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Triadization of Youth Gangs in Hong Kong
Abstract
In Hong Kong, youth gangs are heavily influenced by triad societies, and the present article examines how young people are 'triadized' through three main channels during their participation in gang activities. First, the spider's web structure absorbs young people into the gang and then ties them into a triad big brother and follower relationship. Second, triad elements and knowledge are transmitted via routine activities of the youth gang. Third, the tacit but very much enforced norms and controls of a youth gang lead its members to conform to triad commands and assimilate triad values. It is concluded that triadization of youth gangs provides new blood to triad societies that continue to survive across different generations over time. © 2011 The Author. Published byOxfordUniversity Press on behalf of theCentre for Crime and Justice Studies (ISTD). All rights reserved.
... It is against this background that this research examines the phenomenon of youth gangs and its relationship with the more institutionalized secret societies in the Singaporean context, arguing that these purportedly distinct entities as popularly portrayed, are in reality structurally and symbiotically linked to each other. It seeks to understand the processes and mechanisms by and through which youth gang members are subject to what Lo (2012) termed as "triadization" even as it examines the relative influence of out-group gang affiliations and in-group organizational features on gang members' criminality at both the individual and extended co-offending levels. As Papachristos (2009) notes, out-group affiliations expose gang members to external influences and opportunities for crime through connections with other gangs or criminal organizations while in-group organizational features, such as internal structure, leadership, and culture, shape members' behaviour within the gang. ...
... Recent literature has also studied the existence of such interactions between youth gangs and adult criminal associations in Asian cities (Kersten, 1993;Lo, 2012). In particular, these studies found that youth gangs can be possibly co-opted by and later integrated into established organized crime groups. ...
... applauses and affirmative praises) and punishments (e.g. humiliation and ostracism) (Lo, 2012). After being sufficiently assimilated into the triad subculture, these youth gang members are then absorbed into the triads to hold leadership positions and run their own criminal operations. ...
This research explores the structural connections between delinquent youth groups, youth gangs, and adult-based secret societies in an economically deprived neighbourhood in Singapore, using the concept of ‘triadization’ to analyze how youth gang members are socialized into a broader criminal subculture. Drawing on ethnographic research, the findings reveal a complex, symbiotic relationship between neighbourhood-based groups, youth gangs, and adult criminal organizations. This relationship enables youth members to gain social support, access learning structures for upward criminal mobility, and secure alternative pathways to status and material rewards. However, the progression from street-level delinquency to organized crime is not linear or straightforward; rather, it is mediated by structural inequalities, particularly along racial lines, during the transition from youth gangs to adult criminal networks. While race has been a key analytical variable in global gang research, its role within multi-ethnic secret societies remains underexplored. This research examines the dynamics of the uneven distribution of roles and risks within multi-ethnic secret societies and the implications for social mobility within criminal subcultures, highlighting the intersections of race, social capital, and criminal pathways in multi-ethnic contexts.
... However, we do know how police strength (in terms of uniformed police and detectives) is distributed across the 18 Hong Kong police districts. Since triad activities involve both territorial-based street or youth gangs [34] and entrepreneurs or 'racketeers' [26], the deployment of police strength including both uniformed police and detectives is necessary to detect these activities. In addition, since triads disproportionately occupy districts, their influence on individual communities and the policing procedures used to detect crime within them will most likely vary. ...
... The proportion of young people (aged 15-24) is included as individuals are most crime-prone at young ages and less so when growing older [72]. Young people are the target of triad leaders who recruit them to strengthen their camp of foot soldiers [34]. They are recruited into triad youth gangs as proteges, and they learn subcultural values and crime knowledge and techniques in their daily hangout. ...
... The transient nature of the population who frequent the district makes police investigations into these crimes potentially challenging. Second, triads who actively engaged in Mongkok tend to have their own factions of junior gang members who commit crimes in Mongkok but reside in other districts often evading police detection [34]. This suggests that cross-district police collaboration is essential to increase police efficiency in tackling triadrelated crime. ...
We use bootstrap data envelopment analysis, adjusting for endogeneity, to examine police efficiency in detecting crime in Hong Kong. We address the following: (i) is there a correlation between the detection of crime and triad influence? (ii) does the level of triad influence affect the efficiency in translating inputs (police strength) into outputs (crime detection)? and (iii) how can the allocation of policing resources be adjusted to improve crime detection? We find that nighty-eight percent of Hong Kong police districts in our sample were found to be inefficient in the detection of crime. Variation was found across districts regarding the detection of violent, property and other crimes. Most inefficiencies and potential improvements in the detection of crime were found in the categories violent and other crimes. We demonstrate how less efficient police districts can modify police resourcing decisions to better detect certain crime types while maintaining current levels of resourcing. Finally, we highlight how the method we outline improves efficiency estimation by adjusting for endogeneity and measuring the conditional efficiency of each district (i.e. the efficiency of crime detection taking the instrumental variables (e.g. influence of triads) into consideration). The use of frontier models to assist in evaluating policing performance can lead to improved efficiency, transparency, and accountability in law enforcement, ultimately resulting in better public safety outcomes and publicly funded resource allocation.
... Triad societies operate under a Dai Lo-Lan Tsai (triad protector-follower) relationship, in which young street gangsters are recruited during their teens and follow a Dai Lo for many years to learn the triad subculture and crime skills. Through years of association, they are eventually "triadised" (Lo 2012) through committing crime and through other forms of daily interaction with the Dai Lo and other triad members. Drug dealing is no exception. ...
... The study also confirms the notion of "triadisation" (Lo 2012) through which a Dai Lo (triad protector) transfers knowledge about drug dealing, norms and evasion skills to Lan Tsai (followers) quite effectively because of their protégé relationships, which facilitate the development of a criminal career. However, although triad societies have a mafia-type hierarchical structure (Lo 2012), drug dealing operates with small group sizes to maintain secrecy and avoid police penetration. ...
... The study also confirms the notion of "triadisation" (Lo 2012) through which a Dai Lo (triad protector) transfers knowledge about drug dealing, norms and evasion skills to Lan Tsai (followers) quite effectively because of their protégé relationships, which facilitate the development of a criminal career. However, although triad societies have a mafia-type hierarchical structure (Lo 2012), drug dealing operates with small group sizes to maintain secrecy and avoid police penetration. This suggests that drug dealing in Hong Kong is not a mafia-structured business subject to strict organisational discipline and control; individual triads may have short-term alliances based on a mere coincidence of interests, Against this backdrop, the present study produced a contradictory finding on the issue of trust. ...
