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Developing More Minority Mathematicians and Scientists: A New Approach
... This assumption is made in a variety of ways. For example, Griffin's (1990) study implicated students' choices as a primary factor limiting their career decisions. Griffin argued ''the incidence of career choices among ABC students'' served as a central limitation (Griffin, 1990: 428). ...
... This assumption is derived without considering the wealth of research from psychology that details how a history of racism shaped a sense of self and self-efficacy in students (Steele, 1997;Cross, 1971Cross, , 1978. Their study and others like it (Gilleylen, 1993;Griffin, 1990Griffin, , 1993Maple and Stage, 1991) frame disparity in psychological terms pointing to psychological antecedents such as self-confidence, interests, and attitudes. ...
... An additional assumption limiting contemporary research perspectives involves a fundamental assumption that the culture of minority students is embedded with deficient cultural characteristics that limit their success. These frameworks tend to position minority and white cultures in contrast; framing minority culture as culturally disparate containing traits such as family background and community values (Griffin, 1990), parental influence (Maple and Stage, 1991), cultural awareness and social support (Gilleylen, 1993), and students' interest in social service fields (Hager and Elton, 1971;Thomas, 1984). The studies presented here and the types of antecedents outlined are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. ...
The contrast between the scientific need for objectivity and an individual's inability to see the world through a purely objective lens places science education at the intersection between injustice and epistemic certainty. Although science education and science are often seen as synonymous, their differences highlight the pervasive impact of racism. Historically, people have attempted to use scientific and pseudo-scientific research to affirm racist theories. Using the reified clout of science, racist ideologies have continued to reinvent themselves and make their way into public opinion. Science education has attempted to deflect these racist ideologies and offer a falsely objective image of science. As a result, contemporary science education research reflects the impact of a racist science ideology, as much of the research emphasizes on how achieving equity in science education requires science educators to help underserved students meet the standards of their superior white counterparts. We contend that science education is currently unable to service its underserved because of its inability to conceptualize the impact of a racist society on opportunities available to minority students. Using a review of science education literature, we argue for the incorporation of a more acute analysis of the impact of racism on science education as it may illuminate how learning differences are associated with the re-emergent paradigm of racist science.
... It is generally argued that the number of advanced mathematics and science courses students take in high school is a factor influencing African American students' career considerations. For example, Griffin (1990) reporting on a survey of 3,000 college students found that enrollment in advanced mathematics courses in high school is one of the best predictors of whether or not a student would pursue a career in mathematics or science. Maple and Stage (1991) conducting a study of 753 college students, found that the number of high school mathematics and science courses taken had significant direct effects on students' college field of study. ...
... Findings like those presented by Griffin (1990), Maple andStage (1991), andThomas (1984) could provide a strong starting point for unraveling the complex relationship between students' high school course taking patterns and their career considerations. However, the general tendency of scholars studying African American underrepresentation is to interpret the correlation identified in these studies as causes of underrepresentation. ...
... It could be that other factors are as much resultant from career consideration as they are causal to it. Take for example, students' self-confidence in their ability to do science (Griffin, 1990;Post et al., 1991). I (the first author) recall my freshman year as a chemistry major. ...
Extant literature on the underrepresentation of African Americans in science-related careers has identified numerous factors that correlate with students' career considerations. While these correlations provide substantial insight, the tendency to infer cause is problematic. This position paper draws on data from an exploratory study to illustrate that alternative interpretations are probable and to advocate the need for a deeper understanding of the relationship between students' career considerations and known correlates. Data were collected from 87 African American, high school juniors and seniors. These data identify the careers they consider pursuing, their reasons for enrolling in advanced science courses and the influence of the advanced science course on their consideration of science-related careers. Findings suggest that African American students' consideration of science-related careers may precede enrollment in advanced science courses.
