Flexibility of the Elderly after One-Year Practice of Yoga and Calisthenics

Abstract

Flexibility training responses to distinct stretching techniques are not well defined, especially in the elderly. This study compared the flexibility of elderly individuals before and after having practiced hatha yoga and calisthenics for 1 year (52 weeks), at least 3 times/week. Sixty-six subjects (12 men) measured and assigned to 3 groups: control (n = 24, age = 67.7±6.9 years), hatha yoga (n = 22, age = 61.2±4.8 years), and calisthenics (n = 20, age = 69.0±5.8 years). The maximal range of passive motion of 13 movements in 7 joints was assessed by the Flexitest, comparing the range obtained with standard charts representing each arc of movement on a discontinuous and non-dimensional scale from 0 to 4. Results of individual movements were summed to define 4 indexes (ankle+knee, hip+trunk, wrist+elbow, and shoulder) and total flexibility (Flexindex). Results showed significant increases of total flexibility in the hatha yoga group (by 22.5 points) and the calisthenics group (by 5.8 points) (p < 0.01 for each) and a decrease in the control group (by 2.1 points) (p < 0.01) after one year of intervention. Between-group comparison showed that increases in the hatha yoga group were greater than in the calisthenics group for most flexibility indexes, particularly the overall flexibility (p <0.05). In conclusion, the practice of hatha yoga (i.e., slow/passive movements) was more effective in improving flexibility compared to calisthenics (i.e., fast/dynamic movements), but calisthenics was able to prevent flexibility losses observed in sedentary elderly subjects.

Full text

Abstract
Flexibility training responses to distinct stretching tech-
niques are not well defined, especially in the elderly. This
study compared the flexibility of elderly individuals before
and after having practiced hatha yoga and calisthenics for 1
year (52 weeks), at least 3 times/week. Sixty-six subjects (12
men) measured and assigned to 3 groups: control (n= 24,
age = 67.7±6.9 years), hatha yoga (n= 22, age = 61.2±4.8
years), and calisthenics (n= 20, age = 69.0±5.8 years). The
maximal range of passive motion of 13 movements in 7
joints was assessed by the Flexitest, comparing the range
obtained with standard charts representing each arc of
movement on a discontinuous and non-dimensional scale
from 0 to 4. Results of individual movements were summed
to define 4 indexes (ankle+knee, hip+trunk, wrist+elbow,
and shoulder) and total flexibility (Flexindex). Results
showed significant increases of total flexibility in the hatha
yoga group (by 22.5 points) and the calisthenics group (by
5.8 points) (p< 0.01 for each) and a decrease in the control
group (by 2.1 points) (p< 0.01) after one year of interven-
tion. Between-group comparison showed that increases in
the hatha yoga group were greater than in the calisthenics
group for most flexibility indexes, particularly the overall
flexibility (p<0.05). In conclusion, the practice of hatha
yoga (i.e., slow/passive movements) was more effective in
i m p r oving flexibility compared to calisthenics (i.e.,
fast/dynamic movements), but calisthenics was able to pre-
vent flexibility losses observed in sedentary elderly subjects.
Key w o r d s : s t retching, aging, physical fitness, physical
training, health, yoga, elderly
Background
Flexibility training is recommended as an essential part of
e xe r cise programs aiming at performance or health
(American College of Sports Medicine, 2011). Adequate
joint motion plays a crucial role in the efficiency of daily
tasks (Stathokostas, Little, Vandervoort, & Paterson, 2012),
postural stability, and balance (Costa, Graves, Whitehurst,
& Jacobs, 2009). Given that the overall range of motion
decreases steadily with aging (Araújo, 2008; Doriot &
Wang, 2006; Intolo et al., 2009), flexibility training is an
especially important component in exe r cise pro g r a m s
designed for the elderly (American College of Sp o r t s
Medicine, 2009; Bi rd, Hill, Ball, Hetherington, &
Williams, 2011; Brito, D. Araújo, & C. Araújo, 2013). The
accumulated evidence indicates that flexibility can be
improved in all age groups, regardless of the baseline level
(American College of Sports Medicine, 2009; Decoster,
Cleland, Altieri, & Russell, 2005; Nelson et al., 2007).