Using a framework of certainty reduction – severity mitigation, the paper examines how drug dealers in Hong Kong adopted restrictive deterrence strategies to reduce the certainty, and mitigate the severity, of punishment. It examines seven concrete techniques, including camouflage in public places, picking a safe time and position, counter-reconnaissance, choosing a less severe activity, stashing the product, passing risk, and cooperating with the police. We found that the techniques used by drug dealers correspond well to this framework, but that high-level dealers make more use of severity mitigation strategies while low-level dealers use certainty reduction strategies more. Moreover, the restrictive deterrence strategy is transferred through dual paths in which trust plays a role among dealers with a triad background.
... Restricted membership and strict requirements on traditions became barriers to the survival of Triad, resulting in the current looser and flexible operations. Lo (2012) conceptualized the process of turning a normal youth into a Triad member as Triadization by outlining how the person is embedded into the Triad identity and subcultures. 'Triadization is a process in which individuals gradually inherit and adapt Triad norms and values through interaction with their friends in a youth gang under the umbrella of the Triad' (Lo, 2012) (p. ...
... 560). Triad subcultures, criminal values, and routines are gradually adopted during this process, which comprises five phases: (1) joining a youth gang and following the gang leader; (2) being involved in street violence and being protected by Triad members; (3) progressively engaging in minor crimes to various types of offenses; (4) alliance with the Triad and performing organized crime; (5) reducing the use of unjustified violence so as to avoid police attention (Lo, 2012). Socialization in the criminal group is the key feature to consolidating and entrenching deviant values and identity. ...
... Via structural invasion and routine activities, the Triad builds up its influence and absorbs marginalized teens into the Triad factions. If one Triad member invades a youth group, Triad subcultures and values are transmitted through the spider's web and the Dai Lo-Lan Tsai (protector-protégé) relationship (Lo 2012). Youth groups are secured by Triad protection, particularly in street conflicts (Lo 2012). ...
Hong Kong Triad Society is vastly different from street gangs regarding the size, duration of memberships, structure, and the nature of offending. In the current understandings, gang desistance is conceptualized as an outcome of de-identification and a process of disengagement. Still, the desisted members can mostly maintain their former routine activities, connections, and networks despite being desisted. However, scarce research on Triad rehabilitation created the unexplored situation of Triad desistance. The present study interviewed ex-triad Christians to examine their journey of desistance. From their narratives, this study conceptualized Triad desistance (namely de-Triadization) and compared it with the current understanding of desistance. In addition to de-identification and disengagement, de-Triadization requires the discontinuity of subcultural influences as well. Hence, de-Triadized persons can continually minimize the risk of re-engagement with Triad society and stay in a crime-free lifestyle. This study has complimented the understanding of Triad desistance and offered insights for future studies. Impacts on other criminal organizations are also discussed.
... While this research agenda does have its merits, i.e. for theoretical expansion and at-risk outreach service improvements, scholars have noted several shortcomings in the growing scholarship that generally limits our understanding of the relationship between youth street gang membership and (non-) 1 While youth street gangs remain a matter of widespread concern, it is also necessary to reflect on the real possibility that youth street gang members, especially as they age, may take on more risky, high-yielding tasks outside of their gang. Often these opportunities, with the promise of self-enhancement and protection, are accessible by affiliation with organized crime groups. 2 For clarity, scholars in Hong Kong have conceptualized the label 'youth gangs' in two ways: with existing Hong Kong triad affiliations (Lo 2012) or without association to Hong Kong triads (Lee 2005a). In this paper, we refer to the latter conceptualization. ...
... In this paper, we refer to the latter conceptualization. An alternative label adopted by Lo (2012) and Lo and Tam (2018) that is equivalent to the conceptualization of 'youth gang' by Lee (2005a) is 'deviant youth gang'. some female youth street gang members possess affiliations with Hong Kong triads (Chui and Khiatani 2018;Lee 2005a;Lo 2012). ...
... An alternative label adopted by Lo (2012) and Lo and Tam (2018) that is equivalent to the conceptualization of 'youth gang' by Lee (2005a) is 'deviant youth gang'. some female youth street gang members possess affiliations with Hong Kong triads (Chui and Khiatani 2018;Lee 2005a;Lo 2012). ...
This study examines the differential impacts of social bonds and organized crime affiliation on theft and violence in a sample of 201 male and female youth street gang members in Hong Kong. Specifically, the study examines gender differences in social bonds and delinquency among active youth street gang members aged between 12 and 24 years. A purposive sample of 109 male and 92 female active youth street gang members was recruited from a public housing estate with the help of outreach social workers. A series of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that parental attachment, involvement in organizations, and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft and violence among male youth street gang members, while belief in the legal system and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft among female youth street gang members. However, only the effect of the belief social bond on (non-)violent delinquency was found to be significantly different between male and female youth street gang members. Peer attachment was not significantly associated with theft nor violence among male or female youth street gang members. Subsequently, implications for social service delivery and future studies are discussed.
... Although the reasons for such incidence over time may be debated, the present study is primarily interested in its relationship to youth gang membership and delinquency. In Hong Kong, organized crime groups, called "Chinese triads," actively seek out youth and younger adults for recruitment, especially in public spaces where they commonly congregate (Joanilho, 2001, August 27;Lo, 2012). These recruitment habits and the characteristics of potential respondents make Hong Kong a unique case study to examine this relationship. ...
... No significant influence was observed for the relationship between sexual abuse and delinquency. This is particularly groundbreaking in the Hong Kong context, where scholarship on triad recruitment strategies has indicated a propensity for recruiters to frequent areas where at-risk youth congregate, such as parks or gaming arcades (Lo, 2012), or where many such youth experience some form of neglect or, to a lesser extent, maltreatment at home (Lee, 2000). Through a process called "triadization," Chinese triads recruit young gang members in different ways including, but not limited to, indoctrination of shared identities, norms, and values that adhere to triad principles (see Lo, 2012). ...
... This is particularly groundbreaking in the Hong Kong context, where scholarship on triad recruitment strategies has indicated a propensity for recruiters to frequent areas where at-risk youth congregate, such as parks or gaming arcades (Lo, 2012), or where many such youth experience some form of neglect or, to a lesser extent, maltreatment at home (Lee, 2000). Through a process called "triadization," Chinese triads recruit young gang members in different ways including, but not limited to, indoctrination of shared identities, norms, and values that adhere to triad principles (see Lo, 2012). As scholarship on this area shows, among other motivations, the appeal of being cared for and recognized draws troubled youth into gangs, especially those who have been marginalized or neglected by family (e.g., Belitz & Valdez, 1994). ...
The primary aim of this article is to examine the role of triad affiliation in mediating the relationship between child maltreatment (neglect, punishment, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse) and delinquency among active young gang members in Hong Kong. A sample of 177 gang members aged 12 to 24 was recruited to complete a questionnaire with the assistance of a youth outreach social work team. Neglect was identified as the most common form of maltreatment, followed by emotional abuse, punishment, and sexual abuse. Mediation analyses confirmed that triad affiliation acts as a mediating variable in the child maltreatment–delinquency relationship, except in cases of sexual abuse. Only the relationship between punishment and delinquency was found to be fully mediated by triad affiliation; partial mediation effects were found for neglect and emotional abuse. Recommendations for child protection and youth workers are provided.
