese)
tend to derive more fat from sugar/fat mixtures such as
chocolates and desserts.”
More than a ‘sweet tooth,’ Drewnowski6 argued that a ‘fat
tooth’ “may be the characteristic feature of human obesity.”
Garcia-Bailo, Toguri, Eny, and El-Sohemy3 had a similar
finding that “there is growing evidence that ‘fat taste’ may
represent a sixth modality” and that this so-called ‘fat taste’
is beyond the basic tastes of bitter, sweet, umami, sour, or
salty.
Magbuhat, Borazon, and Villarino7 in a 2011 study on
food preferences and dietary intakes of 120 Filipino
adolescents (13-17 years old; 40 underweight, 40 normal
weight and 40 overweight adolescents) in Metro Manila
noted that males had a higher preference for French fries
(p=.0370), tofu (p=.0005), garlic (p=.0190) and mussels
(p=.0023); and that they also had “significantly higher
intakes of energy and carbohydrate than female
respondents.”
Objectives
To describe the self-reported preferences for food taste
and cooking methods of adult Filipinos (20-50 years old).
Review of Related Literature
Various studies have been conducted to evaluate the
relationship of taste preferences and dietary habits to the
development of certain diseases or risk factors. Taste
preferences of patients with lifestyle diseases have been
examined as well.
Turner-McGrievy, Tate, Moore and Popkin8 in 2013
tried to determine the relationship of supertasting and sweet
preference with metabolic syndrome and dietary intake in
196 participants. The results of the U.S. study showed that
participants who were only an ST (supertaster) or an SL
(sweet liker) appeared to have a decreased risk of having
metabolic syndrome compared with those who have both
taste profiles or are neither of the 2 taster groups (p=0.047).
Participants that are SL + ST also consumed less fiber than
SL + non-ST subjects (p=0.04). The authors stated that more
customized/personalized strategies for dietary interventions
to prevent and treat metabolic syndrome were needed and
that evaluating genetic disparities in taster preferences may
be a valuable approach for the development of such
strategies.
A study by Castetbon et al9 in 2013 evaluated the diet of
French individuals with diabetes aged 45 to 74 years old
(n=1,476 including 101 patients with diabetes) compared to
their counterparts without diabetes. They found that adults
with diabetes consumed less sweetened foods, alcoh ol,
energy-rich food, and simple sugar. On the other hand, they
had greater consumption of meat, complex carbohydrates,
and vitamins B and E. Diabetics aged 45 to 59 years as
compared to adults of same age but with no diabetes
consumed a greater amount of fruits and vegetables, fiber,
beta carotene, folate, vitamin C, and potassium. The study
concluded that, “overall, 45- to 74-year-old adults with
diabetes had a higher-quality diet than individuals without
diabetes. However, compared with recommendations, a
healthy diet continues to represent a public health challenge
in terms of preventing diabetes complications.”
In 2003, Poseliugina10 in a study done in Russia
examined 134 hypertensive patients and determined that
patients having a high DS (common salt) sensitivity are
shown to take more DS and are characterized by more
frequent cardiovascular and neurotic complaints, as well as
by prevalence of anxiety and tension in their psychological
status. It was noted that such patients more frequently have
hereditary load of diseases; that arterial hypertension
develops 10 years earlier in them; and that hypertensive
crises occur more often.
In the treatment of lifestyle diseases, dietary habits as
part of lifestyle modifications have been established as
important components. Literature has shown that reduced
salt intake contributes to lowering blood pressure.11,12 As for
diabetes, a study by Mori et al13 in 2013 demonstrated in
Japan that low-carbohydrate/high-monounsaturated fatty
acid liquid diet (LC/HMD) narrowed the range of glucose
variability and also decreased the required insulin dose and
HbA1c values in insulin-requiring diabetic patients on tube
feeding. Ziaee, Afaghi and Sarreshtehdari,14 on the other
hand, determined that a low glycemic load diet can be
effective in glycemic control in Iranian patients with poorly-
controlled diabetes.