... The emphasis that the science education community has put on equity in science education (e.g., Atwater, 2000;Bianchini & Brenner, 2010;Carlone, Haun-Frank, & Webb, 2011;Nelson, 2008;Ramnarain, 2011;Wilson, Taylor, Kowalski, & Carlson, 2010;Yerrick & Beatty-Adler, 2011) suggests that there is a shared interest in addressing this long-standing disparity in particular and other forms of disparity in general. In my own work I have found that although extant research has identified numerous factors, which correlate with students' career decisions, such as the number of mathematics and science courses taken (Thomas, 1984), and the influence of mathematics and science teachers (Griffin, 1990), this body of research has failed to explain how these factors are tied to race. Science education research has been unable to explain what it is about being African American that leads a student to take fewer mathematics and science courses, or to be differentially influenced by mathematics and science teachers (Lewis, 2003). ...
... Post, Stewart, and Smith found that African American college freshmen reported lower self-efficacy, confidence, interest, and consideration of mathematics and science occupations compared to non-mathematics and science occupations. Their study and others like it (Bhattacharyya, Mead, & Nathaniel, 2011;Elmesky & Seiler, 2007;Gilleylen, 1993;Griffin, 1990;Krist, 1993;Maple & Stage, 1991;Parsons, 2008;Thomas, 1984;Xu, Coats, & Davidson, 2012) frame disparity in terms that could be considered psychological, pointing to antecedents such as self-confidence, movement expressiveness, interests, attitudes, and motivation. While these studies demonstrate that African Americans hold dispositions that appear to work against science career attainment, they do not help us to understand how or why these dispositions are disproportionately present in African American populations. ...
... Cultural or social antecedents are another type used to explain African American science education. Work in this vein tends to treat disparity in science education as the result of disparate cultural or social traits such as family background and community values (Griffin, 1990), parental influence (Maple & Stage, 1991), cultural awareness and social support (Gilleylen, 1993), culturally determined interests (Hager & Elton, 1971;Sewell & Martin, 1976;Thomas, 1984), cultural differences between students and schools (Atwater & Riley, 1993;Parsons, 2000Parsons, , 2003 and cultural depravation (Malcom, 1990). Commitment to cultural and social antecedents as the cause of disparity grows out of work in educational foundations (Banks, 2005;Ladson-Billings, 1995;Lee, Spencer, & Harpalani, 2003;Ogbu & Davis, 2003;Trueba, 1988). ...
The body of research aimed at explaining the science teaching and learning of African Americans has identified myriad factors that correlate with African American's science career choices and science performance generally. It has not, however, offered any satisfactory explanations as to why those factors are disproportionately racially determined. This article argues that the sociocultural construction of race, which has roots in antebellum Western society, has endured to the present day; and that there is sufficient historical tradition and empirical evidence to warrant a research agenda that accounts for the sociocultural construction of race in explaining African American science education. The article concludes by suggesting a set of research questions and theoretical perspectives that considers the sociocultural construction of race to guide future research. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 50:82–103, 2013
... Disparities in science achievement between African American and White students have not gone without attention. There have been numerous studies (Anderson, 1989;Hall & Post-Kammer, 1987;Holmes, 1982;Norman, Ault, Bentz, & Meskimen, 2001;Riegle-Crumb, Moore, & Ramos-Wada, 2011), reports (Fetcher, 1989;Thomas, 1984Thomas, , 1986, and interventions (Carmichael & Sevenair, 1991;Dickerson, 1995;Ellis, 1993;Griffin, 1990;Hrabowski & Maton, 1995;Maton & Hrabowski, 2004) aimed at addressing disparities in African American science performance. However, these efforts have not yielded a large-scale impact. ...
... The third feature identified by Lewis is that the body of work employs no model that would explain the salience of race. According to Lewis, While extant research has identified numerous factors, which correlate with students' career decisions, such as the number of mathematics and science courses taken (Thomas, 1984), and the influence of mathematics and science teachers (Griffin, 1990), this body of research has failed to explain how these factors are tied to race. What is it about being African American that leads a student to take fewer mathematics and science courses, or to be differentially influenced by mathematics and science teachers? ...
Although there is a significant body of work that underscores the importance of pedagogy aimed at being responsive to students' unique racial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, there is relatively little work that helps science practitioners to understand what this pedagogy looks like in practice. Drawing on Mutegi's (2011) description of socially transformative mathematics and science curriculum and Ladson-Billings' (1995) framing of culturally responsive pedagogy, this article describes a four-week summer science camp for African American adolescent males. The article employs the methodological approach of Critical Race Theory in order to illustrate for the reader what socially transformative and culturally relevant science instruction might look like in practice.