... They treat the VIP rooms as their economic territories, and different kinds of betting and crime have emerged to cater to gamblers' desires, thus creating a Triad-enterprise hybrid that exercises violence or has a reputation for violence in controlling a certain territory for financial gain [4][5][6][7]. To protect their business, the Triads recruit young people as junior gang members through a Dai Lo-Lan Tsai (protector-protégé) relationship to reinforce their territorial power [8]. People accept this behavior because they understand that the Triads' reputation for violence represents a potential threat, and the Triads are capable of exercising force whenever they want [7]. ...
... Many youth offenders in this study were already Triad gang members. Once a youth is inside a gang, violence is regarded as an expression of conformed behavior within the gang, where members' acceptance of antisocial behavior becomes a reward for committing violence [8,65]. The enhancement of self-esteem through other members' recognition is a significant factor in their gang participation. ...
... Within the subculture, the youths commit violence to fulfil the gang norms of "eye for an eye" and Triad brotherhood [72]. The reward and punishment mechanisms within the gang reinforce members to conform to the violent and brotherhood norms [8]. ...
This study was designed to explore the self and contextual factors for violence in two samples of school students and youth offenders in Macau. There were 3085 participants who were between 12 and 20 years old; 48.3% of them were male and 51.7% female. Findings revealed that youth offenders exhibited more violence than school students. For the self factors, while lower self-esteem and higher self-efficacy of school students were associated with more violent behavior, these two variables had no significant effects for youth offenders. For the contextual factors, family conflict was the strongest predictor of violence, and school commitment/attachment was the weakest predictor for both samples. For youth offenders, family conflict had the largest direct effect, followed by susceptibility to negative peer influence and influence of the Triad gangs, while school commitment/attachment had a significant though mild direct effect. For school students, family conflict mediated the effect of self-esteem and self-efficacy on violence. While Triad gangs' influence was the second strongest predictor of violence, being exposed to Triad gangs' influence also mediated the effect of self-esteem and self-efficacy on violence. It is recommended that youth outreach services with a focus on family support and gang detachment for at-risk youth be strengthened.
... However, current research shows that, despite being active members of one street gang, individual gang members can and do collaborate and co-offend with individuals who belong to other gangs-a gang member may even hold an "associate status" with another gang (Benson & Decker, 2010;Bolden, 2012;Densley, 2014). This phenomenon, termed extended co-offending (Felson, 2009), reflects the increasingly dynamic character and nature of current-day street gangs, which have been recorded worldwide-for example, in the United States (Bolden, 2012), the United Kingdom (Densley, 2014), and Hong Kong (Lo, 2012). Therefore, by only measuring influential factors within a gang-such as the gang's organizational structures or delinquent peers in the gang-to explain the gang members' patterns of delinquency, the significant impact that outgroup affiliations may have on the general pattern of delinquency among the gang members is neglected. ...
... To the best of the authors' knowledge, no study has ever examined the relative influence of out-group gang affiliations and in-group organizational features on gang members' delinquency at an individual level. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to fill this research gap, by means of a survey-based investigation conducted in an Asian context, that is, Hong Kong, where extended co-offending is evident among youth gangs and organized crime groups (Chin, 1995;Lo, 2012). Despite Hong Kong's hard-line stance against gangs, particularly the organized crime groups, both youth gangs and adult organized crime groups have maintained a steady presence in the city. ...
... Although there is no hard data on the number of youth gangs operating in Hong Kong (Lee, 2005a), it is widely recognized that members of youth gangs (or at-risk youths in general) and adult organized crime groups native to Hong Kong (i.e., the Hong Kong triads) are not isolated from one another. Rather, they share the same social space, which the Hong Kong triads use to recruit members of youth gangs or at-risk youths through a process called "triadization" (Lo, 2012). The Hong Kong triads offer lucrative opportunities, absent in youth gangs acting alone, that facilitate the "big brother-followership relationship" (Lo, 2012, p. 560). ...
This study explores the importance of organizational structures and formal affiliations with the Hong Kong triads to delinquency among youth street gang members in Hong Kong. More specifically, this study examines the relative importance of the number of organizational structures and triad affiliation to patterns of delinquency in a sample of active members of youth street gangs ( N = 201). With the aid of outreach social workers, a convenience sampling method was used to recruit a gender-balanced sample of at-risk youths. Logistic regression analysis of the survey data that was gathered indicated that formal affiliation to Hong Kong triads and the presence of organizational structures significantly increased the odds of delinquency (independently of each other). Suggestions for future research on gang membership and delinquency, with particular reference to the Asian context, are provided.
... There are a number of active Asian organized crime groups that are frequently depicted in Asian gangster films, in Asia, as well as internationally (Berry, Curtis, Elan, Hudson, and Kollars, 2003). The most prominent organized crime groups in Asian filmography are the triads (Hong Kong), jok-pok (South Korean), yakuza (Japan), and common Chinese and South Korean street gangs who, as a whole, operate in a variety of illicit and lucrative activities (Chin, 1996;Lo, 2012). Although Asian organized crime groups-and gangs in general-vary in size, flexibility and structure (Jankowski, 1991), they tend to be hierarchically and territorially organized in their illicit activities to ensure stable clientele and profits (Berry et al., 2003;Lo, 2012;Zhang and Chin, 2003). ...
... The most prominent organized crime groups in Asian filmography are the triads (Hong Kong), jok-pok (South Korean), yakuza (Japan), and common Chinese and South Korean street gangs who, as a whole, operate in a variety of illicit and lucrative activities (Chin, 1996;Lo, 2012). Although Asian organized crime groups-and gangs in general-vary in size, flexibility and structure (Jankowski, 1991), they tend to be hierarchically and territorially organized in their illicit activities to ensure stable clientele and profits (Berry et al., 2003;Lo, 2012;Zhang and Chin, 2003). Previous researchers have noted that the risk of gang involvement intensifies as the numbers of determinants increases (Bjerregard, 2010;Coughlin and Venkatesh, 2003;Decker and Curry, 2003;Dukes, Martinez, and Stein, 1997). ...
... Another consistent finding is the perception of safety and protection received from alliance and affiliation with gangs (Lo, 2012). Decker and Curry (2000) found that one's membership in a gang provided a form of safeguard and defense from the likelihood of being involved in and victimized by violent acts (Howell and Egley, 2005;Varano, Huebner, and Bynum, 2011). ...