In 2011, Miguel Soca et al,15 evaluated the effect of a
nutritional program and exercise among Cuban women with
metabolic syndrome. The results showed that the
interventions tested improved the patients’ blood pressure
and blood lipid profile.
Methods
This was a cross-sectional community survey of
purposively chosen participants (n=3,072) from Metro
Manila, and the provinces of Bulacan, Batangas, Quezon,
and Rizal. Apparently healthy individuals (ages 20-50 years
old) who gave informed consent and were able to answer
the questionnaire appropriately were recruited for the study.
Those who had existing CVD as determined by participant’s
medical history (previous myocardial infarction, stroke,
peripheral arterial disease; history of malignancies (treated
or otherwise); women in active pregnancy, breastfeeding or
lactating were excluded.
Self-reported personal/individual preferences for food
tastes; and usual and preferred cooking methods were
elicited through interviewer-administered questionnaires.
Participants were asked “How would you describe your
taste preference?” (Paano niyo po ilalarawan ang inyong
panlasa?). Response options included (among others): just
LIFECARE- “You are what you eat”
58 VOL. 48 NO. 2 2014
ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA
right (tama lang/katamtaman), sweet (matamis), salty (maalat),
spicy (maanghang), bland (matabang/walang lasa), sour
(maasim). They were then asked “What is your usual
cooking method/s?” (Ano po ang kadalasan ninyong paraan ng
pagluluto?). Among others, possible answers to the
aforementioned question were fried/deep fried, sautéed/stir
fried, boiled/steamed/stewed, grilled/broiled/roasted,
raw/fresh, and baked. The two aforementioned questions
were adopted from the 2008 National Nutrition Health
Survey of the Department of Science and Technology’s Food
and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI).
Study physicians elicited medical history, and
conducted physical examinations of all participants. Blood
pressure, height, weight, waist circumference and hip
circumference were measured. Blood was extracted for
fasting blood sugar, 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test, total
cholesterol, high -density lipoprotein, low-density
lipoprotein, and triglycerides.
Based on the physical examination, laboratory test
results, and history of intake of medications for
hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia – the apparently
healthy participants were then subsequently diagnosed
(when appropriate) as having hypertension, diabetes, and
metabolic syndrome (MeTS). The self-reported preferences
for food taste as well as cooking methods of the participants
with the aforementioned diseases were analyzed vis-à-vis
their health status. Variables such as age, sex, residence
(rural, urban), smoking status, alcohol consumption,
educational attainment, presence or absence of stress in the
past year were assessed vis-à-vis self-reported preferences
for food taste and usual cooking method.
Limitations of the Study
Information presented in this paper was based on self-
reported personal/individual taste preferences of
participants, and not on standardized laboratory
determination of taste preferences. Standardized sensory
tests for taste were not performed among the 3,072
participants as this would require detailed laboratory
procedures which were not suited for a community-based
study such as the LIFECARE Philippines study.
Preferences for cooking methods and taste (as well as
dislikes/aversions for such) are on one hand highly personal
in nature while also being influenced by biological, socio-
cultural, and familial factors. Therefore, having trained field
assistants systematically elicit self-reported personal
preferences through face-to-face interviews were deemed
appropriate for the objectives of the study.
The present article intends to specify the self-reported
preferences of tastes and cooking methods among adult
Filipinos who participated in the LIFECARE Philippines
study. It is beyond the scope of this paper to establish any
causal relationship between self-reported taste and cooking
preferences with the health status of the study participants.
Results and Discussion
Taste Preferences
Eight out of 10 adult Filipinos reported only 1 taste
preference. Two-thirds of participants (64.9%) expressed
preference for food which had tasted “just right”/moderate
while one-fourth (25.8%) liked sweet tasting food, and less
than a fifth (17.5%) liked salty tasting food (Table 1).
