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Coffee and qat on the Royal Danish expedition to Arabia - Botanical, ethnobotanical and commercial observations made in Yemen 1762-1763
Abstract
In spite of widespread consumption of coffee in Europe at the time of the Royal Danish expedition to Arabia 1761-1767, little was known of the cultivation of coffee in Yemen and of the Arabian coffee export to Europe. Fresh leaves of qat were used as a stimulant on the Arabian Peninsula and in East Africa, but before the Royal Danish expedition to Arabia this plant was known in Europe only from secondary reports. Two members of the expedition, Carsten Niebuhr and Peter Forsskål, pioneered studies of coffee and qat in Yemen and of the Arabian coffee export. Linnaeus’ instructions for travellers requested observations on the use of coffee, but otherwise Forsskål and Niebuhr’s studies of coffee and qat were made entirely on their own initiative. Now, 250 years after The Royal Danish expedition to Arabia, coffee has become one of the world’s most valuable trade commodities and qat has become a widely used and banned drug.
... Historical accounts suggest that the Yemeni integrated the coffee plant into crop cultivation, culture and daily ritual as early as 1400 (Friis, 2015). Until the end of the seventeenth century, global supply of coffee was almost exclusively provided by Yemeni merchants and traders (Friis, 2015;Koutouleas, 2023). ...
... Historical accounts suggest that the Yemeni integrated the coffee plant into crop cultivation, culture and daily ritual as early as 1400 (Friis, 2015). Until the end of the seventeenth century, global supply of coffee was almost exclusively provided by Yemeni merchants and traders (Friis, 2015;Koutouleas, 2023). This monopoly ended in the early seventeenth century, when Dutch colonists drove the Portuguese out of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and began coffee cultivation. ...
Coffee leaf rust (CLR) is caused by the biotrophic pathogenic fungus Hemileia vastatrix. Despite being the most researched coffee disease, mysteries still exist relating to its epidemiology and biology. The objective of this work is to highlight past and present events concerning this prominent coffee disease. We start with an historical overview of the homeland of Coffea arabica, the Afromontane forest of south-west Ethiopia, and then follow its journey across the globe linked to colonial trade and power struggles. We report the relevance of CLR to coffee production today, with a focus on the Americas and summarize unproven hypotheses in relation to the cause of recent epidemics. We present an original hypothesis concerning the first major outbreak occurring in 1869 in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), based on geopolitical connections to global trade. We review old and new options for management of the disease. The likelihood of a yet undetected alternate host of H. vastatrix is also considered as an additional piece of the epidemiological puzzle. Finally, we reflect on the interactions between H. vastatrix and a changing climate. By better understanding past events, linked to CLR, we may be better prepared for future outbreaks.
... Historical accounts suggest that the Yemeni integrated the coffee plant into crop cultivation, culture and daily ritual as early as 1400 (Friis, 2015). Until the end of the seventeenth century, global supply of coffee was almost exclusively provided by Yemeni merchants and traders (Friis, 2015;Koutouleas, 2023). ...
... Historical accounts suggest that the Yemeni integrated the coffee plant into crop cultivation, culture and daily ritual as early as 1400 (Friis, 2015). Until the end of the seventeenth century, global supply of coffee was almost exclusively provided by Yemeni merchants and traders (Friis, 2015;Koutouleas, 2023). This monopoly ended in the early seventeenth century, when Dutch colonists drove the Portuguese out of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and began coffee cultivation. ...
Coffee ( Coffea spp.) originates from the tropical montane rainforest understorey. In this shaded environment, the coffee plant has co-evolved with a wide array of pests and diseases. The fungal pathogen Hemileia vastatrix is the most notorious of all known coffee plant diseases. With a rich history rooted in colonial trade and power struggles, H. vastatrix has had its lion’s share of research and scrutiny by the plant pathology community. Though this disease was discovered more than 150 years ago, many unknowns concerning its spread and persistence across the tropics still exist today. Despite its relevance to coffee production, there is little global data that synthesizes the impact of this disease on coffee yield and plant health. Best practices for control of coffee leaf rust are contentious. Genetic resistance has been breaking down in cultivars across the coffee belt over the past decade. How can farmers best control outbreaks of the disease? Are these practices at odds with new trends and challenges in coffee farming (e.g. organic, biodiversity-friendly, agroforestry etc.). What are the future prospects of our global coffee supply under pressure from this rampant disease? All these questions are examined in this case study using pertinent literature sources and supplemented by coffee farmers or extension service providers in Latin America and Africa.