However, the training strategy that yields the best ratio
between flexibility gains and injury risks has yet to be
defined (American College of Sports Medicine, 2011;
Araújo, 2004; Corbin & Noble, 1980; Hubley, Kozey, &
Stanish, 1984; Rubini, Costa, & Gomes, 2007), particular-
ly among middle-aged and elderly people (Araújo, 2008;
Doriot & Wang, 2006; Intolo et al., 2009; American
College of Sports Medicine, 2009).
Different methods to improve flexibility have been pro-
posed, from simple strategies, such as static stretching, to
more complex strategies, such as proprioceptive neuromus-
cular facilitation (PNF) (American College of Sp o r t s
Medicine, 2011). Previous research suggested that ballistic,
or static, stretching would be equally effective to improve
flexibility (Araújo, 2004; Covert, Alexander, Petronis, &
Davis, 2010). In practice, flexibility is rarely trained alone,
but rather performed in combination with other types of
exercise. Traditional calisthenics, for instance, may include
ballistic movements, resistance, and aerobic exercises, while
yoga classes may apply static slow stretching combined with
balance and relaxation exe rcises (American College of
Sports Medicine, 2011).
Since flexibility decreases throughout aging, compro-
mising the performance of several daily tasks, it is important
International Journal of Yoga Therapy — No. 24 (2014) 71
www.IAYT.org
Flexibility of the Elderly after One-Year Practice of Yoga and
Calisthenics
Paulo T.V. Farinatti, PhD,1Ercole C. Rubini, MSc,2,3,4 Elirez B. Silva, DSc,2Jacques H. Vanfraechem, PhD5
1. Graduate Program on Physical Activity Sciences, Salgado de Oliveira University, Niterói, RJ, Brazil,
2. Graduate Program on Physical Activity and Exercise Sciences, University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Brazil, 3. Laboratory of Physical Activity and Health Promotion, University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Brazil, 4. Laboratory of Exercise Physiology, Estácio de Sá University, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil,
5. Laboratory of Physical Effort, Brussels Free University, Brussels, Belgium
Research

to define how different strategies may preserve or improve
the maximal range of motion in elderly persons. Hatha yo g a
and calisthenics are options commonly practiced by this
population, but there is a lack of evidence about their
impact on long-term flexibility changes. The purpose of this
study was to compare the effects of a one-year practice of
hatha yoga or calisthenics on the flexibility of men and
women aged 60-years-old and ove r. We hypothesized that
both strategies would be equally effective in improving the
overall range of motion in a healthy sample of elder subjects.
Methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
Exclusion criteria included the participation in other phys-
ical activities that could affect flexibility and the diagnostic
of bone, joint, or muscle problems or any clinical condition
that could limit exercise performance. After satisfying the
exclusion criteria, subjects were assigned accordingly to
their interests to either hatha yoga or calisthenics classes. A
control group was composed of subjects that participated
only in social activities at the University facilities.
Subjects and controls had their flexibility assessed at
baseline. Subjects assigned to hatha yoga and calisthenics
groups performed a 52-week training program with fre-
quencies of three times per week, while the control group
did not engage in any kind of systematic physical training.
All participants we re instructed not to engage in any other
additional physical activity program while participating in
the study. Subjects we re excluded from the final analysis if
they did not attend at least 75% of the training sessions or
missed four consecutive sessions. After 52 weeks, subjects
and controls had their flexibility reassessed, within an
i n t e r val no longer than three days after completion of their
p ro g r a m .
Subjects
Initially, a group of 83 subjects (12 men) volunteered to
participate in the study and were assigned to hatha yoga (n
= 31; 3 men, age = 63.2±3.8) or calisthenics (n=2 2; 3 men,
age = 69.4±5.3). A control group (n=30; 6 men, age =
72.7±5.9) was composed of subjects that did not practice
physical activities but were engaged in social activities
offered by the University. The study had institutional ethi-
cal board approval, and all subjects signed an informed con-
sent form prior to participation in the study.
