Gender Mainstreaming in the Australian Parliament: Achievement with room for improvement

Abstract

This article explores how the Australian Parliament has fared over the past 20 years on the
question of gender mainstreaming. It does this by developing a framework for gender
mainstreaming in parliaments and applying that to the Australian context. As a first step in
this process, the paper presents an analysis of women’s presence in some of the key
parliamentary positions, including presiding officer, party whip, and committee chair.
Gender equality concerns are usually considered in parliaments by women’s caucuses,
dedicated gender committees or a network of ‘gender focal points’. The paper therefore
investigates the extent to which Australia has institutionalised any of these approaches to
gender mainstreaming.

Full text

Gender Mainstreaming in the Australian Parliament:
Achievement with room for improvement
Sonia A. Palmieri
1
Introduction
SincetheUnitedNationsFourthWorldConferenceonWomeninBeijingin1995,gender
mainstreaming—ortheprocessofensuringpoliciesandpracticesmeettheneedsofmen
andwomenequitably—hasbeenhailedasakeystrategyintheachievementofgender
equality.Today,internationaltreatiessuchastheConvention
ontheEliminationofAllforms
ofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW)encourageandmonitorStateparties’progressin
institutinggendermainstreamingpracticesacrossallsectorsofpolicydevelopment,
implementationandoversight.
Thisrequiresthat,inadditiontonationalgovernments,parliamentsplayafundamentalrole
ingendermainstreaming.Interestingly,thishasbeen
acentraltenetindevelopmentand
governanceeffortsoftheUnitedNationsandotherinternationaldonorsacrossanumberof
developingcountries.SpecificallyunderitsMillenniumDevelopmentGoal3(Empowerment
ofWomen),theUnitedNationshasencouragedStatestodevelopframeworksbywhich
genderismainstreamedatbothgovernmentand
parliamentarylevels.Thishasseenthe
developmentofelaborateframeworksbywhichpolicyandlegislationareanalysedfroma
genderperspective.
2

TheInter‐ParliamentaryUnion(IPU)definesagendersensitiveparliamentasonewhich
respondstotheneedsandinterestsofbothmenandwomeninitsstructures,operations,
methodsandinitsworkasanation’speaklegislativeinstitution.
3
Inensuringgenderis
mainstreamed,theinstitutionwillhaveimplementedchangestopromotelessaggressive
parliamentarylanguageandbehaviour;morefamily‐friendlysittinghours;theintroduction
ofchildcarefacilitiesandparentalleaveforMPs;andgendersensitivetrainingprogrammes
forallMPs.Therulesoftheparliamentmayalsohave
beenchangedtoensuretheyare
accessibletoallMPs,donotexclude,restrictordiscriminateagainstwomen,andprovidefor
genderneutrallanguage.Moreradically,parliamentsmaychangetheirstructuresby
includingadedicatedcommitteeongenderequalityorrotatingpositionsofparliamentary
authoritybetweenmenandwomensothat
allMPsareaffordedtheopportunitytobe
represented.
4



1
 SincerethankstoAnnaGadzinskiandNaomiSwannfortheirinv aluableresearchassistance,
andtoJudyMiddlebrookforhercommentsonanearlierdraftofthispaper.
2
 Forexample,inVietnam,theNationalAssemblyhasrecentlypassedtwolaws,theGender
EqualityLaw2006andtheLawonthePromulgationofLegalNormativeDocuments2008,
whichspecificallyoutlinetheprocessbywhichitsParliamentaryCommitteeonSocialAffairsis
responsibleforensuringthatbillshavebeenassessed
fromagenderperspectiveandthatno
lawdiscriminatesagainstwomen.
3
 IPU,2008,EqualityinPolitics:ASurveyofWomenandMeninParliaments,p.61.
4
 IPU,2008,EqualityinPolitics:ASurveyofWomenandMeninParliaments,p.71.Seealso,
UNDP,GenderandParliament,2008.

ThisarticleexploreshowtheAustralianParliamenthasfaredoverthepast20yearsonthe
questionofgendermainstreaming.Itdoesthisbydevelopingaframeworkforgender
mainstreaminginparliamentsandapplyingthattotheAustraliancontext.Asafirststepin
thisprocess,thepaperpresentsananalysis
ofwomen’spresenceinsomeofthekey
parliamentarypositions,includingpresidingofficer,partywhip,andcommitteechair.
Genderequalityconcernsareusuallyconsideredinparliamentsbywomen’scaucuses,
dedicatedgendercommitteesoranetworkof‘genderfocalpoints’.Thepapertherefore
investigatestheextenttowhichAustraliahasinstitutionalised
anyoftheseapproachesto
gendermainstreaming.
Alongitudinalapproachischosen,asopposedtoacomparativeapproach,toprovidea
historicalperspective.Changesinthenameofgenderequalityhaveneveroccurred
suddenlyandarethereforebestappreciatedovertime.Thestartingpointof1987ischosen
becausethiswas
theyearinwhichtheHouseofRepresentativescreateditsowncommittee
structure,thusallowingforamorecompleteanalysisofwomen’sparticipationincommittee
workacrosstheParliament.
5

ThepapershowsthatAustraliahasnotmadesystematiceffortstoreforminstitutional
structuresandpr actices toensuregenderismainstreamedacrossallareasofthe
parliament.
6
TheAustralianParliamenthasneverhadacross‐partywomen’scaucusora
dedicatedgenderequalitycommittee.Thepresenceofagenderfocalpointnetworkis
difficulttodetect,althoughitisclearthatwomen’spresenceoncommitteeshaschanged
significantlyovertime.Womenarenowonallcommittees–
althoughremarkably,itwasnot
untilthecurrent,42
nd
ParliamentthatthisachievementwasreachedintheHouseof
Representatives.Infact,specificcommitteeshavebeencuriouslyresistanttowomen’s
presence.
Evenwithoutformalgendermainstreamingstructures,however,theAustralianParliament
has,overtime,managedtoensurethatcertaingenderissueshavebeenaddressed.Women
havebeengraduallyrepresented
inallareasoftheparliament,includingthehighlysortafter
positionsofpresidingofficer,whipandcommitteechair.Infact,womentodaychaira
greaternumberofcommitteesthanmenintheHouseofRepresentatives,andasignificant
numberofJointandSenatecommittees.Somegenderequalityconcernshavebeen

addressedinparliamentarycommitteereports,andstandingordersdoreflecttheneedfor
languageto begenderneutral.After20yearsofdeliberation,theParliamenthaseven
acceptedtheneedfor,andimplemented,achildcarecentre.


5
 Committeesarealsothepredominantsiteofinvestigationforgendermainstreamingin
parliament.SeeIPU,2008,EqualityinPolitics:ASurveyofWomenandMeninParliaments,p.
71.
6
 Itshouldbenotedthatwhilegendermainstreaminghasnotbeenexplicitlypursuedasapolicy
intheAustralianparliament,ithasbeenappliedtothearmofgovernment.Atthislevel,
Australiapioneeredtheoriginaltenetsofgendermainstreamingwithwomen’sbudgetsand
women’saudits.Indeed,whathasbecome
knownasgenderbudgetingowesmuchtothe
Australianfemocratexperienceofthe1980sand1990s.SeeRhondaSharpandRayBroomhill,
2002,“BudgetingforEquality:TheAustralianExperience”,FeministEconomics8(1):25‐47.