Information
© The Author 2023
Cover photo courtesy of the author.
... Coffea arabica L. is an allotetraploid species derived from spontaneous hybridization between Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner, and Coffea eugenioides S. Moore (Lashermes et al., 1999). It is indigenous to the understory montane rain forests of southwestern Ethiopia and South Sudan, representing its primary centres of diversity (Sylvain, 1955;Friis, 2015). Yemen is the accepted secondary dispersal centre of C. arabica (Fernie et al., 1968;Montagnon et al., 2021). ...
... In the areas of origin, coffee grows wild under the canopy of tall trees. However, reports on early cultivation suggest that sunexposed fields with terracing dominated agricultural practices in Yemen (Friis, 2015). ...
The coffee research community has maintained a long ongoing debate regarding the implications of shade trees in coffee production. Historically, there has been contrasting results and opinions on this matter, thus recommendations for the use of shade (namely in coffee agroforestry systems) are often deemed controversial, particularly due to potential yield declines and farmers' income. This study is one of the first demonstrating how several Coffea arabica cultivars respond differently to shade with respect to yield. By standardising more than 200 coffee yield data from various in-field trials, we assembled the so-called "Ristretto" data pool, a one of a kind, open-source dataset, consolidating decades of coffee yield data under shaded systems. With this standardised dataset, our meta-analysis demonstrated significant genotypic heterogeneity in response to shade, showing neutral, inverted U-shaped and decreasing trends between yield and shade cover amongst 18 different cultivars. These findings encourage the examination of C. arabica at the cultivar level when assessing suitability for agroforestry systems. Comparison of productivity is also encouraged across a range of low to moderate shade levels (10-40%), in order to help elucidate potential unknown optimal shade levels for coffee production.
... We also Lucile Toniutti and Valérie Poncet contributed equally. Ethiopian Highlands are the center of origins of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L., Rubiaceae), but cultivation and trade were mostly developed by Yemen before the 17th century (hence, the species name) (Friis, 2015;Ukers, 1922). From there, it spreads worldwide along two main routes, giving rise to two major cultivated lineages (Anthony et al., 2002). ...
Societal Impact Statement
Despite strong historical declines, Guadeloupe and Haiti's coffee sectors remain important to rural communities' livelihood and resilience. Coffee also holds value as part of the islands' historical legacy and cultural identities. Furthermore, it is often grown in agroforestry systems providing important ecosystem services, which will become more important as these vulnerable islands work to adapt to a changing climate. Current efforts to revitalize coffee farms and target strategically important specialty markets would benefit from understanding existing genetic resources and the historical factors that shaped them. Our study reveals the rich history reflected in current coffee stands on the islands.
Summary
The West Indies, particularly former French colonies like Haiti and Guadeloupe, were central to the spread of coffee in the Americas. The histories of these Islands are shared until the 19th century, where they diverged significantly. Still, both Islands experienced a strong decline in their coffee sector. Characterizing the genetic and varietal diversity of their coffee resources and understanding historical factors shaping them can help support revitalization efforts.
To that end, we performed Kompetitve Allele‐Specific PCR (KASP) genotyping of 80 informative single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers on field samples from across main coffee‐growing region of Guadeloupe, and two historically important ones in Haiti, as well as 146 reference accessions from international collections. We also compared bioclimatic variables from sampled geographic areas and searched for historical determinants of present coffee resources.