Diabetics did not opt for sweet tasting food (p=0.044). On the
other hand, there were no statistically significant
relationships between taste preferences and the participants
who were hypertensive or had MeTS (Table 2).
Table 1. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos+ (20-50 years old, rural and
urban, both sexes)
Taste Preferences
No.
Percent
Just right / Moderate (Tama lang / Katamtaman)
1,994
64.91
Sweet (Matamis)
794
25.85
Salty (Maalat)
537
17.48
Spic y (Maangha ng)
403
13.12
Bland (Matabang / Walang Lasa)
121
3.94
Sour (Maasim)
15
0.49
Only 1 reported taste preference
2,471
80.44
2 reported taste preferences
412
13.41
More than 2 reported taste preferences
172
5.61
No reported taste preference
17
0.55
+ Multiple responses
Table 2. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
preferences and Health Status of Adult Filipinos
Taste Preferences* N Hypertension Diabetes
MeTS
(mNCEP)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/ Katamtaman)
Yes
No
1,999
1,079
274 (13.74)
139 (12.89)
92 (4.62)
63 (5.86)
513 (25.73)
274 (25.42)
Sweet (Matamis)
Yes
No
747
2,284
90 (11.34)**
323 (14.18)
47 (5.92)
108 (4.75)
190 (23.93)
597 (26.21)
Salty (Maalat)
Yes
No
513
2,541
64 (11.92)
349 (13.77)
23 (4.29)
132 (5.21)
145 (27.00)
642 (25.33)
Bland
(Matabang/Walang Lasa)
Yes
No
122
2,956
13 (10.74)
400 (13.55)
4 (3.31)
151 (5.12)
32 (26.45)
755 (26.58)
Spic y (Maangha ng)
Yes
No
403
2,675
58 (14.39)
355 (13.30)
17 (4.22)
138 (5.18)
101 (26.06)
686 (25.70)
Sour (Maasim)
Yes
No
15
3,063
4 (26.67)
409 (13.38)
2 (13.33)
153 (5.01)
5 (33.33)
782 (25.58)
*Multiple responses accepted ** p-value = 0.044
There were some differences in self-reported taste
preferences of male and female adult Filipinos. More males
than females favoured food which tasted “just right”
(p=0.044) and spicy (p<0.001). There were more females than
LIFECARE- “You are what you eat”
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VOL. 48 NO. 2 2014 ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA
males who liked salty food (p<0.001). There were no
statistically significant differences in preferences of males vs.
females for sweet, bland, and sour tasting food (Table 3).
Table 3. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Sex
Taste Preferences
Sex
p value
Male
(n=1,329)
No. (%)
Female
(n=1,743)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/Katamtaman)
889 (66.89)
1,105 (63.40)
0.044
Sweet (Matamis)
326 (24.53)
468 (26.85)
0.146
Salty (Maalat)
191 (14.37)
346 (19.85)
< 0.001
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
48 (3.61)
73 (4.19)
0.416
Spic y (Maangha ng)
235 (17.68)
168 (9.64)
< 0.001
Sour (Maasim)
6 (0.45)
9 (0.52)
0.798
Adults who were less than 40 years old preferred food
which tasted sweet (p=0.043) or spicy (p=<0.0001). Those
who were older (40-50 years old) liked their food to be bland
in taste (p=0.003) (Table 4).
Table 4. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Age
Taste Preferences
Age
p value
< 40 yrs old
(n=1,963)
No. (%)
40-50 yrs old
(n=1,109)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/Katamtaman)
1,260 (64.19)
734 (66.19)
0.265
Sweet (Matamis)
531 (27.05)
263 (23.72)
0.043
Salty (Maalat)
347 (17.68)
190 (17.13)
0.703
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
62 (3.16)
59 (5.32)
0.003
Spic y (Maangha ng)
292 (14.88)
111 (10.01)
<0.0001
Sour (Maasim)
12 (0.61)
3 (0.27)
0.193
Urban adults liked foods with more savoury tastes such
as salty (p=0.017) or spicy (p=0.012). This was in contrast to
rural adults who preferred their food to taste “just right”
(p=0.001) (Table 5).