Thisnotwithstanding,theseachievementshavenotbeenmadesystematically,andthereis
significantpotentialforlegislationtobepassedwithoutadequateanalysisofitspotential
impactonmenandwomen.WhiletheparliamentconductstrainingforallnewMembersat
thebeginningofeachparliament,thereisnogendertrainingfor
neworoldMPsand
Senators.Moreover,theinescapableroleofpoliticalpartiesinAustralianpoliticshasmeant
thatgendersensitivepracticestendtodependmoreonpartythanonanycollectiveeffort
bywomenintheparliament.Callsforadedicatedgenderequalitycommitteeoramore
evenlydistributed
andformalisedapproachtogendermainstreamingacrosscomm ittees
shouldthereforebeheeded.
Gender mainstreaming: theory and application
Gendermainstreamingallowsfordiversesituationsofdifferentgroupsofbothmenand
womentobeconsideredinpolicymaking.Advocatesofgendermainstreamingbelievethat
itaddressesdiscriminationmorefullyandpromotesequalitymorebroadly.In1997,
the
UnitedNationsdefinedgendermainstreamingas:
…theprocessofassessingtheimplicationsforwomenandmenofanyplanned
action,includinglegislation,policiesorprogrammes,inallareasandatalllevels.Itis
astrategyformakingwomen’saswellasmen’sconcernsandexperiencesan
integraldimension
ofthedesign,implementation,monitoringandevaluationof
policiesandprogrammesinallpolitical,economicandsoc ietalspheressothat
womenandmenbenefitequallyandinequalityisnotperpetuated.
7

Atitscore,gendermainstreamingisaprocessofquestioning:assumptions,actors,benefits,
processes,policies,andoutcomes.Whatassumptionshavebeenmadeaboutthe
beneficiariesofaprocessorpolicy?Whodoesthatprocessorpolicyseektotarget?Willall
groupsbeaffectedequitably?Willallgroupsbenefitequitably?
Gendermainstreaming
questionsthegender‐neutralityofinstitutions,particularlywherethesearediscoveredto
reproduceandco ntributetogenderinequalitythroughtheirinternalassumptions,working
proceduresandactivities.Theultimategoalofgendermainstreamingistochangethe
natureandinstitutionsofthemainstreamtobemorereflectiveoftheneeds,
aspirations
andexperiencesofallwomeninsociety.
Gendermainstreamingingo vernment
Asanimportantprocessofgovernment,gendermainstreamingrequires,interalia,that:
 allkeydecisionmakersacknowledgeandimplementthegoalsandprinciplesof
gendermainstreaming;
 appropriateorganisationalarrangementsbemadeforitsimplementation;and
 gendertoolsbedevelopedandstaffbeskilledintheirapplication.
8



7
 UnitedNations,1997,ReportoftheEconomicandSocialCouncil.
8
 AdaptedfromLorraineCorner,1999,“CapacityBuildingforGenderMainstreamingin
Development”,TechnicalPaper,UNIFEM,http://unifem‐
eseasia.org/resources/techpapers/mainsteam.htm.Itshouldbenotedthatwhilethereisno
singlemodelforgendermainstreaming,therearecommonlyacceptedkeyprinciples.

Essentialtogendermainstreamingistheequalparticipationofwomenatalllevelsofthe
decisionmakingprocess,fromthosebeingconsultedtothosemakingthedecisions.While
women’spresenceinpositionsofauthorityacrossallpolicyareasisanecessarypartof
raisingawarenessofgendermainstreaming,itsimportanceshould
beunderstoodand
acceptedbyallseniorgovernmentofficials.
InaccordancewiththestrategiessetoutbytheBeijingPlatformforAction(BPA),
implementinggendermainstreamingcaneitherrelyonexpertsbeingplacedinonediscrete
unit(oftenknownasthe‘nationalwomen’smachinery’),ormoreevenlydistributedacross
the
governmentsectoras‘genderfocalpoints’,orboth.
9
InSouthKorea,forexample,the
MinistryofGenderEqualityandFamilyismandatedbytheWomen’sDevelopmentAct(as
amendedin2002),to:
 coordinatetheBasicPlanforWomen’sPolicies;
 supporttheWomen’sPolicyCoordinationCommittee,whichischairedbythePrime
Ministerandcomposedofheadsofrelevantministries;
 designateGenderEqualityPolicyOfficers;and
 holdmeetingsoftheDirector‐Generalsofmetropolitanandprovinciallevel
governmentagenciesatregularintervals.
10

Genderawarenesstrainingandtoolkitshavebeendevelopedtoassistpolicymakersand
implementersinidentifyinggenderequalityconcerns,differencesbetweenwomenandmen
inaccesstoandcontroloverresources,participationindecisionmakingandthedirectand
indirectimpactofpolicies,programmesandprojects.Training inthe
collection,analysisand
reportingofgendersensitivedataisvital.Agenciesareencouragedtocollectandmake
informationavailableas:
(1)individual‐levelandnationaldatadisaggregatedbysex;
(2)specificdataonemerginggenderissuessuchasthecountingandvaluationof
unpaidlabour,theincidence,natureandimpactof
violenceagainstwomenandthe
roleofwomeninbusiness;and
(3)compositegenderindices,suchastheUNDPGenderandDevelopmentIndex(GDI),
theGenderEmpowermentMeasure(GEM)andtheCEDAWindicators.
11

Givenparliament’spre‐eminentrolenotonlyinlegislating,butinlegislativeoversight,there
isalsoaneedtoimplementgendermainstreamingpracticesattheparliamentarylevel.The
BPAnotesthatgovernmentsshouldreport"onaregularbasis,tolegislativebodiesonthe
progressofefforts,asappropriate,tomainstream
genderconcerns..."(paragraph109).Yet


9
 Paragraph201oftheBPAspecificallystates:"Anationalmachineryfortheadvancementof
womenisthecentralpolicycoordinatingunitinsidegovernment.Itsmaintaskistosupport
government‐widemainstreamingofagenderequalityperspectiveinallpolicyareas".
10
 H.E.Dr.JangHajin,MinisterofGenderEqualityandFamily,Statementtothe39thSessionof
theConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,31July2007,
NewYork,p.2.

11
 SeeLorraineCorner,1999,“CapacityBuildingforGenderMainstreaminginDevelopment”,
TechnicalPaper,UNIFEM,http://unifem‐eseasia.org/resources/techpapers/mainsteam.htm.

inmuchoftheliteratureongendermainstreaming,theroleofparliamentisnotemphasised
orconsidered.Onlyafewinternationalresolutionspointtoaneedtoenhanceinstitutional
capacityforgendermainstreamingatthelevelofthenationalparliament.
12
Whilethereare
presentlynobindingrequirementsforlegislaturesinthisregard,theyclearlyhavea
responsibilitytobothpasslegislationandtomonitorandevaluateitsimplementation–
includinglegislationongenderequality.
Gendermainstreaminginpa rliaments
Parliamentsarewellplacedtoprovideastrongrolemodelforgovernment
agenciesand
otherorganisationsinmainstreaminggenderthroughtheirowninstitutionalprocessesand
practices.Applyingthebasicframeworkoutlinedaboveforgovernmentprocesses,gender
mainstreamingofparliamentsrequires,first,thatallthoseinseniorpositionsbewellversed
intheneedfor,andprinciplesof,genderequalityandthemeansby
whichtoachievethis.
Secondly,gendermainstreamingcanbetheresponsibilityofadiscreteunit,suchasa
women’scaucus,oraspecialisedcommitteeongenderequality–inwhichwomenandmen
fromallpoliticalpartiesmayparticipate.Thesebodiesareentrustedwithmonitoringthe
progressofgendermainstreaming
acrosstheparliament,thescrutinyofgenderrelated
aspectsofallgovernmentreporting,aswellastheeffectivenessofperformanceindicators
usedtomonitorprogress.
13
IncountriesasdiverseasBelgium,CostaRica,Cyprus,India,the
Philippines,SouthAfricaandSouthKorea(tonameafew),genderequalitycommitteeshave
beenabletomakesignificantprogressingendermainstreamingby:
 debatingthecontentofbillsandensuringgenderconsiderationsaretakeninto
account;
 creatinganetworkofgenderfocalpointsacrossothercommitteesofthelegislature;
 workinginpartnershipwithnationalwomen’smachinery,civilsociety,NGOs,the
privatesectorandthemediatoensurefollow‐upparliamentaryaction,reviewand
oversight;
 holdingpublichearingsandconsultingwithpolicycommunitiestodeterminethe
effectsofpolicies,programmesandlegislationonwomenandmen,girlsandboys;
 holdinggovernments,andparticularlyMinisters,toaccountfortheiractions;