At least five Coffea arabica varietal groups were found in Haiti, versus two in Guadeloupe, with admixed individuals in both. The traditional Typica variety is still present in both islands, growing across a variety of climatic environments. We also found Coffea canephora on both islands, with multiple likely origins, and identified C. liberica var. liberica in Guadeloupe.
These differences are explained by the Islands' respective histories. Overall, Guadeloupe experienced fewer, but older introductions of non‐Typica coffee. By contrast, several recent introductions have taken place in Haiti, driven by local and global factors and reflecting the history of Arabica varietal development and spread. Diversity on these islands is dynamic, and our results reveal opportunities and limits to the future of Guadeloupean and Haitian coffee.
... It should be emphasised that all current cultivars are descended from early Arabica coffee introductions from Ethiopia to Arabia (Yemen), where they originally faced relatively arid environments in open fields for centuries before cultivation in Asia and Latin America took place (Van Der Vossen, 2005). In fact, 15th century Yemenese coffee was documented to be cultivated on steep slopes with full sun exposure (Friis, 2015), similar to how coffee is cultivated in the Highlands of Vietnam today (Koutouleas, 2023). Furthermore, several modern coffee cultivars have been selectively bred in field trials with high external inputs under full sunlight exposure (e.g., Brazil and Vietnam), often producing greater yields in unsheltered plantations in suitable agroecosystems under intensive crop management (DaMatta, 2004. ...
The global coffee market is circumscribed to two species, Coffea arabica (aka. Arabica coffee) and C. canephora (aka. Robusta coffee), which account for ca. 99% of coffee production. Both species exhibit fragility to the perils of ongoing climate changes, with exacerbation of these conditions expected over the years to come. Supra-optimal temperatures and drought are the major environmental stresses impacting coffee growth and production, especially under full sunlight conditions. By contrast, growing evidence suggests that elevated atmospheric [CO2] could (at least partially) mitigate the damages caused to coffee plants by warming and droughts. Moreover, the positive effects of enhanced [CO2] on coffee photosynthesis and yields are suggested to be greater under moderate to high solar irradiances. Here, we explore (i) the role of photosynthetic gas exchanges as a key physiological driver on coffee production in a climate change context; (ii) the ecophysiological responses of shaded and unshaded coffee plantations to compare and contrast shade benefits and drawbacks in the coming years (highlighting the use of particle films as an agronomic management strategy to reduce solar energy loads); (iii) the present and forthcoming aspects associated with the coffee production, emphasising the positive role of rising atmospheric [CO2] in boosting coffee yields; (iv) some morpho-physiological aspects linked to the overall superior yield performance of Robusta to that of Arabica coffee; and finally (v) provide some guidance on the optimum temperature range for coffee production.
... This type of hot drink is slightly lighter than tea in flavor and color. People drink qishr at any time of the day [14]. In addition, no study or data available in Yemen has yet evaluated the effect of most beverages commonly consumed by the Yemeni population. ...
Objective/aim:
This in vitro study aimed to evaluate the color stability of microhybrid and nanohybrid restorative composites after exposure to immersion media common in Yemen for different periods.
Materials and methods:
Two composite materials, nanohybrid Tetric N-Ceram and microhybrid Te-Econom Plus, were investigated. Six groups of 30 cylindrical specimens (n = 5/group; diameter, 10 mm; thickness, 2 mm; shade A2) of each restorative material were immersed for 1 week in distilled water, qat solution, Yemeni coffee, traditional Yemeni coffee (qishr), red tea, and Dilsi cola. Color changes were evaluated by colorimetry. The color data and pH were measured before and 1, 3, and 7 days after immersion. The data were statistically analyzed.
Results:
Tetric N-Ceram showed lesser discoloration than did Te-Econom Plus. Qat, coffee, and red tea caused highly significant discoloration than did Dilsi cola and distilled water (p < 0.05). The role of low pH in discoloration depended on the colorant.
Discussion:
Nanohybrid Tetric N-Ceram composites are more resistant to discoloration than are microhybrid Te-Econom Plus composites. Qat and coffee have the highest effect on composite discoloration.