: Previous works focusing on Asian organized crime groups have examined the history, structure, function, and the extent of their legal and illegal business enterprises. While credible, such a line of inquiry omits crucial information on the source and reasoning behind membership and affiliation for members in Asian organized crime groups, such as the “Jok-Pok”, Triads, and Yakuza. Due to the secretive nature of those organized crime groups, such an omission leaves a major gap in the understanding as to why Asian youths join gangs. This paper examines the prevailing characteristics of membership and affiliation within Asian gangs by analyzing Asian gangsters in Asian (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) cinema. Results indicate that the lure of economic benefits, exposure to gang life from within one’s family and lack of opportunities to achieve legitimate goals constitute the three most pervasive themes that define membership within Asian gangs as represented in popular cinema.
... However, a peer education program involving ex-drug users and ex-gang members could be effective in providing assistance to older PWUD. Considering triad gang members' similar socioeconomic backgrounds and socialization processes (Chu 2002;Chui and Khiatani 2021;Lo 2012), they are likely to positively view older PWUD. Studies indicate that communication and interaction can contribute positively by reducing negative stereotypes. ...
Gerontology and substance abuse studies have demonstrated that older adults and people who use drugs are subjected to negative stereotypes and discrimination in the labor market. However, research on the employment experiences of older people who use drugs is limited. To bridge this gap, this study explored the problems that older people who use drugs in Hong Kong face in the employment market. We investigated the effects of stereotypes and soft and hard discrimination, created by the combined impacts of aging and drug use, on the quality of life and experiences of older people who use drugs. We conducted qualitative interviews with 40 older drug users (aged 51 years or older) between 2019 and 2021, using the help of two employees working in drug treatment facilities and snowball sampling. Our findings indicated that negative stereotypes against older people and drug use remained prevalent in the legal employment market, where the intersection of the negative competence stereotypes associated with age and the negative warmth stereotype associated with drug use created various levels of hard and soft discrimination against the participants.
... AOPR on IDC gangs has explored, for instance, how and why they are involved in offending (e.g., Decker & Van Winkle 1996;Fleisher 1998;Hagedorn & Macon 1988;Kennedy & Baron 1993;Miller & Decker 2001). More generally, gang researchers have shed light on gang formation, organization, their activities and identity, as well as that of their members (e.g., Decker & Van Winkle 1996;Fleisher 1998;Hagedorn 1994;Hagedorn & Macon 1988;Harris 1994;Lasley 1992;Lo 2012;Moore 1991, Padilla 1992, Short & Strodtbeck 1965Toy 1992;Venkatesh 2008). ...
... With the deviant-reflected appraisals, individuals tend to possess a perception of criminal identity, pro-crime attitudes, and technical and practical guidance on conducting crime. Differential association and social learning theory are often cited as theories that explain such learning processes during an individual's interaction with deviant groups [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. ...
Perceived crime benefit and criminal thinking are essential factors in predicting future offending. However, less is known about how the interaction of the two influences individuals’ perception and cognition of crime. This study explores whether proactive criminal thinking mediates the effect of perceived crime benefit, and tests whether restrictive deterrence influences these pathways. Using a drug dealer sample that was drawn from the Second RAND Inmate Survey, this paper finds that proactive criminal thinking significantly mediates the effect of perceived crime benefit on future offending, criminal self-efficacy, and future sanction avoidance. Mediation pathways are enhanced when taking a heterogeneous crime strategy as a moderator, but only in the experienced drug dealer subsample. These results suggest that proactive criminal thinking is a route for channeling the effects of perceived crime benefit, and an amplifier for bringing restrictive deterrence into play. Both roles apply to experienced offenders rather than less-experienced offenders. Integrating restrictive deterrence with individuals’ perception and cognition of crime is a meaningful attempt to fit restrictive deterrence into a broader theoretical map.
... Pitts (2008, 70) portrays authority flowing down from established organised crime figures ('faces'), to 'elders', 'youngers', 'tinies', 'wannabe's' and 'shotters' (also Centre for Social Justice 2009). For Pitts, the faces work behind the scenes to provide the protective function of violent reputations whilst wholesaling drugs to elders (see also Lo 2011). The elders were in their late teens/early twenties and led 'crews' of youngers (aged 14-17) who acted as 'foot soldiers' 3 ; running drugs, collecting debts and attacking rivals. ...
This paper presents a single case study of one street gang in one London borough. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 gang members, or former gang members, and seven practitioners. The practitioners and gang members/ex-gang members reported different perspectives on how the gang was structured and drug dealing was organised. The gang members/ex-gang members suggested that the gang is a loose social network with little recognisable formal organisation. Although individual gang members sell drugs, the gang should not be viewed as a drug dealing organisation. Rather it is a composition of individual drug dealers who cooperate out of mutual self-interest. Therefore, some gang members are best described as independent entrepreneurs while others are subcontractors looking to ‘go solo’. The seven practitioners, however, tended to describe a more hierarchically structured gang, with formal recruitment processes. This divergence of perspective highlights an important consideration for policy and research.
... Gangsters in HK considerably differed from UK ones. Most HK gangsters belonged to one of the several large organized crime syndicates (Lo, 2011). They were mafia type of institutions. ...
Localization has largely been assessed, by both its supporters and critics, with its local-global sociocultural dynamics. The local sociocultural dynamics of localization have either been ignored or simplistically understood as a ‘preference for the local’ or ‘local empowerment’. This study argues that localization’s local dynamics can be very complex and can yield negative social implications. There are likely multiple subgroups of local consumers, who localize in different ways and degrees due to their different resources, interests, and power positions. These differences likely generate emergent patterns of social contestations, stratification, and inequality. I empirically substantiate this argument by analyzing how Hong Kong’s rave-based clubculture was undermined by wealth and power disparities as it localized in the late 1990s and early 2000s. This study’s major methods include observant participation in dance clubs and rave parties in Hong Kong and informal and formal interviews of consumers and producers of clubculture.
... There have been calls for research evidence to be drawn into police practice, but development of such an agenda has been hampered by a range of factors [2]. Research into youth gangs, especially the age at which youths join gangs and the early precursors, has been conducted in the USA and Canada [3], China [4] and Hong Kong [5]. ...
... Pitts (2008, 70) portrays authority flowing down from established organised crime figures ('faces'), to 'elders', 'youngers', 'tinies', 'wannabe's' and 'shotters' (also Centre for Social Justice 2009). For Pitts, the faces work behind the scenes to provide the protective function of violent reputations whilst wholesaling drugs to elders (see also Lo 2011). The elders were in their late teens/early twenties and led 'crews' of youngers (aged 14-17) who acted as 'foot soldiers' 3 ; running drugs, collecting debts and attacking rivals. ...