12
 See,forexample,IPUResolution“Beijing+10:AnEvaluationFromAParliamentary
Perspective”(2004)which:
Encouragesparliamentstoplayanactiveandpositiveroleinthepromotionofgender
equalityandtoimplementmeasuresaimedatensuringgenderequalityin
representation,byestablishingparliamentarycommitteesongenderequality,
composed
ofbothmenandwomen,makinguseofthetoolsofgender‐budgeting
analysis,ensuringthegendermainstreamingofalldecisionsandlegislation,and
allocatingsufficientresourcestotheseactivities.
SeealsoEuropeanParliamentresolutionon GenderEqualityandWomen’sEmpowermentin
DevelopmentCooperation,adopted13March2008.
13
 ReportoftheExpertGroupMeetingonNationalMachineriesforGenderEquality,held
31Augustto4September1998,Santiago,Chile.

 institutionalisinggender‐sensitivebudgetingbyraisinggenderissuesduringbudget
debatesanddevelopingpartnershipswiththebudgetorpublicaccounts
committees;and
 ensuringtheimplementationofCEDAWobligations,especiallyinrelationtoState
partyreporting.
14

Analternativeapproachtohavingaspecialisedcommitteeongenderequalityisthatusedin
Sweden,wheregenderistreatedasacrosscuttingissueandaddressedintheworkofall
committees.
15
Indeed,theworkoftheRiksdagisbasedonanunderstandingthat“gender
equalityeffortsmustbeconductedinaplanned,methodicalandcontinuousfashion…”To
thisend,in2004,theSwedishParliamentestablishedaworkinggroup“toreviewgender
equalityeffortsinitsownstructures”.Thereportproposed:
 adoptingaprogrammeofequalityforeveryparliamentaryterm;
 increasingvisibilityandknowledgeofgenderequality;enhancingmentoringof,and
supportto,newmembers;and
 ensuringdueconsiderationisgiventoparentalresponsibilitieswhenplanningthe
workofparliamentarycommittees.
16

Thirdly,parliamentsneedtohavetheirownmechanismsandt oolkitsbywhichtoensure
genderoversight.Gender‐sensitivelegislationchecklistshavebeencreatedforexample,to:
 identifythegroupsmostlikelytobeaffectedbytheproposedBillandwhetherthe
billmightunintentionallydiscriminateagainstmenorwomen,boysorgirls;
 considerwhetherpotentialdifferencesintheanticipatedimpactoftheproposed
legislationshouldbemeasured,andifso,iftherearesufficientsourcesofsex‐
disaggregateddata;
 identifyadditionalcomplianceoradministrationcostsoftheproposedlawthat
mightaffectdifferentgroups.
17

Parliamentsshouldalsoconductgender‐sensitivetrainingforallMembers.Trainingcouldbe
usedtohighlightthegenderdynamicsofspecificparliamentarypractices,suchas
respondingtoquestionswithoutnoticeorchairingcommittees.Thiscouldbepartof
inductionprogramsfornewMembersandSenatorsoraspartofan
ongoingprofessional
developmentcourseforallMPs.
Havingoutlinedvariousmethodsinwhichparliamentshavebeguntomainstreamgender
equalityconcernsintheirstructuresandprocesses,thepapernowaddressesthequestionof
gendermainstreaminginAustralia.Women’spresenceacrossvariouspositionsofauthority


14
 IPU,2006,TheRoleofParliamentaryCommitteesinMainstreamingGenderandPromotingthe
StatusofWomen,SeminarforMembersofParliamentaryBodiesDealingwithGenderEquality,
4‐6December2006,Geneva,pp.8‐10.Today,theIPUcounts98parliamentarybodiesdealing
withgenderequalityin83countries(agreaternumberofbodiesexistsduetoanumberof
countrieshavingbicameralparliamentsandgenderequalitybodiesinbothchambers).See
www.ipu.org/parline‐e/instance‐women.asp.
15
IPU,2006,TheRoleofParliamentaryCommitteesinMainstreamingGender,p.14.
16
 IPU,2008,EqualityinPolitics:ASurveyofWomenandMeninParliaments,p.76.
17
 SeeCambodia‐CanadaLegislativeSupportProject,February2003,“TheKeyStepsofGender
AnalysisofLegislation”.

intheAustralianParliamentispresented,followedbyaconsiderationoftheextenttowhich
itsparliamentarystructurehasfacilitatedgendermainstreamingefforts.
Women’s representation in the Australian Parliament
Theelectionofwomentoparliamentisastoryofgradualimprovement,bothnationallyand
internationally.In1902,Australiawasthefirstcountryintheworldto
grantwomentheright
tovoteandtherighttostandforelectionsimultaneously.Overthepast20years,Australia
hasseenwomenelectedtoparliamentingreaternumbersthantheinternationalaverage
(seeFigure1).
Figure1.Proportionofwomeninparliament,AustraliaandInternationalaverages
Source: Australia:ParliamentaryHandbook,2008;Internationalaverages:IPUWomeninParliamentsArchiveof
StatisticalData,http://www.ipu.org/wmn‐e/world‐arc.htm
AustralianSenatefigures,inparticular,havefarexceededinternationalaverages.Numerous
studieshavepointedtotheelectoralsystembywhichAustralianSenatorsareelected,
namelyproportionalrepresentation.
18
Thissystemhasseentheelectionofanumberof
minorpartiestotheAustralianSenate,andwithinthoseparties,theelectionofseveral
women.Forexample,theAustralianGreensandtheAustralianDemocratshavetraditionally
hadhighproportionsofwomenelected.
19
Thesystemofproportionalrepresentationhas
alsomeantthatwhenthetwomajorparties–theAustralianLaborParty(ALP)andthe
LiberalPartyofAustralia(LP)–putwomenontheirSenatetickets,evenifatthebottomof
theticket,thosewomenhadagreaterchanceofelection
thanhadtheybeenthesole
candidateinasingle‐memberconstituency(suchasinthelowerhouse).


18
 SeeforexampleMarianSawer,2000,“Parliamentaryrepresentationofwomen:from
discoursesofjusticetostrategiesofaccountability”,InternationalPoliticalScienceReview,
21(4):361‐380;RichardMatland,2005,“Enhancingwomen’spoliticalrepresentation:
Legislativerecruitmentandelectoralsystems”inJulieBallingtonandAzza Karam(eds)Women
inParliament:BeyondNumbers,ARevised
Edition,InternationalIDEA,Stockholm,Sweden.
19
 TheAustralianDemocratshavebeenaparticularlyfemale‐friendlyparty,havingappointedthe
firstfemalepartyleaderinAustralianpolitics.Sixoftheparty’s12leaderswerewomen,and
fourofthese–JanineHaines,CherylKernot,MegLeesandLynAllison–wereamongthe
longest‐servingDemocratleaders.
%
ElectionYear

Australianpoliticalpartieshavenotintroducedmandatoryspecialmeasuressuchasquotas
toimprovewomen’selectoralrepresentation.TheALPhasimple mentedtargetsthathave
notyetbeenreached,
20
whiletheLPhaspreferredtorelyonawarenessraisingcampaigns,
mentoringandtrainingofwomencandidatestoimprovetheirnumericalpresencein
parliament.
21

WhileAustraliamaycomparefavourablywithinternationalaverages,however,itis
importanttorememberthattheseareconsiderablyweigheddownbyanumberofcountries
thatstill,today,havenowomeninparliamentatall.Amoretellingcomparablefigureisthe
internationalrankingofAustralia,basedontheproportion
ofwomenelectedtothelower
houseoraunicameralhouse,overthesametimeperiod.Table1showsAustralia’sranking
foryearswherefiguresareavailable.
Table1.Australiacomparedwithtoprankingcountries

Source:IPUWomeninParliamentsArchiveofStatisticalData,http://www.ipu.org/wmn‐e/world‐arc.htm

In2007,30countrieshadgreaterrepresentationofwomenintheirlowerorunicameral
housesthanAustralia:Rwanda,Sweden,Finland,Argentina,theNetherlands,Denmark,
CostaRica,Spain,Norway,Cuba,Belgium,Mozambique,Iceland,NewZealand,SouthAfrica,
Austria,Germany,Uganda,Burundi,Tanzania,Peru,Macedonia,Timor‐Leste,Belarus,
Guyana,Andorra,Switzerland,Portugal,
Afghanistan,NamibiaandTrinidadandTobago.
Thuswhiletherehasbeenanimprovementinthenumberofwomenelectedtoparliament
inAustralia,thishasbeenthecaseinmanyothercountriesaswell.Australia’straditionof
takingsmallstepswillcontinuetobeovertakenbybothdevelopinganddevelopedcountries

unlessmoreradicalchangeismade.
Sharing responsibility: women in positions of authority
Havingwomeninpositionsofparliamentaryauthorityisimportantnotonlyasanequal
opportunitymeasure,butalsobecausethesepositionsprovidewomenanopportunityto
learnandapplyoftherulesofparliament.Itmaybeself‐evident,butinorderto
changethe
parliament’swrittenandunwrittenmores,womenMPsmustfirstbefamiliarwiththem.