Conclusions:
These findings will aid in selecting composite materials and patient instruction.
... This type of hot drink is slightly lighter than tea in avor and color. People drink qishr at any time of day [21]. Therefore, assessment of the discoloration of composite materials caused by immersion in these common products is important for the purpose of evaluation. ...
Background: This in vitro study aimed to evaluate the color stability of microhybrid and nanohybrid restorative composites after exposure to immersion media common in Yemen for different periods.
Methods: Two composite materials, nanohybrid Tetric N-Ceram and microhybrid Te-Econom Plus, were investigated. Six groups of 30 cylindrical specimens (n = 5/group; diameter, 10 mm; thickness, 2 mm; shade A2) of each restorative material were immersed for 1 week in distilled water, qat solution, Yemeni coffee, traditional Yemeni coffee (qishr), red tea, and Dilsi cola. Color changes were evaluated by colorimetry. The color data and pH were measured before immersion and after 1, 3, and 7 d. Three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by one-way ANOVA and Scheffé test was used for statistical analysis.
Results: Tetric N-Ceram showed lesser discoloration than did Te-Econom Plus. Qat, coffee, and red tea caused highly significant discoloration compared with Dilsi cola and distilled water (p < 0.05). The role of low pH in discoloration depended on the colorant.
Conclusions: Nanohybrid Tetric N-Ceram composites are more resistant to discoloration than are microhybrid Te-Econom Plus composites. Qat and coffee had the highest effect on composite discoloration. These findings will aid in selecting composite materials and patient instruction. Trial registration: NA
... Michauxia campanuloides was discovered as early as 1575 by Leonhard Rauwolf [1535-1595/1596; year of birth according to Camerarius (1610); for orthographical variants see Häberlein (2003)]. A physician by training, Rauwolf was one of the pioneers of the botanical exploration of the Ottoman Empire, although perhaps best known as the first westerner to report on the habit of drinking coffee (Lack 2003;Friis 2015). He was also the first to bring back herbarium specimens and seed material from the Orient that was subsequently cultivated in his private botanical garden in Augsburg (Dannenfeldt 1968: 9, 218). ...
Michauxia campanuloides (Campanulaceae) is a biennial to short-lived perennial characterized by white to purple-suffused, deeply lobed corollas with narrow and strongly reflexed corolla lobes. It occurs widely on the eastern fringe of the Mediterranean area in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. First collected by Leonhard Rauwolf as early as 1575, it was made known by him through the publication of a description and an illustration. His her-barium specimen, among the first collected in the Near East, survives in Leiden. More than two centuries had to pass until André Michaux and, independently, Jean Jacques Houtou de Labillardière collected M. campanuloides again and made specimens and seeds available to the botanical community in Paris. On the basis of living material, but including references to herbarium specimens, Charles-Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle was the first to provide a binomial for this striking plant. This paper focuses on the widely unappreciated record of herbarium specimens and printed illustrations, and lists and comments on early specimens collected in the wild as well as those cultivated in botanical gardens up to 1800. In addition, the name M. campanuloides is properly lectotypified.
... As the first European bota- nist of the post-medieval era to travel to the Near East, Rauwolf described some 364 species in his travel account along with de- tailed observations of their uses and local names (Dannenfeldt, 1968). He was also the first European who observed the local habit of drinking coffee (Friis, 2015). With its detailed descrip- tions of the people, customs, and dangers of the Levantine region, Rauwolf's travel account became a bestseller (Walter, 2009). ...
The German doctor and botanist Leonhard Rauwolf (1535–1596) was the first post-medieval European to travel to the Levant and Mesopotamia. The travel account that he published on his hazardous journey (1573–1575) is well studied, but the plants he collected during his travels have hardly been subjected to scientific study. The fourth volume of Rauwolf’s 16th century book herbarium includes plant specimens collected from the area encompassing modern-day Lebanon, Syria and Iraq. We digitized this valuable historic collection, identified all specimens in the herbarium, analyzed its floristic composition, transcribed and translated the Latin and German texts accompanying each specimen and updated the names with the latest accepted nomenclature. The herbarium book includes 191 specimens representing 183 species belonging to 64 families. It includes original specimens of Linnaean type illustrations as well as historical crop cultivars from the Near East. The Rauwolf Herbarium gives a unique insight in the exotic, unknown and useful species of the Near East from the perspective of a 16th century European botanist. © International Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) 2018, All rights reserved.