This paper presents a single case study of one street gang in one London borough. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 gang members, or former gang members, and seven practitioners. The practitioners and gang members/ex-gang members reported different perspectives on how the gang was structured and drug dealing was organised. The gang members/ex-gang members suggested that the gang is a loose social network with little recognisable formal organisation. Although individual gang members sell drugs, the gang should not be viewed as a drug dealing organisation. Rather it is a composition of individual drug dealers who cooperate out of mutual self-interest. Therefore, some gang members are best described as independent entrepreneurs while others are subcontractors looking to ‘go solo’. The seven practitioners, however, tended to describe a more hierarchically structured gang, with formal recruitment processes. This divergence of perspective highlights an important consideration for policy and research.
... In contrast, 'black societies' or triads in the HKSAR are seen as a criminal conspiracy that has legal recognition and are dealt with as criminal associations -membership is an offence irrespective of participation in criminal conduct. Perhaps 15 to 20 known triads operated in the 1970s-1990s (Hong Kong Fight Crime Committee 1986;Ip 1999) and their continued presence is attributed to the inter-generational transmission of triad values via the relationship between youth gangs and triads (Lo 2011). The largest among them are the Sun Yee On, Wo Shing Wo, 14K, and Wo Hop To and these are also known to operate in other parts of China and in South-east Asia (Chu 2005). ...
Recent events have shifted the way the Chinese state responds to organized crime and corruption. The re-definition of organized crime, improved judicial oversight and the re-assessment of ‘strike-hard’ style police campaigns are key reforms. This paper discusses the recent changes in law, practice and oversight in the context of a brief overview of criminal groups in China and the Chongqing policing model. Revisions to the criminal law are described and the likely outcomes are assessed in the context of the key struggle to contain corruption and organized crime.
This study examines the intersection of race, class, and gang violence in Singapore, with a particular focus on the structural dynamics linking racial minorities, street gangs, and institutionalized Chinese secret societies—the archetype of organized crime in the city-state. By integrating race as both an ideology and a system of social relations into the study of gang formation, this research sheds light on why and how racial minorities become disproportionately involved in gang violence. The study revealed that beyond economic marginalization, racialized hierarchies embedded within gang contexts shape the motivations, participation, and mobility of minority individuals in both street gangs and the broader criminal underworld. Drawing on the concept of racialized masculinity,, it is argued that racial minorities mobilize their gender and racial resources to compensate for status disparities resulting from structural exclusion in both legitimate and illegitimate spheres. In a postcolonial, multiracial society, like Singapore, where racial and class marginalization intersect, gang affiliation emerges as a means of negotiating power and social standing. The findings contribute to scholarship on race, crime, and social stratification while informing policies aimed at addressing racial inequalities and reducing gang violence.
Territory, where a network of influence and business interests can be developed, is an important feature of criminal organizations. While some research on organized crime by Chinese triads has been published in recent years, the concept of triad territory is still under-researched. This article discusses what a triad territory is and how it is formed, managed and defended. Through qualitative research, it is found that triad business is territorial in nature. Different triad societies have their own turfs and monopolize certain geographical territories or economic sectors. Territory is important for the survival of triad societies, not only because most of their business operates within the territory but also because they rely on the territory to maintain social networks, exchange criminal market information, gather intelligence and source business opportunities. This article concludes that a triad territory is structurally, culturally and cognitively embedded, and is a defensible social and economic space of a triad society.
This article explores the longitudinal dynamics of youth gang transformation in urban Nicaragua. On the basis of an overview of successive gang iterations that have emerged over the past 30 years in barrio Luis Fanor Hernández, a poor neighborhood in Managua, the capital city of Nicaragua, the article identifies key elements for the articulation of a political economy of both change and stability. In particular, drawing on Bourdieusian theory, it conceives of a gang as a “social field” rather than as a discrete organizational form. It traces how different processes of individual and collective capital accumulation underpinning the social order promulgated by distinct gang iterations emerge and interact with each other, and the consequences that this has for their evolution over time. In doing so, the article offers a better understanding of the logic of what might be termed “gang rule(s)”.
Paid employment in the criminal economy is, in many ways, the essence of precarious labour yet to date criminological work on the so-called ‘gig economy’ is scarce. Here we apply emergent sociological literature on ‘post-Fordist’ working cultures to precarious youth employment in Hong Kong, arguing: (1) recent reorganizations of labour markets towards flexible entrepreneurship are mirrored in the illicit economy; (2) a shift in structural features of triad gangs has led to a parallel form of ‘network sociality’; and (3) triad-affiliated youth remained rooted in place-based ‘communities of practice’ that form a point of difference from existing theory. In concluding, we reflect on the implications of these arguments for the study of illicit economies, triads and post-Fordist working cultures.
Recent studies suggest that the pandemic has impacted criminal activities and organized crime groups. This article provides a qualitative review of changes in crime rates, patterns, and activities of organized crime groups (specifically, Triads) in Hong Kong. Three specific types of organized crimes with high Triad involvement were selected: serious violent crimes, serious drug-related crimes, and smuggling. After analyzing both official and non-official sources, the results showed that despite the government's stringent control measures that significantly suppressed socio-economic activities during the COVID-19 pandemic, the figures for these selected crimes rose tremendously. Triads' organized criminal activities became more frequent, dangerous, and aggressive, posing a severe threat to Hong Kong's law and order.
Millions of the world’s children engage in labor, often exploitative and essential to their survival. Child labor is closely related to crime; global discourse illustrates how young people are victims of forced and bonded labor and recent studies from the global South demonstrate how young people are hired as the ‘illicit laborers’ of organized crime groups. Despite this, there is a tendency to consider young people, not as laborers but as victims of trafficking or as offenders (often in relation to gangs). To address this lacuna, the article draws on data from 3 studies conducted in the global South to develop a conceptual framework suitable for understanding the intersection between labor and crime. The article develops a metaphorical ‘labor lens’, a lens which centers and prioritizes labor and instrumental drivers for crime, embedded within wider structures of illicit markets, established organized crime, state:crime collaboration and the need for children to work to survive. The article integrates economic drivers for involvement in organized crime with the moral economy, within the context of ecological frameworks of crime, embedded with wider issues of coloniality. In doing so, the article develops a new conceptual framework for considering young people’s involvement in organized crime.
Negotiating access to participants presents challenges for researchers of organised crime. Issues in accessing the field of criminal organisations in Western settings have been well-documented. However, strategies for accessing Chinese criminal organisations remain embryonic. This article presents findings that represent the researcher’s first-hand fieldwork experiences in overcoming such challenges, especially the problem of access negotiation when conducting triad society research. As the first ethnographic study of triad society in China, this paper aims to identify the ways in which the effective use of Chinese culture and triad subculture, insider information and knowledge facilitates access negotiation to the field, and helps establish social networks with individuals at different levels of the triad hierarchy. Attention is paid to the ways in which the researcher utilised Chinese networking culture, including guanxi principles and the mechanism of renqing as well as face culture and face-work, in gaining access to and building trust with triad members. Techniques to acquire triad subculture will also be addressed.