... Research supports a stereotypical narrative of Black Americans entering STEM-related fields. Much of the research suggests that Black Americans who find success in STEM show early interest in science and math (Mutegi, 2020;Thomas, 1984), hold membership in STEM-related extracurricular activities (Gilleylen, 1993;Mutegi, 2020) and participate in advanced math and science courses in secondary education (Griffin, 1990;Maple & Stage, 1991;Thomas, 1984). Very often in this experience, Black Americans' research interests, areas of study, and scientific practice are shaped by systemic white supremacy (Mutegi, 2020). ...
... expressed an early interest in science (Thomas, 1984); he participated in extracurricular science activities (Gilleylen, 1993); and he took advanced mathematics and science courses in high school (Griffin, 1990;Maple & Stage, 1991; Thomas, 1984). These are the types of experiences, and dispositions that correlate with African American persistence toward STEM careers (Lewis, 2003). ...
This chapter examines the various ways that systemic racism works to shape the STEM research workforce of people of African descent. The interest driving this work is not a desire to have “representative” numbers of African STEM professionals. Instead, the driving interest is to provide a detailed description of the dynamic role that systemic racism plays in making the African STEM research workforce look and function the way that it does.
... At least since 1977 African Americans have consistently comprised less than 2% of practicing Ph.D. holding scientists (National Science Board, 1996); and at least since 1971 scholars have sought to understand the causes of underrepresentation through empirical research (Hager & Elton, 1971; Lewis, 1997; Lewis & Collins, 2001; Maple & Stage, 1991; Russell, 2002). While extant research has identified numerous factors, which correlate with students' career decisions, such as the number of mathematics and science courses taken (Thomas, 1984), and the influence of mathematics and science teachers (Griffin, 1990), this body of research has failed to explain how these factors are tied to race. What is it about being African American that leads a student to take fewer mathematics and science courses, or to be differentially influenced by mathematics and science teachers? ...
At least since 1977, African Americans have been underrepresented in science related careers. Although researchers have identified a number of factors which correlate with students' career decisions, they have failed to explain how these factors are related to race. Moreover, this body of research has failed to consider the role of mathematics and science teachers' perceptions of African-American students. This study identifies and describes perceptions held by 49 pre-service mathematics and science teachers about mathematics and science ability of African-American students. Data were collected by means of a three-part, open-ended questionnaire. Findings indicate that over one-third of pre-service teachers are unaware that African Americans achieve below their peers in mathematics and science; they overwhelmingly place culpability for African-American students' achievement with the students and their communities; and they are largely unable to identify culturally relevant teaching strategies to address African-American students' achievement.
... The literature surrounding the underrepresentation issue identified several factors related to African Americans' science and science-related career attainment-negative attitudes about science and low student self-efficacy (Maple & Stage, 1991;Post, Stewart, & Smith, 1991), inadequate career guidance and preparation in science (Powell, 1990, Oakes, 1990, and low teacher expectations for African Americans' science achievement (Gilbert & Yerrick, 2001;Griffin, 1990;). This line of research translated into interventions aimed at increasing African Americans' access to higher-level science coursework, better instruction, and improving students' interest (Hrabowski, 2003;Lewis, 2003;Russel & Atwater, 2005). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the potential of a High School Health Science Career Academy to support African American students' science career trajectories. I used three key theoretical tools---critical science agency (Basu, 2007; Calabrese Barton & Tan, 2008), power (Nespor, 1994), and cultural production (Carlone, 2004; Eisenhart & Finkel, 1998) to highlight the intersections between the career trajectory implied by the Academy (its curriculum, classroom activities, and clinical experiences) and the students' pursued career trajectories. Data was collected over five months and included individual student interviews, group interviews, parent and administrator interviews, field notes from a culminating medical course and clinical internship, and Academy recruitment documents. The results of this study suggest that participants pursued a health science career for altruistic purposes and the Academy was a resource they drew upon to do so. However, the meanings of science and science person implied by the Academy hindered the possibility for many participants' to advance their science career trajectories. While the Academy promised to expose students to a variety of high-status health care roles, they were funneled into feminine, entry-level positions. This study adds to previous underrepresentation literature by contextualizing how identity-related factors influence African American students' career attainment.