Training Sessions
Both hatha yoga and calisthenics sessions were performed at
the University facilities. The calisthenics program aimed to
improve muscle function (i.e., strength and flexibility) and
aerobic capacity, including exercises for the upper and lower
limbs, within 60-minute sessions. A typical calisthenics ses-
sion began with a 5-minute warm-up period, followed by
15 minutes of various displacement activities (e.g., walking,
trotting, or running forward, backward, and sideways).
After this “aerobic phase,” subjects performed 20 minutes of
multi-joint resistance exercises, with or without external
resistance (i.e., dumbbells, elastic bands, medicine balls),
followed by 15 minutes of flexibility exercises (i.e., static
stretching and ballistic movements of the upper and lower
limbs). The sessions ended with a 5-minute cool-down,
including relaxation activities. All calisthenics sessions were
conducted by the same two licensed instructors, who did
not know that the subjects would be compared with regard
to flexibility levels pre- post-intervention.
There are many different styles of yoga, hatha yoga
being perhaps the most popular style in Western countries
(Schell, Allolio, & Schonecke, 1994). Although hatha yoga
classes are generally performed at a low intensity level, there
are different levels of difficulty (Khanna & Greeson, 2013).
In hatha yoga level 1, overall principles of yoga and basic
postures are introduced. The proper alignment of the differ-
ent poses and breathing techniques is emphasize d .
Therefore, the exercises generally include static positions
performed with different ranges of motion. Typical level 1
classes are designed for students with no previous experi-
ence with yoga, and requirements in terms of strength and
flexibility may be considered as moderate. At level 2, more
advanced and challenging poses are introduced, based on
proper alignment acquired in level 1. Respiratory exercises
are combined with movements of greater complexity, and
demands of strength, endurance, and flexibility are
increased. Level 3 classes include exercises for advanced
yogis, who do not require demonstration of poses and
movements. Exercises at this level are characterized by very
complex movements and static positions performed in a
brisk sequence, requiring high flexibility and strength.
In the present study, hatha yoga sessions could be clas-
sified as Level 1 or 2, with most subjects considered as
novices or beginners, and, with respect to stretching, the
exercises were simple and performed statically. Subjects
included in the hatha yoga group usually performed slow-
paced stretching and postures to develop flexibility. Postures
were combined with breathing exercises, relaxation tech-
niques, and seated meditation (Khanna & Greeson, 2013).
Yoga sessions typically lasted 50 to 60 minutes and were
conducted by the same certified yoga instructor, who was
also unaware that flexibility was the endpoint of the study.
Flexibility Assessment
Flexibility was assessed by the Flexitest (Araújo, 2004;
Araújo, 1986). This non-dimensional technique compares
the physiological maximal range of passive motion of 20
International Journal of Yoga Therapy — No. 24 (2014)72
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movements in the major body joints (see Table 1) to a
graphic range displayed in standard charts. Each arc of
movement is represented on a progressive scale ranging
from 0 to 4 (see Figure 1). Any intermediate range observed
is considered as the lower value. Since all individual move-
ments tend to assume central values within the evaluation
scale, it is possible to add their results and obtain a global
index of flexibility, called Flexindex (Araújo, 2004; Araújo,
1986).
Table 1.
Kinesiological Description of Flexitest’s 20 Movements
The Flexitest and the Flexindex have been shown to
have good reliability (Araújo, 2004; Araújo, 1986), and the
Flexitest correlates significantly with other methods of
assessing flexibility(Araújo, 2004). Due to safety and viabil-
ity, we selected only 13 movements in seven joints (see
Table 1): two of ankles (I, II), two of knees (III, IV), two of
hips (V, VII), one of trunk (IX), two of wrists (XII, XIII),
two of elbows (XIV, XV) and two of shoulders (XVI, XVII).
All measurements were performed between 2 p.m. and
4 p.m. by the same trained evaluator. Results for each move-
ment were grouped to define indexes related to anatomical-
ly close body segments, as follows: ankle+knee; hip+trunk;
wrist+elbow; shoulder; and Flexindex.