The conditions for trust to develop between achieved ties among the Big Circle Boys (BCB) were linked to their migratory and new arrival experiences. They were bonded by the hardships and their early delinquency can be explained by theories of social structure and ladder of social mobility. The circuitous illicit immigration routes to Canada explained how transitory international bases became contacts for opportunistic drugs sources in their ventures. Other contacts were from geographically and temporally distant and dormant ties. Their mutual interests in criminal activities and successful collaborations helped promote trust. Trust between friends in the form of re-established weak ties was a genuine kind sociologically compared to family kinship ties. A third-generation BCB is not likely to appear in Canada: there is not a new supply of career criminals from Guangzhou; second-generation BCB are returning to China; law enforcement has been and is still effective.
Cambridge Core - Organisation Studies - Mafia Organizations - by Maurizio Catino
This article discusses the ‘gang’ in Mainland China. By drawing on extensive observation, 99 qualitative interviews with criminal justice practitioners, NGO workers, academics, journalists, diplomats, community members and young people associated with gangs. The article considers the ways in which gangs are conceptualized in mainland China. The article uses the framework of ‘conceptual similarities and distinct difference’ to consider the ways in which Chinese gangs are similar to their counterparts around the world, but also how they differ. The article concludes by reflecting on the implications of this for law, legislation, policy and practice as well as global understandings of gangs and organized crime.
In this chapter, I draw on additional insights from follow-up interviews and discussions with the same men I referred to in Chapter 9, as well as from fieldnotes constructed during participant observation and from interviews with staff and volunteers within HKCS. I explore and examine the nature of the Christian support sessions the men engaged in and their apparent impact in terms of supporting them with addiction issues, and enabling them to challenge their entrenched beliefs regarding criminal lifestyles. The insights are used to make inferences about the extent to and ways in which Christian-based interventions can potentially play a valuable role in supporting and enabling Hong Kong gang members to re-direct their entrenched beliefs about loyalty and obligation to brotherhood in non-criminal directions.
This part of the book brings the focus to a third and final Continent of interest—Asia, with a specific spotlight placed on Hong Kong. The suggested connections between youth gangs and triad societies are examined, and I draw attention to the particular ways that male youth gang members can become ‘triadized’ and immersed in organised criminality. I then move on to explore and examine the potential impact of a Christian-based religious intervention in terms of supporting male offenders to begin to move away from triad-related crime. In this chapter, I begin by sharing insights from life history interviews conducted with a small sample of men of various ages in Hong Kong who had become members of street gangs and slowly transitioned to become part of triad-affiliated crime groups. Through drawing on the most salient themes from interviews, I explore the underlying social and cultural influences that led the men to engage with and (in some cases) progress through triad hierarchies, and the links with masculinity. I also examine the range of factors that triggered a readiness for change among these men.
Across the world, youth workers have been active in helping vulnerable youth groups. In Hong Kong, government-funded youth services are conducted by professional social workers to help vulnerable youths. This article adopted a case study approach to investigate a youth group who committed a murder. Nine murderers and two social workers were interviewed. It aims to uncover the structure and activities of the group and analyse the gang intervention prior to the murder to find out what had gone wrong and identify the lessons that social workers can learn from the murder. Four misconceptions in gang intervention have been identified. First, because of the Triad (Chinese-organised crime) affiliation, this is not just a group of deviant youths but a youth gang. Second, because it is a gang, the social workers should not group them but should instead degroup them to avoid contamination. Third, diagnosis is different from labelling. With the right diagnosis, services can be tailor-made to delabel them. Fourth, when the youths are diagnosed as a gang, outreach work instead of centre work should be provided—social workers should reach out to the gangland to uncover the youths’ gang participation and crime involvement.
Kowloon Walled City (hereafter KWC or Walled City), Hong Kong has been described as ‘one of history’s great anomalies’. The territory remained under Chinese rule throughout the period of British colonialism, with neither jurisdiction wishing to take active responsibility for its administration. In the postwar period, the area became notorious for vice, drugs and unsanitary living conditions, yet also attracted the attention of artists, photographers and writers, who viewed it as an instance of anarchic urbanism. Despite its demolition in 1993, KWC has continued to capture the imaginations of successive generations across Asia. Drawing on data from an oral and visual history project on the enclave, alongside images, interviews and observations regarding the ‘second life’ of KWC, this article will trace the unique flow of meanings and reimaginings that KWC has inspired. The article will locate the peculiar collisions of crime and consumerism prompted by KWC within the broader contexts in which they are embedded, seeking out a new interdisciplinary perspective that attends to the internecine spaces of crime, media and culture in contemporary Asian societies.
This chapter presents an overview of emerging research on gangs in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Gangs in these three continents are vastly understudied, and in each continent the gangs take on quite distinctive forms that differ from those seen in much of the research arising from the West. The chapter focuses on gangs which are described in a manner that is consistent with the Eurogang definition of youth gangs. Many African countries have been plagued by poverty, famine, civil war, and disease, and these major social and political changes have a dramatic effect on Africa's youth, which are estimated to make up two thirds of the population. The chapter discusses the types and characteristics of the gangs in each country, and provides a brief overview of extant research into risk and protective factors for youth gang membership.
The Chinese criminal underworld is evolving along two paths: structural and territorial-based triads and criminal groups formed
by entrepreneurs. The present study used triad involvement in casino VIP rooms to examine how these two paths cross after
China resumed sovereignty of Macau in 1999. It was found that although the current operations of the junket business is determined
by the external business environment in mainland China, triads continue to treat the VIP rooms as economic territories. New
forms of betting and crime have emerged to meet the needs of high-end gamblers, thus resulting in the formation of a triad-enterprise
hybrid that comprises territoriality and reputation of violence commonly found in extra-legal governance and the dynamic entrepreneurship
of small firms.
This paper describes the output of a study to tackle the problem of gang-related crime in the UK; we present the intelligence and routinely-gathered data available to a UK regional police force, and describe an initial social network analysis of gangs in the Greater Manchester area of the UK between 2000 and 2006. By applying social network analysis techniques, we attempt to detect the birth of two new gangs based on local features (modularity, cliques) and global features (clustering coefficients). Thus for the future, identifying the changes in these can help us identify the possible birth of new gangs (sub-networks) in the social system. Furthermore, we study the dynamics of these networks globally and locally, and have identified the global characteristics that tell us that they are not random graphs—they are small world graphs—implying that the formation of gangs is not a random event. However, we are not yet able to conclude anything significant about scale-free characteristics due to insufficient sample size. A final analysis looks at gang roles and develops further insight into the nature of the different link types, referring to Klerks’ ’third generation’ analysis, as well as a brief discussion of the potential UK policy applications of this work.