Table 5. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Residence
Taste Preferences
Residence
p valu e
Rur al
(n=2,255)
No. (%)
Urban
(n =817 )
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate (Tama
lang/Katamtaman)
1,501 (66.56)
493 (60.34)
0.001
Sweet (Matamis)
583 (25.85)
211 (25.83)
0.988
Salty (Maalat)
372 (16.50)
165 (20.20)
0.017
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
85 (3.77)
36 (4.41)
0.423
Spic y (Maangha ng)
275 (12.20)
128 (15.67)
0.012
Sour (Maasim)
14 (0.62)
1 (0.12)
0.137
Adults who had higher education (post high school and
above = 10 years formal education and above) liked their
food to be sweet (p=0.004) or savoury (salty p=0.029, spicy
p=<0.001). Food which tasted “just right” (p=<0.001) was
preferred by adults who had lower educational attainment
(high school graduate and below) (Table 6).
Table 6. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Educational Attainment
Taste Preferences
Educational Attainment
p value
Hig h sc hool
graduate and
below
(n=2,024)
No. (%)
Post High
School and
above (n
=1,048)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/Katamtaman)
1,389 (68.63)
605 (57.73)
<0.001
Sweet (Matamis)
490 (24.21)
304 (29.01)
0.004
Salty (Maalat)
332 (16.40)
205 (19.56)
0.029
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
80 (3.95)
41 (3.91)
0.957
Spic y (Maangha ng)
228 (11.26)
175 (16.70)
<0.001
Sour (Maasim)
11 (0.54)
4 (0.38)
0.542
Adults who reported having smoked preferred their
food to be spicy (p=0.022) while those who never smoked
like sweet-tasting food (p=0.009) (Table 7)
Table 7. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Smoking Status
Taste Preferences
Smoking Status
p value
Ever Smoked
(n= 1,064)
No. (%)
Has Never
Smoked
(n = 2,008)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/Katamtaman)
699 (65.70)
1,295 (64.49)
0.506
Sweet (Matamis)
245 (23.03)
549 (27.34)
0.009
Salty (Maalat)
180 (16.92)
357 (17.78)
0.550
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
45 (4.23)
76 (3.78)
0.547
Spic y (Maangha ng)
160 (15.04)
243 (12.10)
0.022
Sour (Maasim)
6 (0.56)
9 (0.45)
0.662
Adults who reported having had alcohol intake
preferred spicy food (p=< 0.001) (Table 8).
Table 8. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Alcohol Intake
Taste Preferences
Alc oho l Int ake
p value
Wit h Alc ohol
Intake
(n= 1,812)
No. (%)
No Alcohol
Intake
(n= 1,260)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/ Katamtaman)
1,161 (64.07)
833 (66.11)
0.244
Sweet (Matamis)
468 (25.83)
326 (25.87)
0.978
Salty (Maalat)
305 (16.83)
232 (18.41)
0.257
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
64 (3.53)
57 (4.52)
0.165
Spic y (Maangha ng)
284 (15.67)
119 (9.44)
< 0.001
Sour (Maasim)
12 (0.66)
3 (0.24)
0.097
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Savoury foods (sweet p=.004, salty p=.004) were
favoured by adults who reported feeling stressed in the past
year while food which tasted “just right” (<0.001) was
preferred by those who did not report having had stress
(Table 9).