Figure 1.
Scoring chart for the 20 movements assessed by the
Flexitest
Statistical Analyses
The homogeneity of variances was tested by the Fischer test,
and the normal distribution of predefined indexes was test-
ed by univariate analysis. The scores from the groups of
movements were standardized according to their minimum
common multiple to allow comparisons between indexes
composed of different numbers of movements. For exam-
ple, the maximal score of a group including four move-
ments would be 16, whereas the maximal score of a group
with only two movements would be eight. To be compara-
ble, the minimum common multiple was calculated (e.g.,
MCM = 4); therefore, the scores of the groups with four
and two movements would be multiplied respectively by 1
and 2, respectively. Comparisons within and between
groups were made by two-way ANOVA with repeated
measures or Friedman ANOVA, depending on data nor-
mality. Fisher and Wilcoxon tests were applied as post hoc
verification in the case of significant F ratios, respectively
Flexibility of the Elderly after 1–Year Practice of Yoga and Calisthenics 73
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I ankle flexion +
II ankle extension +
III knee flexion +
IV knee extension +
V hip flexion +
VI hip extension +
VII hip adduction
VIII hip abduction
IX trunk flexion +
X trunk extension
XI trunk lateral flexion
XII wrist flexion +
XIII wrist extension +
XIV elbow flexion +
XV elbow extension +
XVI posterior shoulder adduction with 180 degrees
of abduction +
XVII shoulder extension and posterior adduction +
XVIII posterior shoulder extension
XIX lateral shoulder rotation with 90 degrees of
abduction *
XX medial shoulder rotation with 90 degrees of
abduction *
+ adapted Flexitest - 13 movements (elderly conditions)
* with a 90 ° elbow flexion

for normally and not normally distributed data. Statistical
significance level was fixed at p< 0.05, and all calculations
we r e performed using the Statistica 7.0 software
(StatsoftTM, 2004).
Results
There were no training-related injuries during the testing or
training periods of the study. At the end of the 52-week
training program, six subjects from the calisthenics group
and nine subjects from the hatha yoga group had not
attended at least 75% of training sessions due to illness,
work, or another undefined reasons and were excluded from
the study. Additionally, three subjects in the control group
dropped out. At the end of the study, the subjects comply-
ing with at least 75% of the exercise sessions and testing
protocols were as follows: calisthenics group = 24 (age =
67.7±6.9 years), hatha yoga group = 22 (age = 61.2±4.8
years), and control group = 20 (age = 69.0±5.8 years). No
significant difference was found for age between calisthen-
ics and hatha yoga groups (p= 0.06), nor between calisthen-
ics and control groups (p= 0.12). However, mean age of the
hatha yoga group was significantly lower than the control
group (p= 0.03).
Table 2 presents the results for the between- and with-
in-group comparisons before and after the intervention.
Parametric techniques of inferential analysis were applied
only for the Flexindex, which was normally distributed.
Results are therefore presented as median ± interquartile
difference (IQD) for the groups of movements and as mean
± standard deviation (SD) for the Flexindex. Standardized
flexibility indexes were similar across groups at baseline.
Within-group comparison showed that the majority of flex-
ibility indexes increased after one year of practice in both
calisthenics and hatha yoga groups (p<0.05), while a signif-
icant decrease was observed in the control group (p<0.05).
However, in most indexes, particularly overall flexibility,
hatha yoga proved to be superior to calisthenics for induc-
ing flexibility gains (p<0.05).
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects
of one-year of calisthenics or hatha yoga on the flexibility of
elderly men and women. The results suggested that the
gains associated with hatha yoga were greater than those
associated with calisthenics. However, calisthenics practice
was capable of increasing flexibility, while preventing losses
observed in the control group.