20
 Atthe1994ALPNationalConference,arulechangewasintroducedrequiringaminimumof
35%ofALPcandidatesforwinnableseatswouldbewomenbytheyear2002(Emily’sList
Australia,website:http://www.emilyslist.org.au/news/news.asp?id=25
).InOctober2002,the
targetwasincreasedto40%ofwinnableseats.In2009,theALPNationalConstitutionwas
amendedtoincludearulewhichaims“toproduceanoutcomewherenotlessthan40%of
seatsheldbyLaborwillbefilledbywomen,andnotlessthan40%bymen”.Allseats,thatis,
heldbyLabor,ratherthanjustwinnableseats,arenowconsideredinthetargetthatwillapply
topreselectionroundstakingplaceafterJanuary2012.
21
 TheFederalWomen’sCommitteeisthepeakbodyrepresentingwomenintheFederalLiberal
Partyandhasbeenactiveinpromotingwomenforelectedoffice,advocatingpolicy,advising
onawiderangeofissues,andassistinginelectioncampaigns,see
http://www.liberal.org.au/The‐Party/Liberal‐Women.aspx
).
Election Year Ranking
1996 27
th

1998 15
th

2001 19
th

2004 23
rd

2007 30
th


Whilethispaperdoesnotwishtolaytheresponsibilityforgendersensitivechangesonthe
shouldersofwomenMPs,holdingpositionsofauthoritydoesgivewomenagreater
opportunitytomakesuchchange.
ThemostseniorparliamentarypositionisthatofthePresidingOfficer.TheSpeakerofthe
House
ofRepresentativesandthePresidentoftheSenateareeachresponsibleforthe
efficientconductoftheirrespectivehouses.Theyareexpectedtomaintaintheauthorityof
theirhouse,andprotectitsrightsandprivileges.
22
Ofthe28SpeakersoftheHouseof
Representativesandthe23PresidentsoftheSenate,onlyoneofeachhasbeenawoman:
SpeakerJoanChild(11.2.86to28.8.89)andPresidentMargaretReid(20.8.96to30.6.02).In
2008,AnnaBurkewasappointedDeputySpeaker.
Inmanyways,Whipscan
beseenasbothapartypositionandakeyparliamentaryposition.
Withineachparty,theyareresponsiblefororganisingmemberstotakepartindebatesand
votes.
23
Theyalsotendtobewellversedinparliamentaryproceduregiventheirrolein
assistingwiththearrangementofbusinessintheirhouse.Tables2and3presentwomen’s
representationinthispositionintheHouseofRepresentativesandSenate,respectively.
Table 2. Whips of the House, 1987-
Chief Whips ‘Deputy’ Whips* Party Whips
38
th
Parliament
Trish Worth (Government)
39
th
Parliament
Kay Elson (Government)
40
th
Parliament
Janice Crosio (Opposition) Joanna Gash (Government)
41
st
Parliament
Jill Hall (Opposition) Kay Hull (Nationals)
Joanna Gash (Government)
42
nd
Parliament
Jill Hall (Government)
Nola Marino MP (Opposition)
Note:*Thesewhipsarenottechnicallyreferredtoas‘deputywhips’,butdoassisttheChiefGovernmentorOppositionWhip.
Source:
ParliamentaryHandbook,2008
VeryfewwomenoftheHouseofRepresentativeshavebeenappointedwhip,ofany
description.Nowomenheldthepositioninthe35
th
,36
th
or37
th
parliaments.Itistruethat
duringtheseparliaments,womenconstitutedsmallproportionsoftheHouse(6.1%,6.8%
and8.8%respectively).Yetevenwhenwomenwerepresentingreaternumbersin
subsequentparliaments,onlyatotalofsevenwomenhaveeverheldtheposition.Thismay
pointtoacertainresistance
inappointingwomenaswhipsintheHouse,especiallyfromthe
ALPwherethestrictpartydisciplinehasarguablyrequiredaharsher‘whip’thaninother
parties.Itmaybecoincidence,butitisinterestingthatwhenthepartyfinallydidappointa
womanwhip,itfoundonehighlyversedin
thenormsoftheHouseandparliamentsmore
broadly.TheHon.JaniceCrosiohadbeenamayorandthefirstfemaleCabinetMinisterof


22
 HouseofRepresentatives,2008,“TheSpeaker:Infosheet”,p.1.
http://www.aph.gov.au/house/members/speaker.htm
23
 ParliamentofAustralia,“Glossaryofparliamentaryterms”,
http://www.aph.gov.au/find/glossary.htm

NewSouthWalesbeforeherelectiontotheHouseofRepresentativesin1990.Shewasalso
aparliamentarysecretaryundertheKeatingGovernment,between1993and1996.Whilea 
numberoffactorscontributetotheappointmentofawhip,includingyearsofexperience
andalignmentwithcertainparliamentarygroups/factions,itcould
alsobeconcludedthat
theinstitutionalnormsoftheHousehavedictatedthatwomenhavenotbeenconsidered
likelycandidatesfortheposition.
Table 3. Whips of the Senate, 1987-
Chief Whips Deputy Whips Party Whips
35
th
Parliament
Margaret Reid (Opposition) Sue Knowles (Opposition)
36
th
Parliament
Margaret Reid (Opposition) Sue Knowles (Opposition) Vicki Bourne (Australian Democrats)
37
th
Parliament
Margaret Reid (Opposition) Kay Denman (Government) Florence Bjelke-Petersen (National
Party)
Vicki Bourne (Australian Democrats)
38
th
Parliament
Kay Denman (Opposition) Vicki Bourne (Australian Democrats)
Dee Margetts (Greens)
Christabel Chamarette (Greens)
39
th
Parliament
Kay Denman (Opposition) Vicki Bourne (Australian Democrats)
Jeannie Ferris (Government)
Helen Coonan (Government)
40
th
Parliament
Jeannie Ferris (Government) Trish Crossin (Opposition) Lyn Allison (Australian Democrats)
Sue Mackay (Opposition)
41
st
Parliament
Jeannie Ferris (Government) Linda Kirk (Opposition) Fiona Nash (Nationals)
Ruth Webber (Opposition) Rachel Siewart (Greens)
42
nd
Parliament
Dana Wortley (Government) Fiona Nash (Nationals)
Judith Adams (Opposition) Rachel Siewart (Greens)
Anne McEwen (Government)
Source:ParliamentaryHandbook,2008
TheSenateontheotherhandhasseenmanymorewomenoccupythisposition.Senator
KathyMartinwasthefirstwomantobeappointedDeputyOppositionWhipon8April1975.
Followingtheelectionofherpartytogovernmentin1975,SenatorMartinbecameDeputy
GovernmentWhipandheldthe
positionuntil1977.In1982,SenatorMargaretReidwasthe
secondwomantobecomeawhip,apositionsheheldundervariousgovernmentsuntil
1995.
WhiletheLPclearlypioneeredtheappointmentofwomenwhipsintheSenate,theALPhas,
eventually,cometoappointanalmostequalnumberofwomen
inthepositioninthis
chamber.Clearlyallpartieshavetendedtokeepspecificwomenintheposition,testimony
perhapstothebuildupofcorporateknowledgeonceintherole,andtheneedtomaintain
andpreservethatknowledge.
Again,itisevidentthatthepresenceofwomenfrom
minorpartiesensuredwomenplayeda
significantroleininstitutionalpositionsoftheSenate.Giveneachoftheminorparties–