Table 9. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Taste
Preferences of Adult Filipinos by Presence or Absence of
Stress in the Past Year
Taste Preferences
Stress
p value
Never
Experienced
Stress
(n=520)
No. (%)
Had
Experienced
Stress
(n =2,552)
No. (%)
Just right / Moderate
(Tama lang/Katamtaman)
375 (72.12)
1,619 (63.44)
< 0.001
Sweet (Matamis)
108 (20.77)
686 (26.88)
0.004
Salty (Maalat)
68 (13.08)
469 (18.38)
0.004
Bland (Matabang/Walang Lasa)
27 (5.19)
94 (3.68)
0.107
Spic y (Maangha ng)
58 (11.15)
345 (13.52)
0.145
Sour (Maasim)
1 (0.19)
14 (0.55)
0.491
Preferred Cooking Method
Almost all study participants said that they usually
fried (99%) and/or stir fried (92.5%) their food, and an almost
equal proportion reported boiling/stewing (92.2%) their food
(Tables 10). Two-thirds of participants ranked frying/deep
frying 1st among their usual cooking method (Tables 11).
There was a significantly higher proportion of respondents
with diabetes (p=0.040) and MeTS (p=0.008) among those
who usually cook by other methods than frying. No such
differences were noted for respondents with hypertension
(Table 12).
Table 10. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Usual
Cooking Methods+ of Adult Filipinos
Usu al Coo king Methods
Freq
Percent
Fried / Deep fried (Prito)
3,040
98.96
Boiled / Steamed / Stewed (Nilaga)
2,925
92.21
Sautéed / Stir fried (Guisa do)
2,842
92.51
Grilled / Broiled / Roasted ( Ihaw)
1,885
61.36
Raw / Fresh (Hila w)
557
18.13
Baked (Hurno)
190
6.18
+ Multiple responses
Table 11. Frequency and Percent Distribution of Most
Preferred Cooking Methods (Ranked 1st in Usual Cooking
Method)
Usual Cooking Methods
Freq
Percent
Fried / Deep fried (Prito)
1,928
62.76
Boiled / Steamed / Stewed (Nilaga)
578
18.82
Sautéed / Stir fried (Guisa do)
513
16.70
Grilled / Broiled / Roasted ( Ihaw)
49
1.60
Raw / Fresh (Hila w)
4
0.13
Baked (Hurno)
1
0.03
Table 12. Most Preferred Cooking Method (Ranked 1st in
Usual Cooking Method) and Health Status
WITH
COOKING OIL
(n = 2440)
No. (%)
OTHER COOKING
METHODS
(n = 632)
No. (%)
p-value
Hypertension
328 (13.44)
85 (13.45)
0.998
Diabetes
113 (4.64)
42 (6.65)
0.040
MeTS (mNCEP)
599 (24.55)
188 (29.75)
0.008
Nearly equal proportions of rural (80%) and urban
(77%) residents cooked with oil. Those who were younger
(less than 40 years old) preferred cooking with oil (p=<0.001).
There were no statistically significant differences in terms of
other socio-demographic factors (residence, sex, and
educational attainment) With regard to risk factors (alcohol,
smoking, stress) adults who reported having smoked
preferred cooking with oil (p=0.006). No significant
differences were noted for those who reported having
consumed alcohol or having had experienced stress in the
past year (Table 13).