... Underrepresented minority students often experience discrimination and isolation when they first engage in the sciences (Seymour and Hewitt 1997). This can diminish their confidence in their own ability to succeed in the sciences, turning them away from a career in these fields (Griffin 1990;House 2000). Students with an initial interest in science and engineering tend not to go on to pursue a graduate degree, mainly because of financial concerns, weak academic advising, and/or a general lack of knowledge about science and engineering doctorate holders, their lifestyles, and other rewards (Brazziel and Brazziel 2001). ...
While the literature can tell us something about the number of people from underrepresented populations in science, there is scant evidence to explain why ecology in particular has among the lowest proportions of underrepresented students and professionals of any science. We conducted a case study of 39 African-American students from ESA's Strategies for Ecology Education, Development, and Sustainability program, focusing on the factors that influenced their choice of an ecology career pathway. Although the case study includes only African-American students, we review the literature pertaining to all minority groups in science. Our results indicate that family support in particular, along with research experience and a positive view of an ecology career, are important factors in a student's decision to pursue this career path.
... Student self-perception of ability in mathematics and science, perception of the curriculum, identification of a high school mathematics or science teacher as influential, and the academic atmosphere of the high school are predictors of taking advanced mathematics and science courses in high school. Furthermore, enrollment in advanced mathematics courses in high school is a major significant predictor of choosing a career in mathematics or science (Griffin, 1990). Choice of a career in mathematics or science usually occurs relatively early in students' school experience. ...
Project SEARCH (Science Education and Research for CHildren) is an outreach program designed to teach science and to foster positive attitudes toward science. Through the project, university science students bring activity-based learning, plus materials and content expertise, to local classrooms and after-school programs. Using observations, surveys, and interviews, we examined the experiences of these students as curriculum planners, teachers, and role models for the children. We found that teachers value the enthusiasm and the resources provided by the SEARCH students. Children were engaged in the activities and looked forward to the students’ visits. They also see them as positive and diverse models for the role of scientist. But there were often problems in the areas of preparation, scheduling, and communication, and the classroom activities often replicated traditional didactic lessons. The SEARCH experience highlights both the value of providing diverse and challenging experiences for children, and the need for dialogue and reflection on those experiences. Despite several concerns, the SEARCH model is one that deserves expansion and further study as it is extended into new settings. National Science Foundation under Grant IBN 89-20133EDOR to the University of Illinois published or submitted for publication is peer reviewed
... Much of the SCCT scholarship has focused on math/sciencerelated variables. This scholarship reveals that math/sciencerelated self-efficacy (i.e., academic and career-related selfefficacy) consistently figures prominently in the prediction of interest in STEM careers (Kahn & Nauta, 2001;Post, Stewart, & Smith, 1991;Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997), choice of STEM major (Lent et al., 1986), and actual pursuit of STEM careers (Griffin, 1990). Math/science-related self-efficacy is indirectly associated with selection of and persistence in a STEM major through its relationship to math/science interests and goals (Lent et al., 2003). ...
In this study we investigated the academic interests and goals of 223 African American, Latino/a, Southeast Asian, and Native American undergraduate students in 2 groups: biological science (BIO) and engineering (ENG) majors. Using social cognitive career theory (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994), we examined the relationships of social cognitive variables (math/science academic self-efficacy, math/science outcome expectations)—as well as the influence of ethnic variables (ethnic identity, other-group orientation) and perceptions of campus climate—to students’ math/science interests and goal commitment to earn a BIO/ENG degree. Path analysis revealed that the hypothesized model provided good overall fit to the data, revealing significant relationships between outcome expectations and interests and between outcome expectations and goals. Paths from academic self-efficacy to BIO/ENG goals and from interests to BIO/ENG goals varied for students in engineering and the biological sciences. For both groups, other-group orientation was positively related to self-efficacy, and support was found for an efficacy-mediated relationship between perceived campus climate and goals. Theoretical and practical implications of the study’s findings are considered as well as future research directions.