This paper proposes a new view on the early history of global coffee trade, with a particular focus on its origin in Yemen. Consequently this paper proposes a re-evaluation on the early history of coffee as a commodity and in a broader sense a re-evaluation on the scholarly traditions that have popularized the narrative.
A new map of the potential vegetation types of Ethiopia has been produced on the scale of 1:2,000,000. It is published here as an atlas with 29 map plates. The map shows the distribution of twelve potential vegetation types that can be mapped using environmental parameters and GIS methodology. In the accompanying text, these vegetation types have been described and further divided into a number of subtypes. The types and subtypes are (1) Desert and semi-desert scrubland. (2) Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland (with the subtypes (2a) Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bushland proper and ( 2b) Acacia wooded grassland if the Rift Valley). (3) Wooded grassland if the western Gambela region. (4) Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland. (5) Dry evergreen Afromontane forest and grassland complex (with the subtypes (5a) Undifferentiated Afromontane forest, (5b) Dry single-dominant Afromontane forest if the Ethiopian highlands, (5c) Afromontane woodland, wooded grassland and grassland, (5d) Transition between Afromontane vegetation and Acacia-Commiphora bushland on the Eastern escarpment). (6) Moist evergreen Afromontane forest (with the subtypes (6a) Primary or mature secondary moist evergreen Afromontane forest, and (6b) Edges if moist evergreen Afromontane forest, bushland, woodland, and wooded grassland. (7) Transitional rainforest. (8) Ericaceous belt. (9) Afroalpine belt. (10) Riverine vegetation. (11) Fresh-water lakes, etc. (with the subtypes (11a) Fresh-water lake vegetation (open water) and (11b) Freshwater marshes and swamps, floodplains, and lakeshore vegetation). (12) Salt lakes, etc. (with the subtypes (12a) Salt lake vegetation (open-water) and (12b) Salt pans, saline/brackish and intermittent wetlands, and salt-lake shore vegetation). The taxonomic revision of the Ethiopian flora for the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea has been completed, and intensive field studies of the flora have been carried out over nearly the entire country, after the publication of two previous detailed vegetation maps of Ethiopia, by Pichi Sermolli in 1957 and by Frank White in 1983 - both at the scale of 1:5,000,000; this new information has been incorporated in the present map. New ideas about the classification of Ethiopian vegetation have also been put forward on maps produced on a smaller scale. Here, the vegetation types used for the last two vegetation maps in 1:5,000,000 and the later maps on smaller scales are reviewed and discussed, and the definitions of most of the previously accepted vegetation types have been revised. The definition of a characteristic forest type, Transitional rainforest, in southwestern Ethiopia has been completely reworked, and, for the first time, it has been attempted to classify saline vegetation on a vegetation map of Ethiopia. The vegetation atlas has been produced using a digital elevation model with a resolution of 90x90 meters in connection with GIS technology; it is based on information from previous literature, the field experience of the authors, as well as on an analysis of information about approximately 1300 species of woody plants in the completed Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea.
This is an account of the cartographic work which resulted from a Danish expedition to Arabia in the seventeen-sixties. Niebuhr was one of those early travellers who made a serious attempt to record systematically the geographical facts about the places he visited, producing both small-scale general maps of Arabia, Egypt, Syria, etc., and town plans of important cities such as Cairo and Baghdad. His work constitutes a remarkable attempt to accomplish some precise mapping in what was then a virtually unmapped part of the world.