One way to tackle triad societies is through effective legislation. The present article first describes and reviews the legislation dealing with triad activities in Hong Kong – The Societies Ordinance – and highlights the main issues and problems. Four issues are discussed, namely ambiguity in the definition of triad membership, doubtful neutrality of triad experts, outdated triad-related literature cited in the court, and the contradiction with human rights and freedom of expression. The article further examines the effect of the ordinance in suppressing triad activities and argues that the law is not very effective in penalizing senior triad members, thus justifying the need for a new legislation to contain the growth of triad activities and organized crime.
There is some evidence from national newspapers and government reports that the number of gangs and gang members in the United Kingdom is increasing. There are also reports that street gangs are involved in serious and violent offending and sometimes carry guns. In some respects, the picture painted by these reports is similar to the stereotype of gang membership in the United States. However, there is little criminological research on gangs in the United Kingdom that can shed light on this development. In particular, little is known about whether gang members are different in any way from non-gang members of similar social background. The current paper reports findings generated from the NEW-ADAM (New English and Welsh Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring) programme on gang membership and its relation to crime and drug misuse. The research shows that there are some similarities between the current findings and the results reported in the US research with respect to the social characteristics and problem behaviours of gang members. However, there are also some important differences. The paper concludes that the United Kingdom may be entering a new phase in the development of street crime among young people and argues that it is important to monitor this development for the purpose of policy and fundamental knowledge.
Several quantitative longitudinal studies of youth gang members—particularly those embedded in well-designed studies of large, representative samples of children and adolescents—have expanded interest in risk factors for gang membership. Drawing on recent research findings, this article aims to review and synthesize risk factors for gang involvement and to integrate these in a theoretical explanation of youth gang membership. Research-supported risk factors from other studies are combined with variables in Thornberry et al.’s interactional theory of gang membership to form a broader developmental theory of gang involvement. Program and policy implications are also drawn.
A unique population of juveniles, serious and violent juvenile offenders (SVJOs), has emergedas a public concern. A corollary concern is the effect of the mass media on juveniles. Addressing both issues, an exploratory study of copycat crime and the media's role in copycat crime's generation among a sample of SVJOs is conducted. The study's goals are to measure the prevalence of self-reportedcopycat crime in SVJOs and examine the correlates of self-reported copycat criminal behaviors. Concerning prevalence, about one fourth of the juveniles reportedthat they have attempteda copycat crime. The correlates of copycat behavior include a set of media and peer-related attitudes. Academic and demographic characteristics are not foundto significantly relate to copycat crime. Additional research on specific media, such as video games, as well as offender/nonoffender comparisons is suggested.
This article examines the influence of gang organization on several behavioral measures. Using interview data from juvenile detention facilities in three Arizona sites, this article examines the relationship between gang organizational structure and involvement in violent crime, drug sales, victimization, and arrest. The gang literature suggests that gangs are not very well organized. However, the findings from the current research suggest that even low levels of gang organization are important for their influence on behavior. Indeed, even incremental increases in gang organization are related to increased involvement in offending and victimization.
Youth gang membership has been linked to a variety of social ailments: delinquency, stigma, and, more recently, violent victimization. This essay examines the research on youth gang membership and violent victimization. Three main questions are examined: (a) What is known about the linkages between gang membership and violent victimization? (b) What use does this knowledge provide for prevention and intervention efforts? (c) Where do we go from here? In other words, what do we not know about the gang membership—violent victimization link?
Gang-involved shootings comprise a serious problem. A Manchester-based project addressing the issue was tracked and its development is discussed. The initiative moved from a planned focus on the situational determinants of shootings, drawing on the successful Boston Gun Project, to one that focused instead on the social determinants of gang membership. The term “gang” itself is highly ambiguous. Equally there are difficulties in defining and operationalizing the concept of “gang membership” for preventative and enforcement purposes. Practical uncertainties followed for the identification of individuals who belong to gangs or are at risk of becoming members, and hence warrant special project attention. This intrinsic uncertainty paved the way for disagreements between the practitioners in their estimates of the risks of gang involvement faced by individuals, in the selection of young people to focus on within the project, and in levels of concern about the consequences that might follow from negatively stereotyping young people as gang members. It is concluded that it may be more effective and efficient to target specific patterns of violent behaviour rather than gang membership for preventative and enforcement attention.
The aim of the present study is to analyze the relationship between levels of individual aggression and preferences for watching violent content in television shows and musical video clips. The effects of age, gender, educational framework (academic high schools, vocational high schools and school dropouts) and age (15–16 yrs versus 17–18 yrs), were examined on the basis of data collected through a self-report questionnaire administered to 921 adolescents. The findings showed a significant relationship between gender, educational framework and preferences for watching violent content. No significant differences were found for age, verbal aggression or property-related aggression. The model confirmed a significant relationship between personal physical aggression levels and preference for violent content in the media: individuals with high physical aggression levels preferred watching violence as twice as much as individuals with low physical aggression levels.
This essay and review attempts to provide an overview of the situation of organized crime in Europe, drawing on official and
academic sources. The available information is put in perspective using a classificatory scheme which distinguishes three
basic dimensions: activities, associational structures, and systemic conditions. Compared to other assessments of organized
crime, a more differentiated view is advocated. Cautious inferences are drawn on the social relevance of particular types
of phenomena. It is argued that the greatest threat posed by organized crime does not emanate from the potential of criminal
groups in and by themselves but from the willingness of power elites to enter into alliances with criminal elements.
While an increase in research on criminal desistance has occurred in recent years, little research has been applied to the gang field. Using qualitative interview data, this article examines fatherhood as a potential turning point in the lives of 91 gang members in the San Francisco Bay Area. Fatherhood initiated important subjective and affective transformations that led to changes in outlook, priorities and future orientation. However, these subjective changes were not sufficient unless accompanied by two additional features: first, changes in the amount of time spent on the streets and, second, an ability to support oneself or one's family with legal income. Though fatherhood is no panacea, becoming a father did act as an important turning point toward desistance and motivator for change for some.
There is some evidence from national newspapers and government reports that the number of gangs and gang members in the United Kingdom is increasing. There are also reports that street gangs are involved in serious and violent offending and sometimes carry guns. In some respects, the picture painted by these reports is similar to the stereotype of gang membership in the United States. However, there is little criminological research on gangs in the United Kingdom that can shed light on this development. In particular, little is known about whether gang members are different in any way from non-gang members of similar social background. The current paper reports findings generated from the NEW-ADAM (New English and Welsh Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring) programme on gang membership and its relation to crime and drug misuse. The research shows that there are some similarities between the current findings and the results reported in the US research with respect to the social characteristics and problem behaviours of gang members. However, there are also some important differences. The paper concludes that the United Kingdom may be entering a new phase in the development of street crime among young people and argues that it is important to monitor this development for the purpose of policy and fundamental knowledge.