Previous studies re p o rted that static and ballistic
stretching would be equally efficient to increase flexibility
(Araújo, 2004; Cove r t, Alexander, Pe t ronis, & Da v i s ,
2010)). However, we found no studies observing the effects
of stretching strategies over a period as long as one year, as
in the present follow-up. Our results suggest that, at least
when considering such long-term effects in sedentary elder-
ly subjects, a combination of passive movements coupled
with relaxation induces greater flexibility gains, compared
with ballistic exercises typical of calisthenics routines. The
fact that hatha yoga generally employs more stretching exer-
International Journal of Yoga Therapy — No. 24 (2014)74
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Table 2.
Standardized Flexibility Indexes before and after 1-Year Intervention (between and with Group Comparison)–
Calisthenics (CL), Hatha yoga (YG), and Control (CG) groups
Group Median (IQD)
CL (1) (n= 24) YG (2) (n= 22) CG (3) (n=20)
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Ankle+Knee 16 (5) 21 (4)+2,3 14 (3) 25.5 (3.5)+1,3 15 (4) 12 (4)*1,2
Hip+Trunk 15 (3) 24 (4.5)*2,3 16 (4) 36 (3)+1,3 16 (4.5) 13 (3)*1,2
Wrist+Elbow 18 (3.5) 21 (3.5)*3 18.5 (4) 24 (3)*3 17 (4) 16.5 (4)1,2
Shoulder 9 (3) 12 (2)+2,3 10 (4) 24 (4)*1,3 9 (3) 6 (2)*1,2
Mean (SD)
CL (1) (n= 24) YG (2) (n= 22) CG (3) (n=20)
Flexindex 15.3 (4.6) 21.1 (4.4)+2,3 14.9 (3.7) 28.3 (5.8)+1,3 15.6 (5.5) 13.5 (4.0)*1,2
CL: calisthenics group; YG: hatha yoga group; CG: control group
IQD: inter-quartile difference; SD: standard deviation
* Within-group difference (p<0.05); + Within-group difference (p<0.01)
1Difference with regard to CL
2Difference with regard to YG;
3Difference with regard to CG (p<0.05)

cises than are used in calisthenics may contribute to the
higher gains in flexibility observed in the hatha yoga group.
Long-term effects of flexibility training can be detected
after 8-to-10 weeks and are closely related to the volume
and intensity of stretching (Kokkonen, Nelson, Tarawhiti,
Buckingham, & Winchester, 2010; Kokkonen, Nelson,
Eldredgec, & Winchester, 2007). A number of underlying
mechanisms have been proposed to explain these gains. An
i n c r ease in length and number of serial sarc o m e r e s
(Coutinho, Gomes, Franca, Oishi, & Salvini, 2004) may
take place as a result of regular stretching. The mechanical
stimulation induced by static stretching possibly regulates
mechano-transduction for the serial addition of sarcomeres
(Herbert & Balnave, 1993) and may also increase the
release of nitric oxide (Chang et al., 1996) or the secretion
of mechanical growth factor (MGF) by skeletal muscles
(Goldspink, Williams, & Simpson, 2002). Supporting this
contention is the higher concentration of the neuronal iso-
form of nitric oxide synthase in the muscle–tendon junc-
tion where it appears to regulate the addition of the serial
sarcomeres (Tidball et al., 1998). This effect, however,
might be counteracted by concentric resistance training typ-
ical of calisthenics (Lester et al., 2013), which could also be
speculated as a reason for the lower gains induced by this
kind of exercise compared with hatha yoga.
The relaxation capacity associated with hatha yo g a
could also contribute to its superior flexibility benefits.
Relaxation training has been shown to induce positive effects
on range of motion (Cowen, 2010; Ghoncheh & Sm i t h ,
2004). Im p roving the relaxation capacity of antagonist mus-
cles makes it easier to perform stretching exe r cises to a max-
imal range through better pro p r i o c e p t i ve and vo l u n t a r y con-
t r ol of agonist–antagonist re c i p rocal inhibition (Sh a r m a n ,
Cre s s w ell, & Riek, 2006). A higher relaxation level pro d u c e d
by hatha yoga may reduce muscular resistance to static
s t r etching, increasing its capability of distending when mus-
cular compliance increases (Mc H ugh, Magnusson, Gl e i m ,
& Nichlas, 1002), and there b y contributing to a greater tol-
erance to stretching (Ha l b e r tsma & Göeken, 1994;
Magnusson, Simonsen, Aagaard, So r ensen, & Kjaer, 1996).