Table 13. Most Preferred Cooking Method (Ranked 1st in
Usual Cooking Method) and Socio-demographic
Characteristics and Risk Factors (Alcohol, Smoking, Stress)
Usual Cooking Method
p value
WITH
COOKING
OIL
No. (%)
OTHER
COOKING
METHODS
No. (%)
SEX
0.221
Male (n=1,330 )
1,042 (78.40)
287 (21.60)
Female (n=1,748)
1,398 (80.21)
345 (19.79)
AGE
<0.001
< 40 yrs old (n=1,963)
1,618 (82.42)
345 (17.58)
40-50 yrs old (n=1,109)
822 (74.12%)
287 (25.88)
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
0.118
High school graduate and
below (n= 2,024)
1,591 (78.61)
433 (21.39)
Post High School and above
(n =1,048)
849 (81.01)
199 (18.99)
RESIDENCE
0.056
Rural (n=2,255)
1,810 (80.27)
445 (19.73)
Urban (n= 817)
630 (77.11)
187 (22.89)
SMOKING STATUS
0.006
Ever Smoked (n=1,064)
816 (76.69)
248 (23.31)
Has Never Smoked (n =2,008 )
1,624 (80.88)
384 (19.12)
ALCOHOL INTAKE
0.480
With Alcohol Intake
(n=1,812 )
1,447 (79.86)
365 (20.14)
No Alcohol Inta ke
(n=1,260 )
993 (78.81)
267 (21.19)
STRESS (Presence or Absence of Stress in the Past Year)
0.190
Never Experienced Stress
(n=520)
402 (77.31)
118 (22.69)
Had Experienced Stress
(n =2,552)
2,038 (79.86)
514 (20.14)
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VOL. 48 NO. 2 2014 ACTA MEDICA PHILIPPINA
Conclusions
Food which tasted “just right”/moderate was most
preferred by adult Filipinos who had hypertension or MeTS
while those who were diabetics did not favor sweet tasting
food (p=0.044). Males favoured food that tasted “just right”
(p=0.044) as well as food that was spicy (p<0.001). Salty food
was more preferred by females than males (p<0.001).
Younger adults (less than 40 years old) preferred sweet
(p=0.043) or spicy (p=<0.0001) food while older adults (40-50
years old) liked bland tasting food (p=0.003). Urban
residents liked salty (p=0.017 or spicy (p=0.012) food vs.
rural adults who favoured food which tasted “just right”
(p=0.001). Those who had post high school education and
above liked sweet (p=0.004) or savoury (salty p=0.029, spicy
p=<0.001) food whereas adults who had less formal
schooling liked food which tasted “just right” (p=<0.001).
Smokers preferred spicy taste (p=0.022) vs. non-smokers
who never smoked liked sweet-tasting food (p=0.009).
Adults who reported having had alcohol intake preferred
spicy food (p=< 0.001). Savoury foods (sweet p=.004, salty
p=.004) were preferred by adults who felt stressed those who
did not report having experienced stress like food which
tasted “just right” (p<0.001).
Cooking with oil was the usual and the most preferred
cooking method. Younger adults (<40 years old, p=<0.001)
and smokers (p=0.006) liked to use oil in cooking. It could be
hypothesized that cooking with oil was more convenient for
younger adults, and that fried food tasted more savoury for
smokers. The percentage of participants with diabetes
(p=0.04) and those with MeTS (p=0.008) was higher among
those who usually cooked by other cooking methods than by
frying. It is possible that the aforementioned participants
(with diabetes, with MetS) may be more conscious of how
they prepare what they eat, hence, their expressed
preference to use other cooking methods
(boiled/steamed/stewed, grilled/broiled/roasted, raw/fresh,
baked) instead of cooking with oil.
Establishing the self-reported taste preferences as well
as the usual and preferred cooking methods for food is an
important step for adequate nutritional management and
relevant lifestyle advice which healthcare providers
(physicians, nutritionists, nurses, and allied medical
workers), wellness consultants, and fitness professionals
should incorporate in their discussions with all patients, and
specially for adults with hypertension, diabetes, and MeTS.
__________________
Acknowledgments
The following organizations provided financial assistance to the
LIFECARE Philippines project: Pfizer International, Pfizer Asia,
Pfizer Philippines, Department of Health (Philippines), Philippine
Council for Health Research and Development, Diabetes
Philippines, Philippine Society of Hypertension, and the Philippine
Lipid and Atherosclerosis Society. The University of the Philippines
Manila through the College of Medicine, and the National Institutes
of Health’s Institute of Clinical Epidemiology have also supported
the project. The assistance of our support team (Rona May de Vera,
Rachel Longalong, and Alma Amparo), field interviewers, and
barangay health workers is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. Marilette
S. Falagne, MD provided technical assistance in the preparation of
the paper.
___________
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