The southern end of the Red Sea was the cradle of coffee cultivation and consumption in the world. Wild coffee gathered in Ethiopia was already traded at the end of the fifteenth century, but progress was slow. In the second half of the sixteenth century, a true coffee economy emerged. Yemeni peasants began to cultivate coffee intensively on terraces, carved out of the steep mountains rising above the Tihama coastal plain. Effective marketing networks linked Yemeni ports to Jiddah and Cairo. By the seventeenth century, the coffee trade had superseded the declining spice trade. Fed by silver bullion originating in Spanish America, coffee played a major role in commerce between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. To be sure, the development of coffee estates in the Indian Ocean and the New World from the eighteenth century progressively diminished Yemen's share of world coffee output, but the Red Sea trading network remained in place until the end of the nineteenth century. The Origins of the Coffee Economy Ethiopian forests, especially to the west of the Great Rift Valley, abound in wild arabica coffee, but we know very little about the origins of consumption there. Coffee was probably long picked from the wild, and it was used to an increasing extent from the fourteenth century by the Islamized peoples of southeastern Ethiopia. The coffee habit diffused to the Rasulid sultanate in Yemen, which had strong commercial and cultural connections with Muslim kingdoms in Ethiopia.
Peter Forsska l (1732-1763) was the naturalist on the Royal Danish Expedition to Arabia (1761-1767), a particularly rich example of the eighteenth century era of scientific exploration and a quintessential project of the Enlightenment. Forsska l is noteworthy for his early writings in philosophy and politics and for his outstanding contributions to the botanical and zoological knowledge of the Middle East, specifically Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula, principally Yemen. His biological work stands out for the large number of species identified, its attention to detail, the expansiveness of his descriptions, his knowledge and use of Arabic and his early ideas on plant geography. Forsska l's research in the marine biology of the Red Sea was also pioneering. His publications and collections represent the single greatest contribution to the knowledge of the natural history of the Middle East in the eighteenth century and are still valued by scholars today. His skill in retaining local terminology in Arabic and his respect for the contributions of local inhabitants to this work are also worth noting. When he died of malaria in 1763 in Yemen, the eighteenth-century world of natural science lost a promising and adventurous scientist.
Tables Figures Maps Abbreviations Notes on dates, contemporaneous spellings, currency and weights Preface Acknowledgements 1. The international economy and the East India trade 2. A formal theoretical model of the East India Company's trade 3. The structure of early trade and the pattern of commercial settlements in Asia 4. The evolution of the Company's trading system: operation and policy 1660-1760 5. Long-term trends and fluctuations 1660-1760 6. Politics of trade 7. Markets, merchants and the Company 8. The export of treasure and the monetary system 9. The structure of country trade in Asia 10. Export of European commodities 11. The Company and the Indian textile industry 12. The Company's trade in textiles 13. Pepper 14. Import of bulk goods 15. Raw silk 16. Coffee 17. Imports from China 18. Financial results 19. Conclusion Appendix 1. Notes on the statistical tables of the East India Company's trade Appendix 2. Time-series analysis of the East India Company's exports and imports Appendix 3. The econometric estimation of the trading model 4. The grouped list and the glossary of Indian textile types 5. The statistical tables of the Company's trade General glossary Bibliography Short titles cited in the reference notes Notes Index.
Of the many Old World plants or plant products which have potential for abuse, kat has probably been the least publicized in so-called more economically developed countries. Because kat has rather localized used and because, unlike opium and hashish it has no documented history or well-developed tradition dating from remote antiquity, few outside the confined areas of use even know about it. While kat has been, and still is, used in traditional medicine, it cannot boast of any great potential for development as a drug for use in Western societies. In short, the incentives for detailed, serious investigation until recently have been lacking. Even so, there is a considerable, albeit scattered, body of literature which might help provide renewed insights in approaching what is seen by some as an increasingly serious kat problem. A multidisciplinary historical overview of the use, abuse and sociology of this important plant is presented. Special emphasis is given to European early knowledge of, and evolution of attitudes towards kat use. Alleged past use and development of contemporary use patterns, effects, legal aspects, and chemical composition is covered from an historical perspective as well.
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