Yoga and calisthenics have different muscle actions with
regard to flexibility training. Hatha yoga primarily adopts
p a s s i ve techniques of stretching, whereas calisthenics
employs more vigorous and ballistic movements (American
College of Sports Medicine, 2011). The ballistic method
uses the momentum of the moving segment to produce the
s t r etch stimulus (Woolstenhulme, Griffiths, Wo o l s t e n -
hulme, & Parcell, 2006). Since there is an emphasis on the
speed of movement, ballistic exercises provoke higher mus-
cle spindle response and therefore important static reflex
contraction against the stretching workload (Corbin &
Noble, 1980).
On the other hand, static training is associated with
slow, progressive, and sustained movements. The muscle
spindle stimulation is lower and thus the antagonist muscle
reaction is lessened, which allows greater ranges of motion.
Most recommendations favor this kind of training for
beginners and non-athletic populations (American College
of Sports Medicine, 2011). From the long-term perspective,
it is possible that hatha yoga's passive stretching could be
more effective in improving the flexibility of elderly people,
in comparison with calisthenics' ballistic stretching.
Finally, flexibility gains detected in indexes composed
of “shoulder” and “hip+trunk” movements were much
greater compared with the other joints. This is an important
observation, given the importance of these movements to
daily tasks. Moreover, the decrease in shoulder and trunk
movements in elderly subjects has been reported to be
greater than in other joint groups (Farinatti & Soares, 1994;
Farinatti, Soares, Oliveira, & Menezes, 1993; Medeiros,
Araújo, & Araújo. 2013). Comparable increases have been
documented for upper body (shoulder) and lower body
(ankle, knee) flexibility in older men and women following
a program of stretching and other dynamic movements
through a full range of movement (e.g., yoga or tai chi)
(American College of Sports Medicine, 2009). Perhaps
hatha yoga as practiced in this program provided more
stretching to these joints than to the other joints measured.
The major limitation of the present study is that the
hatha yoga group was slightly younger than the calisthenics
and control groups. Since it is well established that aging is
a determinant factor of flexibility levels, we do not know to
what extent the hatha yoga gains could be affected by this
difference. However, flexibility levels were similar across
groups at baseline. Moreover, there is evidence indicating
that flexibility gains due to regular stretching are not limit-
ed by age, especially in long-term programs (American
College of Sports Medicine, 2011; Stathokostas, Little,
Vandervoort, & Paterson, 2012; Nelson et al., 2007).
Another issue that could have strengthened the study would
be to have had flexibility checks throughout the study to
ascertain whether the gains in flexibility occurred early or
later in the program. This might be possible in future stud-
ies, if effective ways can be found to preserve the blinding
of the yoga and calisthenics instructors to the endpoints of
the study.
In conclusion, the practice of hatha yoga was more
effective than calisthenics in improving flexibility in healthy
elderly subjects, especially in shoulder and trunk move-
ments. However, calisthenics routines not only prevented
losses in flexibility observed in sedentary subjects but also
provided increases in flexibility, albeit smaller than those
realized with yoga. Our results demonstrate that long-term
e x e r cise programs of different types can pre s e r ve and
Flexibility of the Elderly after 1–Year Practice of Yoga and Calisthenics 75
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improve flexibility in elderly populations. Moreover, the
specificity of flexibility training appears to be a valid princi-
ple in the elderly, since a static-stretching hatha yoga regi-
men induced greater gains than a ballistic-stretching calis-
thenics program.
Author Note
This study was partially supported by grants from the
Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for the Research Support
in Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) and the Brazilian Council for
the Research Development (CNPq).
C o r respondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Paulo Farinatti, Laboratory of Physical Activity
and Health Promotion, University of the State of Rio de
Janeiro (LABSAU/UERJ). Rua São Francisco Xavier 524,
sala 8121F. Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro, RJ.
Contact: farinatt@uerj.br or pfarinatti@pq.cnpq.br
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