generallyconstitutedwithsignificantproportionsofwomen–requiresawhip,itisnot
surprisingthatthesepartiesfrequentlyappointedfemalewhips.
Thechairofaparliamentarycommitteeisresponsibleforpresidingoverthebusinessand
conductofacommittee.Knowledgeofthestandingordersrelevanttotheconductof
committees
isuseful,andforth isreason,chairsareoftenmemberswhohaveservedatleast
oneterminparliament.Thepositionisconsideredasteppingstonetomoreseniorpolitical
positionssuchasparliamentarysecretaryorminister,andisremuneratedwithanadditional
allowance.Theyarenotsurprisinglycovetedpositions.
Globally,womenMPspredominateinleadingcommitteesongenderandwomen’saffairs,
andothersocialwelfareissuessuchasfamily,employmentandeducation.
24
Theseareoften
classifiedas‘soft’portfoliocommittees.Themoreprestigious‘hard’portfoliocommittees–
suchasforeignaffairs,financeandsecurity–havetraditionallybeenreservedformen.
InAustralia,thereareanumberoffactorswhichexplaintheselectionofac o mmitteechair.
Inthefirstinstance,MPs
choosecommitteesonwhichtheywishtoserveoftenonthebasis
oftheirexperiencebeforeenteringparliament.Withacertainlevelofexperienceonthat
committee,andsome‘runsontheboard’asamemberof thecommittee,anMPmay
eventuallycometochairit.
Asecondary,butno
lessinfluential,factorisanMP’spoliticalparty.Thedesignationof
committeechairisdeterminedbytherulesofthechamber.InHouseofRepresentativesand
Jointcommittees,chairsarealwaysfromthegoverningparty.TheSenate,asachamberthat
hasthepowertodetermineitsownrulesoften
outsidethedictatesofgovernment,hasseen
certaincommitteeschairedbygovernment,andot herschairedbyoppositionorminor
parties.Committeechairvacanciesoftenarisewhenapartyhasaministerialreshuffle,or
changesaremadeinotherparliamentarypositions.
ThenumberandrangeofHouseofRepresentativescommitteeschairedby
womenhas
improvedsignificantlyoverthepast20years(seeTable4).Thisisdueinparttothe
increasingnumbersofwomenintheHouseinthisperiod.Between1987and1995,with
proportionsofwomennotexceeding9%,womenpresidedovercommitteeson
Employment,EducationandTraining,and
Environment,RecreationandtheArts.Indeed
thesetwocommitteesarethemostfrequentlychairedbyawomanintheHouseof
Representatives.
UndertheCoalitionGovernmentbetween1996and2007,thenumberofcommittees
chairedbywomendidnotimmediatelyincreaseinlinewiththesubsequentincreasein
womenMPs.The
38
th
and39
th
Parliamentshadtwowomenchairseach,despitethe
proportionofwomenrisingto15.5%and22.3%.ThisGovernment,however,didexpandthe
rangeofcommitteeschairedbywomen.TheappointmentofwomentotheProcedureand
PrimaryIndustriescommitteesinthe38
th
Parliamentiseasilyseenasbeingbasedon
previousexperience.AsaSenator,KathySullivan(formerlyMartin)hadheldanumberof
proceduralpositions.ShehadalsobeenthedeputychairoftheHouseProcedureCommittee


24
 IPU,2008,EqualityinPolitics:ASurveyofWomenandMeninParliaments,p.64.

since1993.FranBailey’schairmanshipofthePrimaryIndustriesCommitteereflectedher
strongappreciationofruralandagriculturalaffairs,havingpreviouslybeenacashmeregoat
breederandexporter,andelectedtorepresenttheVictorianruralseatofMcEwen.This
trendhowevercontinuedinthe40
th
Parliamentwiththeappointmentofwomentothe
LegalandConstitutionalAffairscommittee, andtheAgriculture,FisheriesandForestry
committee,andinthe41
st
Parliament,withJackieKelly’schairingoftheCommunications
andInformationTechnologiescommittee.
Table4.WomenChairsintheHouseofRepresentatives,1987‐2008
CHAIRS
Name Committee Tenure
36
th
Parliament
Mary Crawford MP Employment, Education and Training (Standing) Whole Parliament
Jeanette McHugh MP Environment, Recreation and the Arts (Standing) 25 months
37
th
Parliament
Mary Crawford MP Employment, Education and Training (Standing) 12 months
38
th
Parliament
Kathy Sullivan MP Procedure Committee (Standing) 18 months
Fran Bailey MP Primary Industries, Resources and Rural and Regional Affairs
(Standing)
21 months
39
th
Parliament
Fran Bailey MP Primary Industries and Regional Services (Standing) Whole Parliament
Kay Elson MP Employment, Education and Workplace Relations (Standing) 7 months
40
th
Parliament
Bronwyn Bishop MP Legal and Constitutional Affairs (Standing) Whole Parliament
Kay Elson MP Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Standing) Whole Parliament
Kay Hull MP Family and Community Affairs(Standing) Whole Parliament
Margaret May MP Procedure Committee (Standing) Whole Parliament
De-Anne Kelly MP Employment and Workplace Relations (Standing) 21 months
41
st
Parliament
Bronwyn Bishop MP Family and Human Services (Standing) Whole Parliament
Trish Draper MP Publications (Standing) Whole Parliament
Jackie Kelly MP Communications, Information Technology and the Arts (Standing) Whole Parliament
Margaret May MP Procedure (Standing) Whole Parliament
42
nd
Parliament
Jenny George MP Climate Change, Water, Environment and the Arts 2008-
Sharon Bird MP Education and Training 2008-
Sharryn Jackson MP Employment and Workplace Relations 2008-
Annette Ellis MP Family, Community, Housing and Youth 2008-
Maria Vamvakinou MP Industry, Science and Innovation 2008-
Catherine King MP Infrastructure, Transport, Rural Development and Local
Government
2008-
Julia Irwin MP Petitions 2008-
Julie Owens MP Procedure 2008-

CHAIRS
Name Committee Tenure
Belinda Neal MP Communications 2008-
Source:WorkoftheSession,DepartmentoftheHouseofRepresentatives,1987to2007.Committeeswebsite,
http://www.aph.gov.au/committee/committees_type.htm#house,accessedFebruary2010.
UndertheLaborgovernmentelectedin2007,womenhavechairedagreaternumberof
committeesthaneverbefore.Again,thisisprimarilyduetotherangeofexperienced
womenMPswhohadservedinOppositionasdeputychairs.Inthe41
st
parliament,theALP
appointedanunprecedentednumberofwomendeputychairs.Whenthepartywaselected
togovernment,manyofthosewomendeputychairsbecamechairs,includinginthehigh
profileareaofClimateChange,andinnon‐traditionalareassuchasIndustry,Scienceand
Innovation,andInfrastructure,Transport,Rural
DevelopmentandLocalGovernment.The
House’sstrongtraditionofappointingwomentoproceduralcommitteeshascontinuedin
thecurrentparliamentwhenitalsoestablishedapetitionscommitteeandappointeda
womanchair.
Table4alsoshowsclearlythatthetenureofwomen’scommitteechairmanshiphas
increasedovertime.Thatis,when
womenwereappointedchairsbetween1990and2001,
theydidnotnecessarilyholdthatpositionthroughthewholeparliament.Insomecases,this
wasbecausewomenwerepromotedtomoreseniorpositions(e.g.KathySullivanwas
promotedtoParliamentarySecretaryforForeignAffairsin1997).Bythe40
th
parliament,
however,womentendedtoremaininthepositionforthefullterm.
Womenhaverelativelyrarelychairedjointcommittees.ComposedofMembersofthe
HouseofRepresentativesandSenators,thesecommitteesallfitoutsidethetraditional‘soft’
portfolios,beingintheareasofforeignaffairs,defence,trade,crimeand
lawenforcement,
intelligenceandsecurity,publicworks,andelectoralmatters,tonameafew.Nowomen
chairedjointcommitteesundertheHawkeandKeatingLaborgovernmentsbetween1987
and1996.UndertheHowardCoalitiongovernment,womencommonlychairedthe
MigrationandPublicWorkscommittees.ConsistentwiththefindingsonHousecommittees,