The purpose of this study was to determine if the influences of educational productivity factors on mathematics achievement and attitudes toward mathematics are the same for African Americans and other ethnic groups. Using Walberg's Educational Productivity Model as a framework, this study estimated the influence of home environment, quality and quantity of instruction, use of out-of-school time, peers, perceptions about the usefulness of mathematics in the future, and school socioeconomic status on mathematics achievement and attitude outcomes for students of various ethnic backgrounds. Transcript and survey data representing the factors were collected from 10,001 students who participated in all of the first three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). These results suggest that narrowing the gap in student achievement across ethnicity lies in simultaneously optimizing several different alterable factors related to achievement outcomes.
Leerlinge uit alle rassegroepe ervaar van tyd tot tyd onderrig- en leerprobleme in wiskunde. Dit geld in 'n veel groter opsig vir swart leerlinge as vir leerlinge uit ander bevolkingsgroepe. Verskeie moontlike redes vir hierdie verskynsel kan geïdentifiseer word, waaronder die feit dat swart leerlinge histories gesproke 'n beduidende ekonomiese en sosiale agterstand ten opsigte van ander leerlinge het. Faktore wat swart leerlinge se leer en onderrig van wiskunde inhibeer, word onder meer in hierdie artikel bespreek. Indien daar werklik erns gemaak word met die soeke na 'n Suid-Afrika waarin elke persoon sy regmatige plek op die beroeps-, ekonomiese, sosiale en politieke terrein moet inneem, behoort die kwessie van swart leerlinge se onderprestasie in wiskunde as een van die dringendste sake op enige toekomstige onderwysagenda geplaas te word. In hierdie artikel word enkele moontlike terreine van navorsing bespreek en word voorstelle ter verbetering van die situasie gemaak. Nie eers die heel beste pogings tot regstellende aksie kan waarskynlik vergoed vir die outentieke opheffing van swartes op hierdie terrein nie.
Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), path analytic procedures were performed to test an ecological model of the effects of family- and individual-level characteristics on the academic achievement of African American students. The study results show that several of the family influence variables directly or indirectly affected 12th-grade academic achievement. Furthermore, most of the individual influence variables were directly related to 12th-grade achievement. A surprising finding from this study was the nonsignificant effect of family income on 12th-grade achievement. Overall, the findings support the notion that family- and individual-level characteristics are important predictors of academic success among African American students.
This paper examines the effects of computer-based Interactive Lecture Experiments (ILEs) in a large introductory physics course on student academic achievement and attitudes towards physics. ILEs build on interactive lecture demonstrations by requiring students to analyze data during and after lecture demonstrations. Academic achievement was measured using the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) and final examinations' grades; and student attitudes were measured using a Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey (CLASS). FCI results showed a general positive shift (about average for an interactive course) but could not detect improvements in student understanding of specific topics addressed by ILEs. However, open-ended questions on the final exam showed differences between sections on topics that were addressed by ILEs. Attitude survey results showed a negative shift in student attitudes over the semester, which is a typical result for an introductory physics course. This finding suggests that ILE pedagogy alone is insufficient to significantly improve student attitudes toward science. The study also revealed possible improvements to implementing ILEs such as working in groups, ongoing feedback for students, and linking assessment to pedagogical practices.
Reports published since 1977 indicate that African Americans are underrepresented among Ph.D.-holding scientists. Although researchers have identified numerous factors that correlate with career choice, they have failed to address students' reasons for choosing or not choosing science and science-related careers. This study examines the career decisions of three African-American college students. All three students began college aspiring toward science-related careers. However, by the end of data collection only one student was working toward a science-related career. Data were collected by means of eight, open-ended, 1-hour interviews conducted over a period of 6 months. Findings indicate that students' interest in a science-related career is directly related to the degree to which they perceive that career as being supportive of deep-seated life goals; and that a deeper view of the nature of science better enables students to perceive a science-related career as supportive of life goals. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 38: 599–621, 2001
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