In a test of the hypothesis that exposure of children to film-mediated aggressive models would increase the probability of Ss' aggression to subsequent frustration, 1 group of experimental Ss observed real-life aggressive models, a 2nd observed these same models potraying aggression on film, while a 3rd group viewed a film depicting an aggressive cartoon character. Following the exposure treatment, Ss were mildly frustrated and tested for the amount of imitative and nonimitative aggression in a different experimental setting. The overall results provide evidence for both the facilitating and the modeling influence of film-mediated aggressive stimulation. In addition, the findings reveal that the effects of such exposure are to some extent a function of the sex of the model, sex of the child, and the reality cues of the model. (24 ref.)
This paper will seek to extend arguments made elsewhere concerning changes in criminal fraternities (Hobbs 1995, 1997a), by focusing upon the connections between criminal culture and the specific political economy of a locale. It argues that within serious crime networks, tendencies found in the organization of legitimate labour are reflected (Hobbs 1997a, Ruggiero 1995), and that as trade within and between criminal coalitions involves the generation and nurturing of local interests, one of the primary structures upon which organized urban crime is based, is the traditional neighbourhood family firm.
This article reviews the major methods that have been used to study youth gangs and discusses the consequences of their use for what is known about the topic. Despite the development of a substantial scholarly literature, understanding of gang phenomena is limited by critical disconnects between quantitative and qualitative research traditions. It is argued that integration of these traditions will result in a more comprehensive accounting of the causes and consequences of gangs, gang membership, and gang behavior.
In view of the smuggling out of democratic leaders after the Tiananmen crackdown in 1989 and China's resumption of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, China applied a 'united front' tactic to recruit Hong Kong triad societies to the Communist camp. Consequently, triad leaders were able to set foot in China and bridge up with officials and state enterprises. Against this backdrop, this paper argues that when political dynamics is involved, both the traditional structural and social network approaches are insufficient to explain triad-organized crime. Therefore, social capital perspective is proposed. Using two case studies, it was discovered that the triad leaders converted the social capital they developed in mainland China into economic capital through illegitimate means in the stock market. The paper concludes by highlighting the similarities and differences between this triad-organized crime and other forms of Chinese organized crime. The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Centre for Crime and Justice Studies (ISTD). All rights reserved.2010 © The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Centre for Crime and Justice Studies (ISTD). All rights reserved.
Based on in-depth interviews with 33 youth gang members and 20 adult neighborhood leaders and youth service providers, we explore the complicated relationships among gang members, their families, and other residents of poor Chicano/a and Mexicano/a barrios in Phoenix. Listening to the multiple voices of community members allows for a multifaceted understanding of the complexities and contradictions of gang life, both for the youths and for the larger community. We draw on a community ecology approach to help explain the tensions that develop, especially when community members vary in their desires and abilities to control gang-related activities. In this exploratory study, we point to some of the ways in which gender, age, education, traditionalism, and level of acculturation may help explain variation in the type and strength of private, parochial, and public social control within a community.
We examine whether gang membership is associated with higher levels of delinquency because boys predisposed to delinquent activity are more likely than others to join. We use 10 years of longitudinal data from 858 participants of the Pittsburgh Youth Study to identify periods before, during and after gang membership. We build on prior research by controlling for ages and calendar time, by better accounting for gang memberships that occurred before the study began, and by using fixed effects statistical models. We find more evidence than has been found in prior studies that boys who join gangs are more delinquent before entering the gang than those who do not join. Even with such selective differences, however, we replicate research showing that drug selling, drug use, violent behaviors and vandalism of property increase significantly when a youth joins a gang. The delinquency of peers appears to be one mechanism of socialization. These findings are clearest in youth self-reports, but are also evident in reports from parents and teachers on boys' behavior and delinquency. Once we adjust for time trends, we find that the increase in delinquency is temporary, that delinquency falls to pre-gang levels when boys leave gangs.
Youth gangs constitute the largest component of criminally active adolescent peer groups in the United States (Howell, 2003a).
Applying primary prevention and health promotion models to this topic is a complex matter, especially in light of the guiding
definition of primary prevention and health promotion used in this volume, which is “those planned actions that help participants
prevent predictable problems, protect existing states of health and healthy functioning, and promote desired goals for a specified
population” (paraphrased from Gullotta & Bloom, 2003, p. 9). Research is also hindered by the general lack of agreement among
researchers on a common definition of an adolescent gang, the validity of current gang theories, associated risk and resiliency
factors, and effective strategies for dealing with adolescent gang behavior (Howell, 2003b).
This article constructs a taxonomy of organised crime groups. It examines the existing literature and finds a sizeable gap
in relation to the classification of organised crime groups. The article uses concepts from Weberian sociology to divide groups
according to their primary motivations. Such a taxonomy can help develop understanding in the field of organised crime, and
potentially allow for the development of more effective counter measures.
KeywordsOrganised crime–Organized crime–Classification–Typology–Gangs–Taxonomy
Despite recent efforts to examine and understand female gang membership, the research literature lacks a complete picture of how gender and gang membership work to shape perceptions of the structural characteristics of gangs, gang values, and gang activities. A questionnaire was administered to 103 youths (seventy-four male and twenty-nine female juvenile detainees) in St. Louis, Missouri, to disentangle the effects of gender and gang membership on perceptions of values, activities, and organizational characteristics of gangs. Gang members differed from nongang members more than males from females. This suggests that gender alone may not be able to account for differential perceptions of gang and nongang youth and that underlying social processes affect both groups.
The fundamental theorem of primary socialization theory is that normative and deviant behaviors are learned social behaviors, products of the interaction of social, psychological, and cultural characteristics, and that norms for social behaviors, including drug use, are learned predominantly in the context of interactions with the primary socialization sources. During adolescence, learning of social behaviors is frequently dominated by interactions with peer clusters. There are a number of additional postulates: 1) The strength of the bonds between the youth and the primary socialization sources is a major factor in determining how effectively norms are transmitted. 2) Any socialization link can transmit deviant norms, but healthy family and school systems are more likely to transmit prosocial norms. 3) Peer clusters can transmit either prosocial or deviant norms, but the major source of deviant norms is usually peer clusters. 4) Weak family/child and/ or school/child bonds increase the chances that the youth will bond with a deviant peer cluster and will engage in deviant behaviors. 5) Weak peer bonds can also ultimately increase the changes of bonding with deviant peers. Primary socialization theory is consistent with current research, has strong implications for improving prevention and treatment, and suggests specific hypotheses for further research.