womenhavechairedthegreatestnumberofjointcommitteesduringthe42
nd
Parliament.In
fact,awomannowchairstheprestigiousPublicAccountsandAuditCom mittee(Sharon
Grierson),andtheTradeSub‐Committ eeoftheJointStandingCommitteeonForeignAffairs
andTrade(JanelleSaffin).
Jointcommitteesarealsomorelikelytohavebeenchairedbywomenforbriefperiodsof
time.
TheNationalCrimeAuthorityforexamplewaschairedbySenatorFerrisintwo
parliamentsfor3monthseachtime.Itscompanion,theAustralianCommissionforLaw
EnforcementIntegritywaschairedbySenatorFierravanti‐Wellsfor8months.TheJoint
StandingCommitteeonElectoralMatters,traditionallyacommitteethatenjoysthe
membership
of‘politicalmach inemen’—beingthoseinterestedinthemachinationsofthe
electoralprocess—haditsfirstwomanchairin2007foraperiodofonly8months.
Itiscurious,however,thatagreaternumberofjointcommitteeswerenotchairedby
womenSenators,therehavingbeenmanymorethanwomen
MembersoftheHouse.Inno

parliamentsince1987hastherebeenagreaternumberofjointcommitteeschairedbya
femaleSenatorthanchairedbyawomanMP.
Table5.WomenChairsofJointCommittees,1987‐2008
CHAIRS
Name Committee Tenure
38
th
Parliament
Christine Gallus MP Migration (Standing) Whole Parliament
Senator Jeannie Ferris National Crime Authority (Statutory) 3 months
39
th
Parliament
Judi Moylan MP Public Works (Statutory) Whole Parliament
Senator Jeannie Ferris Native Title and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land
Fund (Statutory)
Whole Parliament
Senator Jeannie Ferris National Crime Authority (Statutory) 3 months
Christine Gallus MP Migration (Standing) 25 months
Margaret May MP Migration (Standing) 7 months
40
th
Parliament
Teresa Gambaro MP Migration (Standing) Whole Parliament
Judi Moylan MP Public Works (Statutory) Whole Parliament
Julie Bishop MP Treaties (Standing) 21 months
Senator Jeannie Ferris Native Title and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land
Fund (Statutory)
6.5 months
41
st
Parliament
Judi Moylan MP Public Works (Statutory) Whole Parliament
Senator Marise Payne Human Rights Sub-Committee (FADT) (Standing) Whole Parliament
Senator Concetta
Fierravanti-Wells
Australian Commission for Law Enforcement Integrity
(Statutory)
8 months
Sophie Mirabella MP Electoral Matters (Standing) 8 months
42
nd
Parliament
Senator Jan McLucas Public Works (Statutory) 2008-
Senator Kate Lundy National Capital and External Territories (Standing) 2008-
Senator Carol Brown Publications 2008-
Melissa Parke MP Australian Commission for Law Enforcement (Statutory) 2008-
Sharon Grierson MP Public Accounts and Audit (Statutory) 2008-
Janelle Saffin MP Trade Sub-Committee (FADT) (Standing) 2008-
Kerry Rea MP Human Rights Sub-Committee (FADT) (Standing) 2008-
Source:WorkoftheSession,DepartmentoftheHouseofRepresentatives,1987to2007.Committeeswebsite,
http://www.aph.gov.au/committee/committees_type.htm#house,accessedFebruary2010.
TheSenatepaintsacompletelydifferentpictureagain.Women’spresenceaschairsofso
manycommitteesintheSenateisclearlyafactorofthegreaternumericalpresenceof
womeninthischamber.Yetitalsogivestheimpressionthatcommitteeshavebeenanarea
oftheSenatethatwomen
havehadadegreeofpowerin.Womenhavechairedaverywide
rangeofcommittees.Whilethemoretraditionalareas,suchascommunityaffairs,are
covered,diverseportfoliosarealsorepresented.Giventherelativeeasewithwhichthe
Senatecanestablishselectcommitteestoinvestigatespecificmattersoftopicalimportance

foradefinedperiodoftime,womenhavealsochairedinquiriesintowhistleblowing,
informationandelectronictechnologies,andthecaseconcerningScraftonevidence.

TheSenate’smorecomplexcommitteestructurehasalsomeantthatwomenhaveoftenhad
multiplerolesascommitteechairs.BecauseofthepartycompositionoftheSenate,the
partyinGovernmentusuallyhaslessinfluenceonchairmanshipthanitdoesintheHouse.
Thishasseenwomenfromawiderrange
ofpartiesrepresentedinthispositioninanyone
parliament.
Secondly,whengeneralpurposestandingcommitteeswereseparatedintolegislationand
referencecommittees(legislationbeingchairedbygovernmentmembersandreferencesby
oppositionmembers),chairsofonebecamedeputychairsoftheother.
25
Thishasseenpairs
ofwomenworkverycloselywitheachotherinspecificportfolioareas,forexampleSenators
SueKnowlesandRosemaryCrowley,andSenatorsClaireMooreandRachelSiewart.
Inaddition,estimatesarereviewedthreetimeseachyearthroughtheSenatecommittee
process.Priortothereformsof
1994,chairsofstandingcommitteeswerefrequentlyalso
chairsofanestimatescommittee.Forexample,undertheLaborGovernmentsbefore1994,
itwaswomenwithsignificantchairingexperienceleadingtheestimatesprocess,namely
RosemaryCrowley,OliveZacharov,MargaretReynoldsandSueWest.However,following
therestructureofthecommitteesystem,legislation
committeessatasestimates
committees,meaningthatthechairsoflegislationcommitteeswouldalsochairestimates
proceedings.
Table6.WomenChairsintheSenate,1987‐2008
CHAIRS
Name Committee Tenure
35
th
Parliament
Sen. Rosemary Crowley Health Legislation and Health Insurance (Select) Whole term
Sen. Rosemary Crowley Estimates C Whole Parliament
Sen. Olive Zakharov Community Affairs (Standing) Whole Parliament
36
th
Parliament
Sen. Pat Giles Regulations and Ordinances (Standing) 2 years
Sen. Olive Zakharov Estimates D Whole Parliament
Sen. Margaret Reynolds Community Standards Relevant to the Supply of
Services Utilising Electronic Technologies (Select) Whole term
Sen. Rosemary Crowley Environment, Recreation and the Arts Whole Parliament
37
th
Parliament
Sen. Margaret Reid Procedure 1 year
Sen. Margaret Reid House 1 year
Sen. Margaret Reynolds Privileges Whole Parliament
Sen. Margaret Reynolds Estimates C 1 year
Sen. Margaret Reynolds Community Standards Relevant to the Supply of
Services Utilising Electronic Technologies (Select) Whole term
Sen. Kay Denman Employment, Education and Training (Legislation) 1 year
Sen. Meg Lees Environment, Recreation and the Arts (References) Whole Parliament
Sen. Jocelyn Newman Public Interest Whistleblowing (Select) Whole term
Sen. Judith Troeth Scrutiny of Bills 2 years
Sen. Sue West Community Affairs (Legislation) Whole parliament
Sen. Sue West Estimates E 1 year
Sen. Olive Zakharov Employment, Education and Training 2 years

25
 Thissystemwasfirstintroducedin1994,abolishedin2005,andre‐instatedin2008.

CHAIRS
Name Committee Tenure
38
th
Parliament
Sen. Sue Knowles Community Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
Sen. Jacinta Collins Economics (References) Whole Parliament
Sen. Kay Patterson Environment, Recreation, Communications and the Arts Whole Parliament
Sen. Judith Troeth Foreign Affairs Defence and Trade 2 years
Sen. Jeannie Ferris Information Technologies (Select) Whole term
Sen. Kay Denman Senator’s Interests Whole Parliament
Sen. Rosemary Crowley Employment, Education and Training (References) Whole Parliament
Sen. Sue West Procedure Whole Parliament
Sen. Sue West Community Affairs (References) 1 year
Sen. Sue West House Whole Parliament
39
th
Parliament
Sen. Sue Knowles Community Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
Sen. Rosemary Crowley Community Affairs (References) Whole Parliament
Sen. Kay Denman Senator’s Interests Whole Parliament
Sen. Jacinta Collins Employment, Workplace Relations, Small Business and Education
(References)
Whole Parliament
Sen. Jeannie Ferris Information Technologies (Select) Whole term
Sen. Helen Coonan Regulations and Ordinances 2 years
Sen. Marise Payne Legal and Constitutional Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
40
th
Parliament
Sen. Sue Knowles Community Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
Sen. Kay Denman Senator’s Interests Whole Parliament
Sen. Jacinta Collins Economics (References) 1 year
Sen. Lyn Allison Environment, Recreation, Communications and the Arts
(References)
1 year
Sen. Marise Payne Legal and Constitutional Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
Sen. Ursula Stephens Economics (References) Whole Parliament
41
st
Parliament
Sen. Jacinta Collins Scrafton Evidence (Select) Whole term
Sen. Lyn Allison Mental Health (Select) Whole term
Sen. Marise Payne Legal and Constitutional Affairs (Legislation) Whole Parliament
Sen. Claire Moore Community Affairs (References) 2 years
42
nd
Parliament
Sen. Mary Jo Fisher National Broadband Network (Select) 2008-
Sen. Helen Coonan Scrutiny of Bills 2008-
Sen. Carol Brown Publications 2008-
Sen. Anne McEwen Environment, Communications and the Arts (References) 2008-
Sen. Anne McEwen Environment, Communications and the Arts (Legislation) 2008-
Sen. Michaelia Cash Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (References) 2008-
Sen. Trish Crossin Legal and Constitutional Affairs (Legislation) 2008-
Sen. Fiona Nash Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport (References) 2008-
Sen. Claire Moore Community Affairs (Legislation) 2008-
Sen. Rachel Siewart Community Affairs (References) 2008-
Sen. Annette Hurley Economics (Legislation) 2008-
Sen. Helen Polley Finance and Public Administration (Legislation) 2008-
Sen. Dana Wortley Regulations and Ordinances 2008-

Source:ParliamentaryHandbook,Biographies,1987‐2007.
Institutionalising gender mainstreaming
TheAustralianParliamenthasnothadaformal,cross‐partywomen’scaucus.Unpublished
researchconductedinthe1990swithanumberofwomenMPsfoundthattheypreferred
informalgettogethers—suchasmorningteasorlunches—withwomenofotherpolitical
parties,ratherthanaformalisedmeetingorcaucus.
26
Thiswaspredominantlybecauseof
thefundamentallyopposingviewsofwomenfromdifferentpoliticalparties.Womeninthe
Australianfederalparliamenthaveoftenfounditextremelydifficulttoleavepartisanpolitics
asideandworktogetherongenderissues.Arareexceptionwaswhenacoalitionofwomen
fromallparties
intheSenateintroducedabilltoremoveMinisterialapprovalofthe
abortiondrugRU486andgiveit,instead,totheTherapeuticGoodsAdministration.
Likewise,theAustralianParliamenthasnotinstitutedadedicatedgenderequality
committee.Tosomeextent,thecommunityaffairs/familyandhumanservicescommittees
oftheHouseandSenate
haveservedasthe‘genderaffairs’committee,havinginquiredinto
suchmattersasbalancingworkandfamilyandmen’shealth.Thesecommittees,however,
havenotservedthespecificfunctionofreviewinglegislationfromagenderperspective.
Theirmembersdonothavealistofquestions,forexample,withwhichthey
analyse
governmentpolicies,programmesoractivitiestoensuretheydonotdiscriminateagainst
women,andmeetthedifferentialneedsofmenandwomen,boysandgirls.
Thealternativeapproachtogendermainstreamingisthatofinstitutinganetworkofgender
focalpointsacrossallcommitteesoftheparliament.Forthisapproach
tohavebeen
successful,womenwouldobviouslyhavetobeonallcommittees.Interestingly,ithasnot
beenuntilthecurrent,42
nd
Parliament,thatwomenhavehadaseatateverycommittee
table.Table7presentstheHouse,JointandSenatecommitteesinwhichwomendidnot
servebetween1987and2007.Notably,thenumberhasreducedsignificantlyovertime,a
functionoftheactualnumberofwomenintheparliament.Indeed,
bythe42
nd
Parliament
wherewomenconstitute26.7%oftheHouseand35.5%oftheSenate,noHouse,Jointor
Senatecommitteewasexclusivelycomposedofmen.
Therangeofcommitteeswithoutwomensince1987,however,hasbeenfairlypredictable.
IntheHouse,theFinanceandPublicAd ministration(35
th
,36
th
,37
th
parliaments),Industry,
ScienceandTechnology(35
th
,36
th
,40
th
parliaments),Member’sInterests(35
th
,36
th
,38
th
,
41
st
parliaments),andPublications(35
th
,36
th
,37
th
parliaments)committeeshavehadno
women.TheSenatehasseenasimilarselectiontotheHouse,namelytheFinanceandPublic
Administration(35
th
,36
th
,37
th
,40
th
and41
st
parliaments),AppropriationsandStaffing(35
th
,
36
th
and38
th
parliaments),andtheScrutinyofBills(38
th
and41
st
parliaments)committees.
JointCommitteeswithoutwomenhavebeenintheareasofSecurityandIntelligence(35
th
,
38
th
,39
th
,40
th
parliaments)andPublicWorks(35
th
,36
th
,37
th
,38
th
parliaments).Anotable
findingisthatinthoseparliamentswherethesecommitteesdidincludewomen,theyoften


26
 DiZetlin,1995,“WomenMembersofFederalParliament:Acomparativeanalysisovertwo
decades”,AustralianResearchCouncilGrant,UniversityofQueensland.

includedonlyonewoman.Thereisthensomethingabouttheseportfolioareasthathasnot
attractedwomenMembersandSenators.

Table7.House,JointandSenatecommitteeswithoutwomen,1987to2007
35
th
Parliament 36
th
Parliament 37
th
Parliament 38
th
Parliament 39
th
Parliament 40
th
Parliament 41
st
Parliament
H
O
U
S
E
Aboriginal Affairs
Finance & Public
Administration
Industry, Science & Technology
Legal & Constitutional Affairs
Members’ Interests
Privileges
Procedure
Publications
Selection
Aboriginal Affairs
Finance & Public Administration
Industry, Science & Technology
Long Term Strategies
Members’ Interests
Publications
Selection
Transport, Communications &
Infrastructure
Banking, Finance & Public
Administration
Library
Privileges
Publications
Selection
Televising of the House of
Representatives
Transport, Communication &
Infrastructure
Library
Members’ Interests
House Industry & Resources
Members’ Interests
J
O
I
N
T
Australian Security Intelligence
Organisation
Corporations Legislation
National Crime Authority
Public Works
Public Works
Corporations & Securities
Public Works
Australian Security
Intelligence
Organisation
Public Works
Australian Security
Intelligence
Organisation
ASIO, ASIS & DSD
S
E
N
A
T
E
Appropriations & Staffing
Privileges
Employment, Education &
Training
Finance and Public
Administration
Industry, Science, Technology
& Infrastructure
Publications
Certain Aspects of the Airline
Pilots’ Dispute
Animal Welfare
Appropriations & Staffing
Finance and Public
Administration
Animal welfare (Select)
Subscription TV Broadcasting
Services (Select)
Finance & Public Administration
Industry, Science, Technology,
Communications &
Infrastructure
Appropriations &
Staffing
Scrutiny of Bills
Finance & Public
Administration
(Legislation)
Finance & Public
Administration
(Legislation)
Scrutiny of Bills
♀ House: 6.1% ♀ House: 6.8% ♀ House: 8.8% ♀ House: 15.5% ♀ House: 22.3% ♀ House: 25.3% ♀ House: 24.7%
♀ Senate: 22.4% ♀ Senate: 23.7% ♀ Senate: 21.1% ♀ Senate: 30.3% ♀ Senate: 28.9% ♀ Senate: 30.3% ♀ Senate: 35.5%
Sources: Work of the Session, Department of the House of Representatives, 1987 to 2007, Journals of the Senate, 1987 to 2007

JointcommitteeshaveclearlybenefitedfromthesubstantialproportionofwomenintheSenate,
andmoreparticularly,womenrepresentedintheminorpartiessuchastheGreens,andthe
AustralianDemocrats.Forexample,thehighprofileJointCommitteeonForeignAffairs,Defenceand
TradedoesnotappearinTable7,significantly
duetothepresenceofSenatorJoVallentine,
originallyoftheNuclearDisarmamentParty,andsubsequentlyoftheGreens(WA).Similarly,the
JointStandingCommitteeonElectoralMattersoftenhadawomanpresentduetoapositiononthe
committeebeingearmarkedfortheAustralianDemocratsandthenumberof
womeninthatparty.
Itshouldbenoted,furthermore,thatthesolewomanonacommitteewasoftennotjustthesole
womanononecommittee,butontwoorthree.Theextenttowhichanypersoncaninfluencethe
workoftwoormorecommitteesfromagenderperspectiveis
limited.Moreover,itisalsothecase
thatsomewomenwillnotbeinterestedinpursuingquestionsofgenderequalityintheircommittee
work.
Anoteonthevexedquestionofimpact
Itmightbeaskedwhatdifferencehavewomeninparliamentmade.Wasparliamentaryconductless
gladiatorialunderSpeakerChild’sorPresidentReid’sreigns,thanunderthereignsoftheirmale
counterparts?WerethesewomenabletointroducechildcarefacilitiesintoaHousethatcould
accommodateagymanda
prayerroom?Havewomenwhipsbeenabletoinstitutechangestothe
standingorderstoensurewomenhaveequalaccesstopositionsofauthorityintheparliament(ona
rotationalbasis,forexample)?Arewomenchairsmorelikelythanmentoconductinquiriesinto
genderequalityissuesorconductproceedingsin
alessadversarial,moreconsensualmanner?
ThesimpleanswertothesequestionsisthatnochangeintheAustralianParliamentcan(orshould)
beattributedtowomenalone.Women’spresenceinparliamentandinpositionsofauthorityisvital,
butwomenneedmentosupporttheirproposals.Aquickexamination
ofcommitteereports
producedoverthepasttwoparliamentsisenoughtopointtothedifficultyofrelyingonwomen
alonetoraisegenderequalityconcerns.
Table8.Genderspecificinquiries,41
st
and42
nd
parliaments

Committee
♀ Chair
Inquiry subject matter
41
st
parliament
House Family and Human Services Committee Y Balancing work and family
House Health and Ageing Committee N The health benefits of breastfeeding
House Procedure Committee Y Options for nursing mothers in the House
Senate Environment, Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts Committee
N Women in sport and recreation in Australia
Senate Community Affairs Committee Y Gynaecological cancer in Australia
Joint Committee on Australian Crime Commission N Trafficking of women for sexual servitude
42
nd
parliament
Joint Select Committee on Men’s Health N Men’s health
House Employment and Workplace Relations Committee Y Pay equity and increasing female workforce
participation
Senate Procedure Committee N Senators caring for an infant
Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Legislation Committee Y Review of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984
Senate Education, Employment, Workplace Relations References
Committee
N Provision of childcare
Source:Committeeswebsite,accessedMarch2010

Table8showsthatofallthegender‐specificcommitteeinquiriesconductedoverthelasttwo
parliaments,anequalnumberhavebee nchairedbywomenandmen.Threepointsarewort hnoting
here:first,menhaveaninterestingender‐specificinquiriesandthisiscommendable;second,
despitethegreaternumber
ofwomenchairsinthe42
nd
Parliamentthaneverbefore,thesewomen
havenotused(orhadtheopportunitytouse)theirpositionstoconductgenderspecificinquiries;
third,wecannotandshouldnotrelyonlyonthepresenceofwomeninpositionsofauthorityto
ensurecommitteeproceedingsarelessadversarial.Thepoliticalnatureof
aninquiry,andindeedthe
verymixofpersonalities,canandwillproduceparticularlyhostilerelations.
27
Thustheresponsibility
forchangemustliewiththeparliamentasawhole,thatis,withbothmenandwomenMPs.
Conclusion
Institutionalchangeisdifficult.Likethoseinmanyotherdevelopedcountries,theAustralian
Parliamenthasnothadthesamepressureplaceduponittoreformitsapproachtogender

mainstreamingashasbeenappliedindevelopingcountries.Gendermainstreaming,infact,tendsto
beadvancedasameansofachievingdevelopment,ratherthansimplyasastrategyforensuring
policies,programmesandinstitutionsdonotdiscriminateagainsteithersex.
Inthiscontext,itisnotnecessarilysurprisingthatAustralia
hasnotmadesystematiceffortsto
reforminstitutionalstructuresandpracticestoensuregenderismainstreamedacrossallareasof
theparliament.Theabsenceofacross‐partywomen’scaucus,adedicatedgenderequality
committeeoranetworkofgenderfocalpointsowe sagreatdealtothehighlypartisanmake
upof
theparliament.Withouttheagreementofpoliticalparties,reformoftheparliamentisimpossible,
andwhethercertainpartiesintheAustralianparliamentevenagreewiththeideaofgender
mainstreamingisdebateable.
Thisnotwithstanding,theAustralianParliamenthas,overtime,managedtoensurethatcertain
genderissueshave
beenaddressed,includingpayequityforwomen,balancingworkandfamily,
specifichealthissuesrelatingtobothmenandwomen,andperhapsmostimportantly,areviewof
Australia’sgenderequalitylegislation.Womenhavebeengraduallyrepresentedinallareasofthe
parliament,includinginpositionsofparliamentaryleadershipsuchaspresiding
officer,whipand
committeechair.Withrespecttothelatter,womentodaychairagreaternumberofcommittees
thanmenintheHouseofRepresentatives,andasignificantnumberofJointandSenatecommittees.
Facilitiesinwhichchildrenmaybelookedafterhavebeenintroducedandtheissueofmothers
breastfeedingwhileatworkhasalsobeenconsidered.
Theglaringomissionisintheanalysisoflegislationfromagenderperspective.Inthisregard,
AustraliancouldlearnfromtheexperienceofSweden,andanumberofdevelopingcountries,in
theirformalisedapproachtogendermainstreamingacrosscommittees,beitonededicated

committee,oracrossallcommittees.Alessradicalapproachwouldbetoreformtheexistingprocess
ofverifyingallbillsthroughtheSenateScrutinyofBillscommittee,usingadefinedchecklistof
gendersensitiveindicators.


27
 SoniaPalmieri,2003,TheImpactofGenderortheGenderofImpact:AStudyofInteractionsin
AustralianParliamentaryCommittees,UnpublishedPhDthesis,SchoolofPoliticalScienceand
InternationalStudies,UniversityofQueensland.

Ultimately,parliamentariansneedtousetheopportunitiestheyhave,notonlytoaskgenderrelated
questionsbuttopublicisetheanswerstheyreceive.Wheregapsexist,MPshavetheopportunityto
proposethesolutionsthroughamendmentstoexistinglegislation,byinitiatingentirelynew
legislation,orbychangingthepracticesandprocesses
ofparliament.TheAustralianParliamentdoes
notdothisaseffectivelyasitmight.Itneedstoconsidergeneralequalitystrategiesmore
systematically.
